General Biology Finals 2024 PDF

General Biology Finals — 1st Semester | Week 1 - 7 | Made by Sebastian M. Bernales 2024 Carbohydrate Chains Week 1 - Occur...

General Biology Finals — 1st Semester | Week 1 - 7 | Made by Sebastian M. Bernales 2024 Carbohydrate Chains Week 1 - Occur only on the outside surface of the lipid bilayer or on the peripheral proteins Cholesterol - Is an important structured component of Permeability of the Plasma Membrane Polar and larger molecules the plasma membrane Small, non-charged molecules - LDL Cholesterol can clog the arterial walls Concentration gradient Plasma Membrane - Regulates fluidity Permeable Alcohol - Structural support Lipids - Consists of a diversity of lipids, carbs, and protein Small Molecules – oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water Molecules Embedded in the Membrane - The presence of double bonds in fatty Impermeable acids helps maintain membrane fluidity. Polar Molecules Viscous – saturated hydrocarbon Large molecules – glucose, amino acids, tails nucleic acid, and proteins Fluid – unsaturated hydrocarbon tails with kinks Cell Transport Mechanism I: Diffusion and Osmosis Membrane Proteins - Water is a very essential substance for life Transport – may either be channel to persist proteins or carrier proteins - When a plant is not watered for days, it Adhesion – fasten adjacent cells together wilts because its cells lack sufficient water in animal tissues - Animals drink water not just to quench Recognition – helps in recognition when thirst, but also to help cells in performing the body is being raided by pathogens so biochemical processes that necessary responses may be triggered Diffusion Receptor – receives molecules - The movement of molecules in a solvent from an area of higher solute 1 General Biology Finals — 1st Semester | Week 1 - 7 | Made by Sebastian M. Bernales 2024 concentration to an area of lower solute o Hypertonic – has higher solute concentration. concentration and has lower water - Net movement of molecules from high to concentration. lower concentration - Solute Tonicity in Plants - Hypotonic – Plasmolyzed o Simple Diffusion - Isotonic – Flaccid - do not require energy - Hypertonic – Turgid (normal) - high to low concentration - passive transport Cell Transport: Active and Passive - state of dynamic equilibrium Transport o Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport - facilitates the larger molecules - Movement of molecules in and out of the - the channel protein facilitates the cell movement - Allows cells to maintain the internal concentrations of small solutes that differ Osmosis from environmental concentrations. - Net movement of water - Molecules outside the cell go against the - Movement is from the region of high-water concentration gradient (from low to high concentration to one with lower water concentration). concentration - Solvent o Sodium-Potassium Carrier Protein – has an initial shape that Tonicity – ability of a surrounding solution allows it to bind three sodium ions. to cause a cell to gain or lose water and it is a concentration of solute and solvent. o Calcium Pumps – do not need binding to a second ion for the o Isotonic – solutions of equal protein pump to return to its solute concentration. original shape. It simply binds to the calcium ions and pumps them o Hypotonic – has lower solute out of the cell. concentration and has higher water concentration. 2 General Biology Finals — 1st Semester | Week 1 - 7 | Made by Sebastian M. Bernales 2024 Facilitated Transport Golgi Bodies - It involves the movement of molecules - Often produces the vesicles that carry down their concentration gradient but with these cell products to the membrane the aid of membrane transport proteins. - The transport protein can only transport a A selected cargo undergoing the certain type of molecule general steps of bulk transport Coat proteins bind to sorting signal o Glucose Transporters – A soluble cargo is selected passageway of glucose The membrane deforms and it forms a “bud” containing the molecule o Ion Channels – allow the passage The coat proteins are removed of certain ions through the process of uncoating Determines whether the tether is Transportation Differences correct The vesicle will move closer to the Active Transport Involves the movement of target membrane for fusion molecules or ions The vesicle delivers it membrane against the concentration components then physically fuses with gradient which the target membrane requires energy. - Generally, bulk transport has six steps. Facilitated Transport Transfer These are budding, scission, molecules or ions uncoating, translocation, tethering, and down the concentration fusion. (Bu-Sci-Un-Tra-Te-Fu) gradient which does not require the use of energy. Types of Vesicular Transport o Exocytosis o Phagocytosis o Endocytosis Week 2 – Bulk or Vesicular Transport o Receptor-mediated endocytosis Exocytosis Vesicles - This process uses intracellular vesicles - Are formed naturally during the process of and is for hormones, neurotransmitter, secretion, uptake, and transport molecules and digestive enzymes 3 General Biology Finals — 1st Semester | Week 1 - 7 | Made by Sebastian M. Bernales 2024 - Molecules from the cell being transported Receptor- Used to outside the cell through transport vesicle mediated capture or that fuses with the plasma membrane Endocytosis engulf specific molecules Types of Exocytosis o Constitutive – transports Week 3 - Biomolecules molecules outside the cell through - Most essential organic molecules which vesicles. are involved in the maintenance and o Regulated – transports molecules metabolic processes of living organisms outside the cell because of - Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and triggered signals. In this process, Nucleic Acid the molecule will be transported outside as a response to the signal Carbohydrates for the cell - Source of energy of the cells - Fuels our body Endocytosis - Excessive consumption of carbohydrates - The vesicles bud inward and later can lead to diseases, such as diabetes invaginates to envelope the substances and obesity - Molecules from the cell being transported - A class of biomolecules that includes into the cell through transport vesicle that sugar and polymers of sugars buds inward from the plasma membrane Cellulose – structural molecule in the cell wall of plants Types of Endocytosis Chitin – structural molecules in the exoskeleton of crustaceans Types Function Mechanisms Structure of Carbohydrates Phagocytosis It functions as This involves - These are organic compounds that a defense and engulfing and repair for the packing primarily consists of Carbon, Hydrogen, human body through and Oxygen that occur in a 1:2:1 ratio. vacuoles - The ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen Pinocytosis It functions for It occurs when is 6:12:6 or 1:2:1 ratio. ingestion vesicles form around a liquid or around very Chemical Reactions in Carbohydrates small particles - Photosynthesis is the primary source of sugars, particularly glucose, for cells of 4 General Biology Finals — 1st Semester | Week 1 - 7 | Made by Sebastian M. Bernales 2024 plants themselves and for the rest of the when the hydroxyl group of organisms of an ecosystem. glucose combines with the - Cells oxidize glucose to release energy hydrogen of fructose) - Sucrose: table sugar (glucose + fructose) Classification of Carbohydrates - Maltose: fermented to produce alcoholic Monosaccharides – simple sugars, beverages (glucose + glucose) are the monomers and fundamental - Lactose: found in cow’s milk (glucose + units of carbohydrates (ex. Glucose). galactose) o Aldoses (CHO) – are sugar units - Raffinose: a trisaccharide, found in that contain an aldehyde group cabbages and asparagus (galactose + o Ketoses (CO) – are sugar units glucose + fructose) that contain a ketone group - Glucose: dextrose Polysaccharides – large molecules - Fructose: ripe and sweet fruits that consist of hundreds to thousands - Galactose: milk of monosaccharide monomers (ex. - Deoxyribose: DNA nucleotides, has 5 Cellulose, Chitin, Starch, and carbon sugars (pentose) Glycogen) ❖ Isomers – same chemical formula, o Starch – primary storage of but different in structure. (ex. polysaccharides in plants Glucose, Galactose, and Fructose) o Glycogen – animals or fungal cells ❖ Pyranose Ring – has five to six o Cellulose – major component of carbon atoms occur as pyranose plant cell wall, occurs in very long rings in aqueous or water-based fibers of glucose chains. solutions ❖ Alpha Glucose – the OH group of Lipids the C1 is “below the ring” - Usually associated with fats, which people ❖ Beta Glucose – the OH group of try to eliminate when losing weight the C1 is “above the ring” - Excessive consumption of food products rich in fats can lead to obesity and heart Oligosaccharides – is a carbohydrate diseases that consists of two to ten units of - Are not purely harmful. Many of our monosaccharides. physiological functions rely on lipids o Disaccharides – formed by dehydration synthesis (also known as condensation reaction, occurs 5 General Biology Finals — 1st Semester | Week 1 - 7 | Made by Sebastian M. Bernales 2024 Characteristics of Lipids – cholesterol and testosterone are o Water-insoluble organic examples of steroids compounds o Non-polar hydrocarbon chains Waxes – produced by plants to o Stores energy prevent desiccation or water loss when exposed to too much sunlight Classification of Lipids – waxy water repellent layers are Fats and Oil – a typical fat consists of present in feathers of birds, a glycerol molecule with three fatty exoskeleton of insects, and beeswax acid chains produced in honeycombs. o Saturated Fatty Acids – has no double bonds which gives Liposys and Beta Oxidation them a straight-chain conformation Transport through Chylomicrons and o Unsaturated Fatty Acids – Lipoproteins has one or more double bonds. - The chylomicrons contain triglyceride These bonds usually bend in molecules and other cholesterol the carbon chain molecules to carry these molecules from Trans Fats – are produced the intestine to the liver and adipose from hydrogenation. They are tissue. common in fast foods, fried – Enterocytes are found in the lining of the foods, and many junk food intestines. products. Proteins Phospholipids – has tails of two fatty - Help us grow faster and stronger acid chains and a head that contains a phosphate group Amino Acids - Building blocks of proteins – the presence of unsaturated fatty - Has a Central carbon, Amino group, acids in some phospholipids contribute Carboxyl group, Hydrogen atom, and R to the fluidity of the cell membrane group. Steroids – maintains cell structures, regulating mechanism, and reduce R groups of Amino Acids o Non-polar and aliphatic R group inflammation o Polar and uncharged R groups o Non-polar and aromatic R group 6 General Biology Finals — 1st Semester | Week 1 - 7 | Made by Sebastian M. Bernales 2024 o Negatively charged R groups o Positively charged R groups 7