GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) PDF

GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo MITOSIS MITOSIS PROPHASE The chromatin condenses...

GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo MITOSIS MITOSIS PROPHASE The chromatin condenses and the nucleus disintegrates, along with What is mitosis? the formation of spindle How a cell divides to produce a fibers completely identical cell, happening only in somatic or body cells if the environmental conditions are favorable. It takes up about 10% of the cell cycle to complete. The other 90% is interphase, or the preparation for mitosis. In interphase, PROMETAPH After the nucleus is the chromosome is in the form of ASE dissolved, centrosome will chromatin. move to opposite poles and the spindle fibers finish forming INTERPHASE Gap 0 The resting phase Gap 1 Checkpoint for cells, wherein damaged cells are terminated before they reproduce S Phase DNA synthesis or replication METAPHASE Microtubules attach to the chromosomes in the Gap 2 Checks for cell size middle of the cell and if the DNA replication is proper Metaphase The final checkpoint, checkpoint checking for chromosomal spindle attachment ANAPHASE Mitotic spindle fibers  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo separate the sister chromatids from one another TELOPHASE The now daughter chromatids decondense CYTOKINESIS Although NOT a part of MEIOSIS mitosis, it is greatly similar and divides the cell into What is meiosis two, here the two new A process that undergoes PMAT and daughter cells inherit everything from nucleus to cytokinesis twice for sexual organelle and a cleavage reproduction of sex cells (gametes such furrow for animals/cell as egg and sperm) The number of plate for plants is formed chromosomes here decreases. Meiosis 2 allows for the restoration of original chromosome number during fertilization.. Meiosis 1: reduction division 1. Prophase l There are 2 chromosomes with two sister chromatids. a. Synapsis: homologous chromosome pairs align side to side forming a tetrad (4 chromatids)  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo b. Crossing over: exchange of segments with one another in the chiasma. Happens in fertilization. Why cross-over? - Combination for 5. Telophase l diversity Duplicated chromosomes - Enhances genetic reach the opposite pole variation and the nuclear envelope - Increases chance of will develop. Cytokinesis survival will the occur and the two c. Recombination: DNA daughter cells will undergo molecules are produced interkinesis from different segments of 2 parents, thus causing Meiosis 2 = equational division DNA exchange 6. Prophase ll 2. Prometaphase l Genetic material will Chromosomal condensing, condense and nucleus will spindle fibers finish Break down forming, helping for the 7. Metaphase ll chromosomal migration or Chromosomes will align in the tetrad later. metaphase plate 3. Metaphase l 8. Anaphase ll Tetrads will align in the Separation of middle, and maternal and chromosomes. Produces paternal DNA are sister chromatids randomly arranged. 9. Telophase ll 4. Anaphase l mitotic spindle fibers will Separation Of homologous now disintegrate before pairs where one might cytokinesis. receive either maternal or paternal DNA.  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo product mutation - Sister - Sister chromatids chromatids separate in separate in anaphase anaphase 2 DICTIONARY chromosome Dna molecule with all parts of genetic material made of two sister chromatids. Is DNA once condensed in the prophase chromatid Half a chromosome, MITOSIS VS MEIOSIS identical MITOSIS MEIOSIS chromatin how DNA looks during - 1 PMAT - 2 PMAT interphase - Somatic - Sex cells cells - Unique - 2 daughter daughter cells cells - Sexual - Error may production lead to - Identical genetic  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo Sister Identical chromatids observed in the genetic chromatid together material Mitosis: allows complete set of Haploid Non-homologous or genetic material to be replicated without pair. “½ of 4” Diploid Pairs of homologous Growth and Development Growth: size - ie. organisms such as elephants grow through repeated mitosis SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS Significance of Mitosis Hayflick Limit Maintenance of Genetic material - The limit that the organism Genome: Complete set of undergoes mitosis (ex.humans: genetic material in somatic cells go through mitosis 40-60 times) - Contains the genes of a cell Advancement of life stages - The genome dictates an - The consecutive stages of organism’s characteristics development (ie. diversity of facial features) Growth and Development occurs due to - If there is modification: the cleavage trait will be seen in the organism Differences of Cleavages and Normal Maintenance: Genome must be Mitosis maintained to ensure proper 1. Cytokinesis may not Occur biological function 2. Selective or Limited Growth - Maintaining the identity 3. Cleavage may occur after and the number of the fertilization genetic material - Once the number of genes Repair and Recovery change, there will be a - Old and damages cells are noticeable change replaced through mitotic division.  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo - Everyday, you are undergoing STEM CELL cell division - undifferentiated : non specialized - Ex. tips of nails:old keratinized cells cells; libag:shedding of old keratinized cells Stem Cell technology - Used in replacing old and Asexual Reproduction damaged cells - Through budding and binary fission Genetic Engineering - Ex. hydra - This is the process of directly modifying the DNA of an There are organisms that reproduce organism. Scientists use genetic sexually and asexually engineering to add, remove, or - Plants (germination:sexual; change specific genes to give the cutting:asexual) organism new traits GMO Significance of Meiosis - is the result of genetic engineering, selective breeding, Reduction of Genetic Material or any process of controlling an and Sexual Reproduction organisms DNA information Inheritance Genetic Diversity "All genetically engineered - How diverse or unique an organisms are GMOs, but not all organism’s traits are GMOs are genetically engineered.” Survival - Helps a species survive Adaptation: is the ability in which ERRORS AND DISEASES an organism to adapt to their Errors in cell environment which leads to a - When an error in the cell occurs higher survival rate the body compensates by trying - Ex. polar bears w/ their to repair it. If not repairable, the thick fur cell will undergo apoptosis, the programmed cell death  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo - If the error persists, the mutated - Cigarettes and cell will continue to divide with it's alcohol daughter cells inheriting the - Obesity errors - Exposure to radiation Mitotic errors - Exposure to Errors can be passed on in carcinogens the form of DNA - Exposure to modification or damage pollution Meiotic and Mitotic b. Common types of nondisjunction cancer according to Happens when sister WHO chromatids don't separate - Lung cancer during anaphase resulting - colorectal cancer in an abnormal amount of - Prostate cancer DNA Nondisjunction disorders Diseases Polyploidy (e.g: 3n) Cancer - abnormal number of sets Error in cell checkpoint of chromosomes stops apoptosis and Aneuploidy (e.g: 2n+1) causes abnormal growth - Abnormal number of of cell chromosomes either Common in brain, having less or more respiratory, lymph node, liver, skeletal a. Down syndrome(Trisomy Neoplasm is the growth of 21) defective cells and can - one extra chromosome form into a tumor on chromosome 21 Early detection is the best - delayed development, way for dealing with intellectual defect, cancer changes in head and face a. Factors causing cancer shape, musculoskeletal - Heredity(inherited) effects and early death  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo No genetic info in the cell b. Patau syndrome Contains 22 chromosomes (Trisomy 13) rather than 23 - causes stillbirth or miscarriage Hyperploidy - It is characterized by Trisomy cleft lip, cleft palate, Down Syndrome - cerebral defects Chromosome 21 - Holoprosencephaly, which is a condition Edward Syndrome - wherein the brain does not Chromosome 18 divide left and right sides Heart complications c. Turner syndrome Patau Syndrome - - lack in chromosome 23 Chromosome 13 - often affected are females causing male Warkany Syndrome - characteristics Chromosome 8 - becoming short, broad Stiff joint, congenital shouldered and chested abnormalities, - developmental delays delayed development Aneuploidy Haploidy All of these are autosomal Monosomy related, but there are also 2n - 1 sex related for ex: 1. Turner Syndrome - - Super male (Jacob X0 Syndrome Syndrome) - 1 2. Cri Du chat extra Y Syndrome - chromosome (xyy) Deletion of the short - Super Female - 1 arm of chromo.. 5 extra X Nullisomy chromosome (xxx) 2n - 2  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo - Klinefelter - 4 - 4 errors in the mitotic spindle (xxy) formation. Psychiatric Diseases - Tetrasomy Bipolar (Nimanic, Mania), 2n + 2 Schizophrenia (No sense Extreme of reality), Supermale (xyyy) Major depressive disorder Extreme Superfemale (xxxx) psychiatric diseases can also be Extreme triggered by hormones. The Klinefelter (xxxy) damaging of dna in the cell cycle if the cell does not kill itself it will Mosaicism reproduce and create more Multiple sets of cells, comes with other mutated cells that can lead to syndromes cancer and psychiatric diseases. Mosaic down syndrome - may be linked to the development of Alzheimer's disease Klippel–Trénaunay Syndrome - FUNCTION OF CELL port wine discolouration, Blood MEMBRANE vessels don't form or develop properly causing skin Cell membrane discoloration looking like birth A phospholipid bi layer with a marks kinked tail used to synthesize Alzheimer's Disease - abnormal hormones. level of amyloid plaque in the Phospholipids have unsaturated brain of the patient, example of a (single) and saturated (double) mitotic error. Shrinking of the bonds, causing kinking, saturated cerebral cortex and bonds push each other in low hippocampus, enlargement of temps, making the cell ventricles membrane viscous and rigid. Microcephaly - Children are born with a small head with a small brain, associated with  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo 1. Phospholipid Bilayer HDL- High Density Lipoprotein (Good) Evert Garter & Francois LDL- Low Density Lipoprotein (Bad) Grendel - Clogs arterial wall = AMI - said that the PM is = Acute amphipatic Myocardial Infraction > 2 regions: Hydrophilic & Hydrophobic Cholesterol helps with fluidity to not make S. Jonathan Singer & Garth the plasma membrane stiff/rigid Nicholson - If the lipid tails becomes straight it - Fluia Mosaic Model will become viscous > Won’t be too fluid or solid when temperature changes 1. Primary Barrier of a cell Amoeba- 2. Receives external stimulus pseudo pods 3. Makes cell’s flexible (feet but not really) Diabetes Type I- Diabetes mellitus -allows them -Body cannot produce insulin (islets of to move langerhans) -Genetic-Juvinile onset 2. Fluidity (Molecules embedded in the membrane) Type II- Diabetes insipidus - Allows synthesized protein & -Can produce insulin but your body cannot phospholipids to be easily recognize it because the plasma membrane integrated is rigid. - Flexibility- for locomotion and -Life-sytyle growth - Unsaturated Insulin It has double -hormone to lower the blood glucose binds (kinks) -diabetic ketoacidosis Kinks pushes against each Symptoms: (Present in both Type I and II) other when 1. Polpagia- eating the 2. Polydipsia- drinking temperature 3. Polyuric- urinator goes down General Functions of Cell Membrane  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo Omeprazole = a med that relieves heart - Has a certain shape- the only burn thing that could enter it H^+ = acidity - pushed down to the should complete/bind to its stomach shape (lock key fit) - hydrogen ions - metabolism, apoptosis (cell death, cell division) Prozac = Fluoxetine - antidepressant - critical for homeostasis - prevents the absorption of serotonin 4. Carbohydrate Chains - Can either be attached to protein or 3. Membrane Proteins lipid a. Peripheral- found in one side Protein = glycoprotein - sugar of the membrane coat = glypocalyx b. Integral- can penetrate the Lipid = glycolipid hydrophobic core of the lipid bilayer Glycocalyx c. Transport (transmembrane) - - Protection carrier, channel, adhesion, - Cell to cell recognition recog, receptor - Cell to cell adhesion - Signaling molecules Transport Proteins - Either channel or carrier Graft vs Host reaction proteins Transplantation = it can be rejected - Changes its shape based on when the carbon chain at the the substance its carrying receiver and donator are different (carrier) - may or may not use Selective Permeability energy 〤 = polar & larger molecule - req. Energy Adhesion Proteins ✓ = small & non charged molecules - Fastens adjacent cells ○ Water (H2O) ○ Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Recog Proteins ○ Glycogen - When the body is being ○ Alcohol invaded by pathogens - Antigen presenting cells Concentration gradient Receptos Proteins  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo - Movement of molecules from Molecules (ions and water) higher concentration to lower are transported across the concentration gradient cell membrane through - oxygen moves inside channel proteins the cell - Passive diffusion - Hydrophilic molecules: can still CELLULAR cross the hydrophobic layer TRANSPORTATION of the membrane with the use of diffusion and osmosis channel Water: a very essential substance for life to - Carrier proteins persist with various properties. will help large molecule cross the Channel protein: membrane (e.g., Facilitates diffusion aquaporin for water Diffusion: transpo) Movement of molecules into Solution: contains both solute(the one higher concentration gradient being dissolved) and solvent(where until it reaches equilibrium or something is dissolved or soluted) when the molecules are distributed equally in a system - Physical process - Results from random motion EX: solid dye mixed with water Simple Diffusion: From higher to lower. - Passive transport - No energy required osmosis: - Movement of mole` Movement across cule semi/selectively permeable - State of equilibrium membrane from high to low water Facilitated Diffusion: concentration.  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo Higher solute, lower water in the cell. h2o< solute. - The water within the cell will move outwards; - Causing shrinking in animal cell - In plant cell, Plasmolisis: shrinkage of cytoplasm due to osmosis tonicity: Relative concentration of solutes in fluids, causing gain or loss of water depending on the concentration of the solute Isotonic: The solute of outside is equal to inside (e.g., 0.9% NACL) Hypotonic: “under” Fact: the eye and the contact lens have Low solute concentration and the same osmotic pressure, when they higher water concentration within are not balanced, contact lens solution the cell. h2o> solute is added. - Water from outside will go into the cell causing cell swelling or bursting Active cell transport - Turgor pressure: cause of swelling of plant cells. Active transport Large central vacuole will - Cellular transport mechanism that store all the water and involves the movement of push against the cell wall if molecules against their there is too much water. If concentration gradient moving there is not enough, the lower to higher concentration plant wilts due to a lack of gradient with energy expenditure pressure - allows cell to maintain internal Hypertonic: “” concentrations of small solutes  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo - cells that perform active transport 6. Cycle repeated have larger numbers mitochondria such as muscle Calcium pump cells and nerve cells - Calcium ions must be maintained Role of carrier proteins at lower concentrations for - Active transport needs carrier proteins to function properly proteins and energy in the form of - Calcium binds to carrier protein ATP and is pumped out - Carrier proteins need energy to change to change its Facilitated transport conformation - Involves the movement of Sodium potassium pump molecules down their concentration gradient with the - phosphate from ATP is added aid of membrane transport changing the shape of the carrier protein proteins such as carrier allows movement of sodium through the proteins and channel proteins membrane - this creates an electric charge Glucose transporters important for muscle and nerve cells - Carrier proteins that transport Nutshell of process glucose down their concentration 1. 3 sodium ions binds to Carrier gradient protein, making the sodium ions - Glucose can move through the go outside of the cell membrane 100 times faster due 2. Phosphate binds to the carrier to these transporters protein changing its shape, - For digestion, moving from 3. 2 potassium ions binds to carrier glucose from epithelial cells to protein, the linings 4. potassium is released inside the cell, Ion channels 5. after phosphate is gone carrier - Sodium(Na) is abundant outside protein goes back to original the cell while potassium(K) is shape more abundant inside the cell  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo To balance, the cell maintains General mechanism of Bulk or high amounts of chlorine(Cl) vesicular transport outside the cell, and higher concentration of organic and inorganic ions inside(amino Steps: acids, nucleic acids, and Budding proteins) - Soluble cargo is selected then a - Doesn't use carrier proteins vesicle buds of a donor instead uses a channels that membrane such as the golgi open from stimulus as a body passageway for sodium and Scission potassium maintaining a negative - Once the vesicle has formed, it is charge inside the cell pinched off from the donor membrane by a process involving GTPases (like dynamin) that help sever the vesicle from the parent Bulk or vesicular transport membrane. Uncoating - The movement of - The coat typically serves to help macromolecules such as proteins the vesicle form and detach from or polysaccharides into or out of the donor membrane the cell is called bulk transport - Uncoating is the process by Vesicles which the protein coat - These are structures within or surrounding a vesicle is removed outside a cell, consisting of a after it has budded off from a cytoplasm and enclosed by a lipid donor membrane bilayer. Translocation - These are formed naturally - translocation refers to the during the process of secretion, movement of large quantities of uptake, and transport of substances (such as nutrients, molecules. ions, or other molecules) across Golgi bodies cellular membranes or within the - produces vesicles that carry cell body products Tethering  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo - refers to the process by which vesicle fuses with plasma vesicles are brought into close membrane proximity to their target 2. Regulated - triggered by signals membrane before fusion occurs. to trigger exocytosis. Binding of Fusion signals to receptors - The vesicle reaches its destination where it fuses with Endocytosis the target membrane, releasing - plasma membrane buds forming its contents to a new an inward body compartment or to the cell Phagocytosis surface - cell eating for defence and repair, food vacuole Type of vesicular transport Exocytosis The inside of the vesicle are released outside ex. Golgi bodies Pinocytosis - pinching of around a liquid or extracellular fluid, for ingestion 1. Constitutive - transporting outside of cells using vesicles,  GENBIO 1ST SEM Grade 11 - Auriga (S.Y. 2024-2025) By: Serdeña, Martinez, Cabuyao, Cuengco, Salmingo Receptor mediated endocytosis - uses receptor proteins, using coat proteins to make a coated vesicle