GEN BIO NOTES_compressed PDF
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Maximo Estrella Senior High School
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This document contains notes on general biology, focusing on plants. It covers topics like plant characteristics, types of plants, vascular and nonvascular plants, and ecosystem services.
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Lesson 1: Introduction to Plant Characteristics of Plants Domain: Eukarya Kingdom: Plantae - Nonmotile - Presence of a Cell Wall - Eukaryotic - Multicellular - Photoautotropic - Chloroplasts and Chlorophyll Vascular and Nonvascular Plants - Transport...
Lesson 1: Introduction to Plant Characteristics of Plants Domain: Eukarya Kingdom: Plantae - Nonmotile - Presence of a Cell Wall - Eukaryotic - Multicellular - Photoautotropic - Chloroplasts and Chlorophyll Vascular and Nonvascular Plants - Transports water and nutrients and are specialized tissues Xylem - Transports and stores water and water-soluble nutrients through Transpiration Phloem - Transports sugars, proteins, and other organic molecules in plants (food and nutrients) through Translocation Group of Plants 1. Vascular Plants (Tracheophytes) - True Roots 1. Anchorage 2. Absorbs Water 3. Stores Nutrients - True Stem 1. Support 2. Transports water, nutrients, Photosynthesis products - True Leaves 1. Site of Photosynthesis - Presence of Xylem and Phloem Types of Vascular Plants 1. ANGIOSPERMS - Produces Flowers and bear their seeds in fruits - Most Diverse Plant Group (300,000 species) - Plays a critical role in maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem health - Monocot/Dicot 2. GYMNOSPERMS - Bear seeds but not in fruits (naked seeds) - Nonflowering - Ex. Conifers (cones), pine trees, and cycads 3. PTERIDOPHYTES- - Nonflowering spore-bearing plants; seedless NON-VASCULAR PLANTS 1. BRYOPHYTES - Small stature - not lignified - Rhizoids instead of roots - No True Roots - No True Stem - No True Leaves - No Vascular Tissues - Lives on Moist Habitat - Directly Absorbs water and nutrients from the surface TYPES OF PLANTS 1. HERB - Short-Sized Plants - With Soft, green delicate stem - Does NOT develop a persistent woody stem 2. SHRUB - Bushy, Hard, and woody Stem - With many branches - Height ranges between 6-10 meters or 20-23 ft 3. TREE - Thick, woody, hard stem known as trunk - Trunk gives rise to many branches - Branches bear leaves, flower, and fruits 4. CREEPER - Creep on ground/wall - Has a Fragile, long, thin stem can neither stand erect nor support all its weight 5. CLIMBER - Has a very thin, long, and weak stem - Cannot stand upright but can use external support to grow and carry their weight. NATIVE PLANTS - Indigenous species that are found in multiple locations - Plants that have developed, occur naturally, or existed for many years in the area ENDEMIC PLANTS - Species whose geographical range is limited ENDANGERED PLANTS - Risk of Extinction in the near future ECOSYSTEM SERVICES - Direct and indirect contribution of ecosystems to human well-being and other organisms, which has an impact on survival and quality of life. 1. Provisioning - Human obtains from ecosystems: Food, Raw Materials e.g. wood, fuel, fibre, Medicine, and Freshwater 2. Regulating - Services nature provides that Regulate the environment: Air Quality, Climate, Water Purification, Waste Treatment, Disease and Pest Control, Pollination, Extreme Events Moderation 3. Cultural - Non-Material Benefits nature of humans: Recreation e.g. tourism, Aesthetic Values, Religious and Spiritual Values, Mental and Physical Health Education 4. Supporting - Underpinning services that enable all other services to function - encompasses both human and ecosystem needs: Photosynthesis, Nutrient Cycling, Soil Formation SUBDISCIPLINES OF BOTANY 1. Horticulture - Art of Cultivating Plants science of cultivating plants - Ex. Urban Gardening for Local Food Production - Ornamental Plants 2. Plant Genetics & Breeding - Science of using genetics to improve genetic traits of plans in order to reproduce - GMO (Genetically Modified Organism) - Provisioning Services 3. Conservation Biology - Conserving the Biodiversity of the ecosystem - ex. Pawikan Conservation Center - relevance - SDG “Life on Land” - SDG “Life Below Water” - SDG “Climate and Action” - Supporting Service: Biodiversity 4. Plant Pathology - Study of Plant Diseases and Sickness - Importance: to prevent food lose due to diseases - relevance: provisioning services - SDG 3 “Good Health and Well-Being” - SDG 2 “Zero Hunger” 5. Plant Ecology - Study of Plants and their relationship with other things concerning the ecosystem - how plants utilize the resources around it 6. Plant Physiology - Anatomy of Plants - Deals with Plant Structure and Functions - Ex. Photosynthesis, Respiration, Transpiration 7. Ethnobotany - Study of human interactions with plants and their use for multiple purposes. LESSON 2: MICROSCOPY 1. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek - Father of Microbiology - Discovered Protists and Bacteria - Dutch Scientist and Entrepreneur - Spirogyra Algae - First Person to Observe Living Cells How Cells were Discovered? 1. DISCOVERY OF MICROSCOPES - Hans and Zacharias Janssen (1590) - Father and Son Duo 2. ROBERT HOOKE - Father of “Cytology” - Discovered and Coined the Word “Cell” 3. ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK - Self-Designed Microscopes revealed a diverse array of microorganism (bacteria, protozoa, and sperm cells) 4. DISCOVERY OF THE NUCLEUS (1833) - Robert Brown - scottish botanist - Epidermis of Orchids - Discovered and coined the term “nucleus” CELL THEORY DEVELOPMENT Spontaneous generation - Living Organism develop from nonliving matter (Aristotle) - “Abiogenesis” - penuma (“vital heat”) Franceso Redi - Italian Physician - Hypothesis: Maggots Spontaneously generate on meat left out in the open air - Refuted the Spontaneous Generation theory during the 17th century Louis Pasteur (1859) - Swan-neck flask experiment (Spontaneously generated within broth) - “Omne vivum ex vivo” (“Life only comes from life”) ONSET OF CELL THEORY 1. MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN (1838) - “Every structural elements of the plants in composed of cells” 2. THEODOR SCHWANN (1839) - “Elementary parts of all animal tissues are formed of cells” 3. RUDOLF VIRCHOW (1855) - “Omnis cellula e cellula” (“every cell stems from another cell”) - Father of Modern Pathology 3 TENETS OF CLASSICAL CELL THEORY 1. All Living Organisms are composed of cone or more cells 2. Cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms 3. Every Cell Originates from Another Existing Cell 4. Cell Contains hereditary information (DNA) which is from cell to cell during cell division 5. All cells are the same in chemical composition 6. Energy Flow (Metabolism and Biochemistry) occurs within cells PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF A MICROSCOPE 1. Magnification - Ration of an object’s size to its real size 2. Resolution - Ability to distinguish between separate two points that are very close to one another 3. Contrast - Difference in brightness between the light and dark areas of an image 1. Eyepiece - The lens t the top that you look through (usually 10x or 15x power) 2. Body Tube - Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses 3. Arm - Supports the Tube and Connects it to the Base 4. Base - The Bottom of the Microscope, used for support 5. Illuminator - A steady light source (110 volts) used in place of a mirror 6. Stage - Where the specimen (usually mounted onto a glass slide) is placed for observation. 7. Stage Clips - Holds the slides in Place 8. Revolving Nosepiece - Holds two or more objective lenses and can be rotated to easily change power 9. Objective Lenses - The lenses that directly observe the object the microscope user is examining (4x-RED (SCANNER), 10x-YELLOW (LPO), 40x-BLUE (HPO), and 100x-WHITE (OIL IMMERSION)) 10. Diaphragm or Iris - Rotating disk under the stage - has different sized holes and is used to vary the intensity and size of the cone of light that is projected upward into the slide. 11. Coarse Adjustment Knob - Moves the stage Up or Down FOCUS on the specimen 12. Find Adjustment Knob - Sharpen an image and fine-tunes the focus of the microscope to achieve optimal clarity and detail Organelle (Cell Organelle) A small structure in a cell that is surrounded by a membrane and has a specific function. Specialized structures within the cytoplasm that perform specific functions and are often membrane-bound. Is cell membrane an organelle? Cell Membrane Thin, semi-permeable flexible barrier that surrounds the cell, separating the interior of the cell from its external environment Not an Organelle = structure within the cytoplasm Cytosol Vs Cytoplasm Cytoplasm - Everything inside in the cell membrane EXCEPT the nucleus (Nucleoplasm) - Includes: cytosol + organelles Cytosol - Fluid inside the cell; everything floats in it. - Part of Cytoplasm Membrane Bound Organelles Membrane-bound organelles are surrounded by a plasma membrane to keep their internal fluids separate from the cytoplasm of the rest of the cell. Non-Membrane Bound Organelles Are more solid structures that are not fluid-filled, so they have no need for a membrane. MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES Nucleus - Contains genetic materials (DNA) - Direct cell activities: protein synthesis, cell reproduction, ribosome synthesis - Is the control center of the cell Endoplasmic Reticulum Continuous with the nuclear envelope Endoplasmic means “Within the Cytoplasm” Reticulum Latin for “Little net” Cisternae - Membranous system of interconnected tubules and flattened sacs ER Lumen - Cisternal space; activity Transitional ER - ER exit sites Smooth ER No Ribosomes Synthesis of lipids and steroids Rough ER Involved in some protein production, folding, modification, and quality control of proteins synthesized by the bound ribosomes In charge of the synthesis and transport of the proteins destined for secretion (secretory proteins) Golgi Apparatus Stacks of flattened vesicles (cisternae) Responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids produced from ER Proteins are modified and stored and then sent to other destinations Vacuoles Store water, nutrients, pigments and waste products Plant cells typically have a central vacuole (up to 90% volume) Support: Maintains Turgor Pressure Contains cell sap - Solution inside the central vacuole; the plant cell’s amin repository of inorganic ions (K and Cl) Vacuolar membrane is selective in transporting solutes Protect the plant against herbivores - Storing compounds that are toxic to some herbivores Store pigments - Red and blue petals to attract pollinators Lysosome Contain powerful digestive enzymes and are highly acidic Membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that many eukaryotic cells use to digest (hydrolyze) macromolecules. Responsible for digestion of large molecules and recycling of cellular resources If several Lysosome breaks open, it can cause cell death or organelle death If one Lysosome breaks open, cytosol can neutralize the effect of the acid from the lysosome Phagocytosis - Eating particles/molecules for digestion; engulfing to remove harmful external substances or debris Autophagy - Self-eating, eats other organelles - Self-eating, damaged organelles unnecessary components/macromolecules, recycling internal components - Waste disposal management Hydrolytic Enzyme Peroxisome Contain enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from various substrates and transfer them to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide as by-product Break fatty acids down into smaller molecules and detoxify alcohol and other harmful compounds Catalase: H2O2 -> H2O + O2 Specialized peroxisome in plants: Glyoxysome The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and Chloroplast: Endosymbiont Theory (A cell living within another cell) Some of the organelles in today’s eukaryotic cells were once prokaryotic Evidence that supports the Endosymbiont Theory Two membranes surrounding the mitochondria and chloroplast Like prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts contain ribosomes, as well as circular DNA molecules like bacterial chromosomes Mitochondria and chloroplasts are autonomous organelles that grow and reproduce within the cell Mitochondria One cell has hundreds to thousands of mitochondria Correlates with the cell’s level if metabolic activities Site of cellular respiration Cristae - Infoldings; site of energy production Two compartments: intermembrane space and matrix Intermembrane space - Region between inner and outer membranes Matrix - Enzymes, mitochondria, DNA, ribosomes Chloroplasts (Plastid) Site of photosynthesis Contains chlorophyll (in the thylakoid) Double membrane Lens-shaped organelles, found in leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae 3 compartments: intermembrane space, stroma, and the thylakoid space Outer membrane Semi porous membrane Permeable to small molecules and ions which diffuse easily Inner membrane Regulates passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast Stroma Fluid portion contains enzymes and substances necessary for the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis Thylakoids Large number of flattened, sac-like structures Site for the light reactions of the photosynthesis to take place Granum Thylakoid membranes are structured into stacks Increase the surface area for light absorption and have the component necessary for the light-dependent reactions Biomineralization Process by which mineral crystals are deposited in the matrix of living organisms Calcium regulation, protect from herbivory and metal detoxification Non-Membrane Bound Organelles 1. Ribosome - Site of Protein Synthesis and Made of Ribosomal RNAs and Protein and Cells Protein Factors - Free Ribosomes ( Cytoplasm ) - Bound Ribosomes ( Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum ) 2. Cytoskeleton - Network of protein fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm, gives mechanical support to the cell and maintain its shape, Dynamic in structure, Quickly dismantled in one part of the cell and reassembled in a new location - Microfilament - orange red ( more in muscle cells ) - Intermediate Filament (Actin) - not evident ( found in the nucleus - responsible for maintaining the shape of the nucleus ) - Microtubule - green ( Involved in Cell Division ) 3. Centrioles - region often located near the nucleus, a pair within centrosome, hollow cylinders composed of 27 microtubules arranged into 9 overlapping triplets, Separated during mitosis to determine of plain of division Lesson 3: Cellular Structure and Functions 1. Prokaryotic Cell: Bacteria and Archaea - “Before nucleus” - Bounded by Cell Membrane - Presence of Cytoplasm - NO MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES - NO NUCLEUS - DNA ( NUCLEOID REGION ) - 1-5 um in diameter - Has Cell Wall - Division : Binary Fission - Don’t undergo Mitosis and Meiosis - Simple Structure 2. Eukaryotic Cell: Animals, Plants, Fungi, and Protists - “True Nucleus” - Bounded by Cell Membrane - Presence of Cytoplasm - MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES - WITH NUCLEUS - DNA ( INSIDE THE NUCLEUS ) - 10-100 um in diameter - Division : Reproduces via Meiosis and Mitosis Animal vs Plant Cell FEATURES ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL SHAPE Round, irregular Fixed, rigid shapes CELL MEMBRANE Yes Yes CELL WALL No Yes ( made up of cellulose ) VACUOLE Yes ( 1-2 absent sometimes ) Yes CHLOROPLAST No Yes MITOCHONDRION Yes Yes NUCLEUS Yes Yes Cell Walls of Plants - Extracellular structure of plant cells 1. Protects the plant Cells 2. Maintain its shape 3. Prevents excessive uptake of water Cell Wall vs Cell Membrane - Cell wall is thicker than Cell Membrane - Cellulose - Main Component of CW ( Cell Wall ) - CELL MEMBRANE - Phospholipid 1. Primary Cell Wall - Formed while the cell is actively growing and expanding - Flexible and Can Stretch - Provide Structural support while the cell is still growing - Found in all Plant Cells 2. Middle Lamella - Thin layer rich in sticky polysaccharides called pectin - Glues Adjacent Cells Together - Pectin - aids in adhesion between cells 3. Secondary Cell Wall ( OPTIONAL ) - Formed after cell stops its growth - Thicker, More Rigid, and stronger than primary cell walls - Found in specialized cells like xylem - No growth and lignified] 1. UNICELLULAR PROTISTS 2. PLANT CELLS Plastids - Organelles for manufacturing and storing food in plants Crystals in Plants - calcium oxalate (Biomineralization) 1. Raphides - Needle-like crystals 2. Prismatic - Uniform cross-section 3. Druse - Cluster crystals; roughly spherical 4. Styloid - Mostly in phloem; longitudinally elongated, forming rectangular columns. Biomineralization - calcium oxalate - Process by which mineral crystals are deposited in the matrix of living organisms - Calcium regulation, protect from herbivory, and metal detoxification 1. Why is it necessary to add a drop of water for wet mounting? - Suspends the Specimen - Prevents the Specimen from drying - Maintains the state of the specimen 2. Why is staining the specimen important in this exercise? - Provides Contrast - Highlight Structures - Visibility - Identify Cell Types - Maintain the state of the specimen 3. Describe the differences between iodine and methylene blue solution as staining agents? - Methylene Blue 1. Effective in staining the nucleus 2. Highlights Cell Structure 3. Provides Contrast Iodine - Blinds to starch - Highlight Cell Components - Blue-black Color LPO (10x) - Wider Field of View - Low Magnification of Specimen (10x) - General Structure of Cell - Easy to Focus HPO (40x) - Narrow field of view - High Magnification of specimen (40x) - Greater detail of structures - Hard to focus 5. What unique cellular structures have you observed in Hydrilla, onion bulb, tomato pulp, potato, bangka-bangkaan, and dumbcane? Explain their specific functions. - Cell Wall - Nucleus - Stomata - Cytoplasm - Guard Cells - Vacuole 6. How do plant cellular structures and functions contribute to sustainable development research? - Carbon Sequestration - Help Mitigate Global Warming - Drought-Resistant Plants - Regulation of Water and Gas exchange - Phytoremediation; cleaning contaminated water - Plant genetic engineering for crop yield environment