SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL PDF

SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL ecosystem will have a damaging effect on human health REPORTING TOPICS (Anand, 2013). ENVIRONMENTAL DECAY...

SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL ecosystem will have a damaging effect on human health REPORTING TOPICS (Anand, 2013). ENVIRONMENTAL DECAY TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION Globalization, free trade and the interconnectivity among nations with regard to the geographical borderless nature of Human activities or actions toward meeting their demands and countries has meant that there are shared substantive growth needs across the world has affected the environment in a among many economies. However, as economic growth is negative way. According to Saul, the amplified levels of shared, so are environmental hazards. There are various innovation and technological advancements powered by the examples of transboundary environmental issues including rapid pace of globalization in the 21st century, has caused a stir long range transboundary air pollution such as acid rain, within environmental virtue (2005). pollution of water bodies and worldwide trade in hazardous wastes (O’Neill, 2009). Transboundary air pollution is air Due to globalization and increased transnational trade, pollution generated in one country and affecting other environmental problems have become inevitable at any part of countries. It contributes to summer smog and acidification, soil the world because of the active integration among countries. and water eutrophication and the dispersion of dangerous According to O Neill, economic globalisation has further elements (EEA, 1998). The principal sources of transboundary accelerated and reconstructed the process of environmental air pollution consist of industrialization, energy use and deterioration (2009). In addition, statistics show that, per year, transportation including both an estimated 55 billion tons of minerals, metals, fossil energy local transportation and international shipping. The 1986 and bio mass are extracted from the earth due to industrialism, Chernobyl disaster which took place in Ukraine when a nuclear and overall, we use 50 per cent more natural resources than reactor exploded, and radioactive gases were released into the the planet can supply (Worldcounts, 2014) atmosphere is a vivid example of transboundary air pollution that led to devastating effects in Ukraine and neighbouring GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS countries (World-Nuclear, 2016) The environment or the ecosystem is considered as the life DEPLETION OF OZONE LAYER support of the planet earth, however due to rapid urbanization and globalization, it has highly damaged the earth. According to Clapp and Dauvergne, various scientists in 1974 Subsequently, the world is being confronted with complex made a unique discovery that chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), environmental problems that need to be addressed. global which is also considered as a greenhouse gas, were drifting into environmental problems are classified into: the atmosphere and causing a gradual depletion of the ozone layer. A depletion of the isothermal layer which protects Greenhouse effect, Global Warming and Climate Change humans against the adverse effects of the ultraviolet sun rays. Biodiversity loss Scientists found out that an exhausted ozone layer could cause Transboundary pollution devastating effects such skin cancer conditions and cataract, Depletion of Ozone layer reduce the disease immunity in humans and weaken the productivity of plants (2011). There are several other global environmental problems that we are faced with in the 21st GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING century such as desertification (caused by over cultivation, overgrazing, and deforestation and so on), overpopulation, According to a report put forward by the European waste disposal, ocean acidification, genetic engineering among Environmental Agency (EEA), there have been a significant others. increase in the global and European annual mean air temperatures. There is strong evidence that greenhouse gases ENVIRONMENTAL DECISIONS emissions, mainly carbon dioxide (CO2) is provoking the earth’s surface temperatures to rise (Global Warming), and the result Environmental problems are mainly caused by human actions. of this increase in temperatures lead to the global The role of humans is, therefore, vital because it is their environmental issue of climate change. That is, impact of the attitude that has shaped the presentday environment. Clearly it rising temperatures and its side effects such as melting glaciers is only through a transformation in attitude that people can and destructive rainstorms pose a long-term threat with drastic take initiatives in influencing the conditions of the environment. changes in climate and average temperature and precipitation. Decisions affecting the environment may be made by an (Kennedy & Lindsey, 2015) individual, a family, a society, consumers, industries or the government. BIODIVERSITY LOSS Environmental decisions are made by individuals, families, According to O’Neill, the issue of Climate Change is expected to societies, consumers, industries, or governments. In the 20th be the principal cause of biodiversity loss and other problems century, technologically advanced societies prioritized such as desertification and transformation of terrestrial and economic growth and industrial development over marine ecosystems (2009). Furthermore, within the environmental considerations. Effective environmental decision same40year period, there has been a doubled growth in human making considers ecological, economic, social, and technical population, a 76% loss of freshwater wildlife and a 39% loss of aspects, leading to global collective actions to address the ill terrestrial wildlife and marine wildlife. The issue of biodiversity effects of human actions on the ecosystem. loss develops from factors such as extensive clearing and burning of woodland, the haphazard use of pesticides, overharvesting of animals and plants, harmful farming and fishing practices, urbanisation and so on. Emerging research suggests that the increased proportion of extinction will further accelerate and the loss of species and the disruption of the SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL Accountability is therefore one reason why global environmental problems is difficult to address through political actions. The challenge of diversity is another concern, the variety of political actors involved in the efforts to combat environmental issues is a huge test that need to be harmonized. As noted by Bowen et al (2017) conflicting interest and behavior of actors either promote or hinder a change in global policy towards the goals. Lastly, the challenge of compromise. In the implementation of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) according to Bowen et GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES al, it is inevitable that tension will arise into which will The United Nations has been a leading international recognize the need for trade-offs or compromise. Achieving the organization in addressing global environmental issues, hosting goals of SDGs for example is serious challenge because multiple the Stockholm conference on "Human Environment" in 1972 goals or targets are interrelated with each other that the realization of one goal may depend on the other, that is and the strategic plan "Agenda 21" at the UNCED in 1992. meeting one target may mean the compromise another goal. Agenda 21 addresses themes such as atmospheric protection, deforestation, poverty eradication, toxic chemicals, waste SUMMARY management, and sustainable agriculture. Although To respond on global environmental issues, the action must governments are responsible for implementing Agenda 21, begin with as “think global, act local.” People need to develop international cooperation is needed to support and an understanding of the global context within their actions complement its efforts. towards the environment. With this global response and collaboration led by various organizations were conducted. In 2012, a global summit on sustainable development was Several conferences and agreements were involved by hug organized to ensure continued commitment to environmental number of participants. However challenges were confronted issues. The United Nations Conference on Sustainable in the implementation such as actors’ accountability, diversity Development in Rio de Janeiro focused on a green economy and comprise they need to address. and poverty eradication. The Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer in Vienna in 1985 set a significant benchmark MIGRATION for international collective action towards global environmental problems. The Montreal Protocol on substances exhausting the ozone layer has led to the elimination of harmful ozone WHAT IS MIGRATION? depleting substances. The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997, Migration is the movement of people from one place to aims to conserve biological diversity, sustainable use of its another with the intention of finding a permanent residence. components, and equitable sharing of genetic resource benefits. Though the main factor for migration of people is economic consideration, demographers also identified the push and pull On 1 January, 2016, the 17 Sustainable Development Goals factors. The push factor means that people are pushed away (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development were from their homes due to natural calamities such as floods, adopted by world leaders in September 2015 at a historic UN famine, loss of jobs or political oppression. The pull factors are Summit officially came into force. Over the next fifteen years, those reasons which invite people to a place due to promising with these new Goals that universally apply to all, countries will and extensive opportunities for a better life mobilize efforts to end all forms of poverty, fight inequalities and tackle climate change, while ensuring that no one is left TWO TYPES OF MIGRATION behind. Internal Migration - which refers to the people moving from one area t another within one country CHALLENGES TOWARDS EMERGENCY RESPONSE International Migration -where people cross borders of one country to another like: The critical need for cooperation among actors (national government, institutions, non-governmental organizations) of a. those who move permanently to another country global environmental issues is significantly important to (immigrants); succeed in the implementation of various frameworks and b. workers who stay in another country for a fixed period (at agreements. The challenge of accountability according to least 6 months in a year); Bowen et al (2017) exist as problems despite of the global c.illegal immigrants; cooperation by all the actors. Najam and Halle (2010) cited d. migrants whose family members have petitioned them to that involved should be evaluated based on a measurable move to the destination country; and implementation of obligation and objectives not only based on e. refugees and vagabonds or those who are “unable or their statements of goodwill. Thus, to Bowen et al (2017) unwilling to return because of a well-founded fear of accountability requires the consideration of four distinct forms: persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion.” The normative behavior for actors, The connection between actors “ held to account” and actors Demographers estimate that 247 million people are currently who “hold to account living outside the countries of their birth. Ninety percent (90) of The evaluation of the behavior of those held to account and them moved for economic reasons while the remaining ten (10) how those “held to account” are responsible for their actions percent were refugees and asylum-seekers. The top three (3) along with how sanctions are advocated. regions of origin are Latin America (18 percent of the global total), followed by Eastern Europe and Central Asia (16 percent), SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL and the Middle East and North Africa (14 percent). On a per domestic activities. Human trafficking has been very profitable, country basis, India, Mexico and China are leading, with earning syndicates, smugglers, and corrupt state officials profits Philippines, together with Afghanistan, ranking 6th in the world. of as high as $150 billion a year in 2014. Governments, the The top 10 country destinations of these migrants are mainly in private sector and civil society groups have worked together to the West and the Middle East, with the United States topping combat human trafficking, yet the results remain uneven. the list. Fifty percent (50%) of global migrants have moved from the developing countries to the developed zones of the world INTEGRATION and contribute from 40 to 80 percent of their labor force. Integration is the final issue as to how migrants interact with BENEFITS AND DETRIMENTS FOR THE SENDING their new Home countries. Migrants unwittingly reinforce the COUNTRIES tension by “keeping among themselves.” The first-time migrant’s anxiety at coming into a new and often “strange” Even if 90 percent of the value generated by migrant workers place is mitigated by “local networks of fellow citizens’ that remains in their host countries, they have sent billions back to serve as the migrant’s safety net from the dislocation of their home countries. Remittances make significant uprooting oneself. contributions to the development of small and medium-term industries that help generate jobs. It likewise changes the Democratic states assimilate immigrants and their children by economic and social standing of migrants as shown by new or granting them citizenship and the rights that go with it renovated homes and their relatives’ access to new consumer (especially public education). However, without a solid support goods. The purchasing power of the migrant’s family doubled from their citizens may just be a formality. Linguistic difficulties, and makes it possible for their children to start or continue customs from the “old country” and of late differing religions schooling. may create cleavages between migrants and citizens of receiving countries, particularly in the West. On the other hand, global migration may result to “siphoning” qualified personnel and removing dynamic, young workers or Governments and private businesses have made policy changes often been referred to as “brain drain.” Furthermore, the loss to address integration problems, like using multiple languages of professionals in certain key roles, such as doctors and nurses, in state documents (in the case of the United States, Spanish has been detrimental to the migrant’s home countries. In 2006, and English). Training programs complemented with some 15% of locally trained doctors from 21 sub-Saharan counselling have complemented with counselling have also helped migrant African countries have emigrated to the United States or integration in Hamburg, Germany, while retail merchants in Canada. Barcelona have bought in migrant shopkeepers to breakdown language barriers while introducing Chinese culture to citizens In line with this, there are many restrictions for labor migration and many of these are related to the Westphalian conception of the nation-state. According to Shamir (2005), the loss of the part of a country’s workforce is one of the major reasons for CITIZENSHIP the state to control migration. He added that conflicts between local residents and migrants may surface due to influx of Citizenship is the status of a person recognized under the migrants. Moses (2006) another concern of the state in custom or law of a sovereign state as a member of or belonging regulating migration is terrorism. to the state. Each state is free to determine the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and the Governments are aware of this long-term handicap, but have conditions under which that status will be withdrawn. no choice but to continue promoting migrant work as part of Recognition by a state as a citizen generally carries with it state policy because of the remittances’ impact on Gross recognition of civil, political, and social rights which are not Domestic Product (GDP). afforded to non-citizens. THE PROBLEM OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING In general, the basic rights normally regarded as arising from citizenship are the right to a passport, the right to leave and Human trafficking, another – often times involuntary – form of return to the country/ies of citizenship, the right to live in that migration, is an important international issue. The UN defines country and to work there. Some countries permit their citizens human trafficking as, “the recruitment, transportation, transfer, to have multiple citizenships, while others insist on exclusive harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use allegiance. A person who does not have citizenship of any state of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of is said to be stateless, while one who lives on state borders 141 deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of whose territorial status is uncertain is a border-lander. vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or Nationality is often used as a synonym for citizenship in English benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over although the term is mainly – notably in international law – another person, for the purpose of exploitation.” (UNODC.org) understood as denoting a person's membership of a nation (a large ethnic group) The United States Federal Bureau of Investigation listed human trafficking as the third largest criminal activity worldwide. In TRANSTIONALISM 2012, the international Labour Organization (ILO) identified 21 million men, women and children as victims of forced labor, an The heightened interconnectivity between people and the appalling three (3) out of every 1,000 persons worldwide. receding economic and social significance of boundaries Ninety percent of the victims (18.7 million) are exploited by between nation states paved way to a scholarly research private enterprises and entrepreneurs; 22 percent (4.5 million) agenda and social phenomenon known as transnationalism, a are sexually abused; and 68 percent (14.2 million) work under term popularized by the writer Randolph Bourne in the early compulsion in agricultural, manufacturing, infrastructure and 20th century to describe about relationships between cultures. With the aim of reducing costs, transnationalism as an SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL economic process, led to the global reorganization of the issues related to global migration are human trafficking, production process, in which various stages of the production integration, transnationalism and global citizenship. of any product can occur in various countries. CHRISTIAN FAITH It was in the latter half of the 20th century by the development of the internet and wireless communication, when economic 1. Christianity main points include Belief in God the Father, transnationalism, commonly known as globalization, spurred. Jesus Christ as the Son of God, and the Holy Spirit. Jesus upon During this time, there was also a reduction in global death, descended into hell, resurrected, and ascended into transportation costs caused by containerization. Multinational heaven. The Catholics believe on the holiness of the Catholic corporations are considered as a form of transnationalism. Church and the communion with Saints at the end of time. Multinational corporations seek to minimize costs, and hence maximize profits, by organizing their operations in the most 2. In Christianity, Jesus is believed to be the Son of God and the efficient means possible irrespective of political boundaries. second Person of the Holy Trinity. Christians believe that through his crucifixion and subsequent resurrection, God Transnationalism is a part of the process of capitalist offered humans salvation and eternal life. Christ’s second globalization for its concept refers to multiple links and coming, is the Day of Judgement and salvation of the faithful. interactions between and among people and institutions across the borders of nation-states. 3. Jesus’ name in Hebrew was “Yeshua” which translates to English as Joshua. In Islam, it is Isa. Christians believe God sent WHAT IS GLOBAL CITIZEN? his son Jesus, the messiah, to save the world. According to Oxfam, a Global Citizen is someone who: 4. In Christianity, Mary is commonly referred to as the Virgin is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role Mary, in accordance with the belief that she conceived Jesus as a world citizen. miraculously through the Holy Spirit without her husband’s respects and values diversity. involvement. The Gospel of Mark (6:3) and the Gospel of has an understanding of how the world works. Matthew (13:55-56) mention James, Joseph/ Judas/Jude and is outraged by social injustice. Simon as brothers of Jesus, the son of Mary. The same verses participates in the community at a range of levels, from the also mention unnamed sisters of Jesus. However, the Catholic local to the global. faith emphasized that even non-kin individuals in their village is willing to act to make the world a more equitable and are called brothers. sustainable place. takes responsibility for their actions. 5. Yahweh is the principal name in the Old Testament by which God reveals himself and is the most sacred, distinctive and To be an effective Global Citizen, one must be flexible, creative incommunicable name of God. Depending on the specific and proactive. He/she needs to be able to solve problems, denomination of Christianity, practices may include baptism, make decisions, think critically, communicate ideas effectively Eucharist (Holy Communion or the Lord’s Supper), prayer and work well within teams and groups. These skills and (including the Lord’s Prayer), confession, confirmation, burial attributes are increasingly recognised as being essential to rites, marriage rites and the religious education of children. succeed in other areas of 21st century life. 6. The Catholics pray the Rosary as a powerful manner to attain devotion to God and Mary. Mary is considered almost synonymous in power with Jesus as shown in the twin hearts of Jesus and Mary images. The Non Catholics do not practice SUMMARY praying the rosary because Mary is a human being only and Jesus is God becoming man to save the world from damnation. Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intention of finding a permanent residence. 7. The Catholics get instructions from the Vatican, the Holy There are many economic, social and physical reasons why Pope. He is people emigrate and these can be classified into push and pull considered as the current day Peter, Jesus apostle, whose factors. name called the Rock upon which the Church of God is being built. The instructions and teachings are presented during the The push factor means that people are pushed away from their Holy Celebration of Mass. The Catholics practice confession as a homes while pull factors are those reasons which invite people means of cleansing and asking for forgiveness. The Non to a place due to promising opportunities. Migration can be Catholic Christians do not receive orders from the Holy Father classified into internal migration which refers to the people but form a number of bible study groups or open bible schools moving from one area to another within one country and for the members to understand the words of Jesus and how international migration where people cross borders of one these can be appreciated today. country and stay in the host state for some minimum length of time. Migration has positive and negative impacts on countries 8. The Mass consists of four parts – the Entrance where of origin and host countries. Developing countries benefit from believers raise their hearts in longing for God. The second part remittances. It also uplifts the social and economic status of the occurs in Gospel reading, where God comes down and speaks migrant’s family. to the congregation though the readings of the epistle and the gospel. The third part of the mass happens in the offering part Unemployment rate decreases in the countries of origin. On where the believers offer themselves and their fruits of work to the other hand, working abroad has detrimental effect to the God. And the last part is the communion and the giving of country’s economy because it causes brain drain. Some of the Peace to all believers. The going up of the spirits of believers advantages of migration on host countries are economic and the coming down of God to His congregation (M) is the growth can be sustained, job vacancies can be filled, cheap magic of the word Mass. labor costs and services to the elderly can be maintained. Some SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL 9. The Christians encourage giving a portion of their incomes to b. Chapter 2. “As soon as beauty is known by the world as the church they belong and named it as tithes. This amount is beautiful, it becomes ugly. As soon as virtue is being known as used for many projects and endeavours of the church like something good, it becomes evil. Therefore, being and non- building a physical church, helping the poor, helping victims of being give birth to each other. Difficult and easy accomplish calamities etc. each other. Long and short form each other. High and low, distinguish each other. Sound and tone harmonize each other. 10. The Christian thought dominates among many countries in Before and after follow each other as a sequence. Realizing this, the world, but many countries opted to take separation of the the saint performs effortlessly according to the natural Way Church and the State in running the affairs of the communities. without personal desire, and practices the wordless teaching In many cases, what the State considers legal may not sound thru one’s deeds. The saint inspires the vitality of all lives, moral to the believers. For example same sex marriage and without holding back. He nurtures all beings with no wish to abortion, where are already accepted as legal in some take possession of. He devotes all his energy but has no countries but remain immoral in the perspective of Christian intention to hold on to the merit. When success is achieved, he religion. seeks no recognition. Because he does not claim for the credit, hence shall not lose it.” SUMMARY 6. In this teaching, the teacher presents the beauty and the Christianity centres on Jesus as the Son of God, who was born inevitable presence of the opposites, the Yin and the Yang. The without sin through Mary. The Christians also believe on the reality is always with the opposites – day and night, high and descent of the Holy Spirit and the forgiveness of sins in a low, beautiful and ugly, dark and light, tall and short, rich and confession for the Catholics. All denominations believe in poor, life and death. When the individual embraces that good judgment and life everlasting. and evil come in interplay, the man of Tao (Saint) understands that the good only becomes good in comparison of the THE BOOK OF TAO presence of evil. Without evil, the good is undetermined. 1. The Book of Tao or Tao Te Ching (pronounced as Daodejing) 7. Moreover, the Saint goes through life understanding the is a compilation of teachings by Lao Tzu in China. Tao means complete harmony of the existence of the opposites and the the origin of all things, the Universe. One fundamental principle natural law. He lives without desire and practice effortlessly of Tao is that reality contains its opposite forces all the time (wu-wei) the wordless teaching through his action. This means, called Yin and Yang, two relative aspects of the same thing. Yin a Saint does not preach, He just lives without words the life in is the subtle energy, calm and soothing and the Yang is the complete harmony with the natural law without any intension stronger energy, active and vibrant. of owning anything but the Way. He does not claim honor and does not give credit to all he does. When the Saint is able to 2. Dark, feminine, north, water, earth, cold, old, even numbers, achieve success, he aims no recognition for it and because of it: soft, poor, moon are associated with Yin, while masculine, he never loses it. white light, active, fire, south, young, odd numbers, mountains, rich, hard are Yang. Anything providing spirits is Yin and that c. Chapter 3. “By not adoring the worthy, people will not fall providing form is Yang. (Cartwright) into dispute. By not valuing the hard to get objects, people will not become robbers. By not seeing the desires of lust, one’s 3. Tao Te Ching centres on living a life of integrity while heart will not be confused. Therefore the governing of the saint maintaining goodness. It contains doctrine on the methods, is to empty one’s mind, substantiate one’s virtue, weaken one’s principles and ways of living. Tao means the Way. worldly ambition and strengthen one’s essence. He lets the people to be innocent of worldly knowledge and desire, and 4. Quotes of Tao Te Ching explain the principles it teaches. keeps the clever ones from 108 making trouble with their wits. There are eighty one verses called chapters of the book. I will Acts naturally without desire, then everything will be give the first three chapters and of the last chapter of the book accomplished in its natural order.” of Tao. (Translated by McCarroll, Tolbert ) 8. This part of the teaching explains why there is greed and a. Chapter 1. “Tao (The Way) that can be spoken of is not the chaos in the world. It is because we adore some people in Constant Tao” The name that can be named is not a Constant comparison with others. Others who were not admired will Name. Nameless, is the origin of Heaven and Earth; The named dislike it, will feel envious and will create chaos. Moreover, a is the Mother of all things. Thus, the constant void enables one diamond will not be robbed if no body considers it expensive. to observe the true essence. The constant being enables one to Exorbitant pricing creates robbery. Desires confuse the mind see and destroy the soul. If there is no reason to desire for anything, the outward manifestations. These two come paired from the his ambitions for worldly things weaken and strengthen his same origin. But when the essence is manifested, It has a own essence. The teaching advices to act naturally without different name explicated and articulated the seemingly desire, for everything will be accomplished in its natural order, incongruent presentation of life of the TAO. This same origin is which means you will always get your own due without any called “The Profound Mystery.” As profound the trouble. mystery as It can be, It is the “Gate to the essence of all life.” 5. In this teaching, the teacher is describing the nature of the d. Chapter 81. “Words of truth are not pleasing. Pleasing words Profound. It is not named. It is not spoken, as the Source of all are not truthful. The wise one does not argue. He who argues is things cannot be spoken and Nameless. The constant Being not wise. A wise man of Tao knows the subtle truth, And may that does not change can name any outward manifestation of not be learned. A learned person is knowledgeable but may not things, and when Its Essence is manifested, it bears a different know the subtle truth of Tao. A saint does not possess and Name, not the name we are familiar with. accumulate surplus for personal desire. The more he helps others, the richer his life becomes. The more he gives to others, the more he gets in return. The Tao of Nature benefits and SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL does not harm. The Way of a saint is to act naturally without are not the right ones, the person shall be entangled in contention.” suffering. 9. This part of the teaching tells that truth hurts and most 6. Correct mindfulness and correct concentration are too sweet words are not truthful. Perhaps, we can think of a guy closely linked. The seeker may have the right sense of trying to win a girl, or a businessman trying to win a contract or awareness of his/her person - the body, the thoughts- and the a lawyer trying to persuade the judge playing sweet words but right spiritual practice to experience transcendence and empty in compassion. The wise speaks nothing and goes away enlightenment. All these eight can be categorized as ethics and from arguments and disputes because he knows the subtle wisdom. The correct actions, correct speech and correct truth of the Tao. Any educated person is knowledgeable about livelihood are all categorized under ethics and the rest under a specific field but he/she may not know the Way. The Saints is the development of wisdom. (Lopez) a Man for others helping others more than accumulating wealth of himself/herself because he/she understands that the SUMMARY more he/she gives the more he/she gets in return as this is the Law of Nature – it gives and does not harm. The Saint’s Way is Buddhism has no reference of a god but strives to attain to act naturally without contention or chaos. enlightenment called Nirvana. It presents four noble truths saying that there is suffering in life, that this suffering has SUMMARY causes, that this suffering can end and the way to end it is through the eight-fold path of living. The eightfold path Tao Te Ching teaches how to live life effortlessly in accordance includes the right view, the right intention, the right speech, to the law of nature or the Way. The Saint or the good man the right action, the right livelihood, the correct effort, the right understands the subtle Truth of the Tao and thus wastes no mindfulness and the correct concentration. waste time in desires, arguments, and in wasteful existence. The Saint enriches himself /herself by helping others. HINDUISM BUDDHISM 1. Hinduism is a belief in as Supreme Being and adheres to ideas on truth, dharma and karma. Vedas (sacred scriptures) 1. Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha Gautama founded Buddhism. serve as the source of Truth. Its belief is on achieving enlightenment (Buddhahood) – a state of bliss. When this is achieved, the believer experiences 2. Here are some of the key beliefs shared among Hindus: Truth Nirvana. One of the teachings of Buddhism centres on the four is eternal. The pursuit of knowledge and understanding of the noble truths – that there is suffering, that suffering has causes, Truth is a virtue – the only Reality and the essence of the that suffering can end and that there are paths to end suffering. universe 2. The eight-fold paths to end suffering include the right view of 3. Many believers choose to call their faith as Vedic religion. the situation, correct intention doing certain actions, the right (Smith). According to the Vedas, Truth is One, but expressed in speech, the right action, the right livelihood, the right effort, a variety of ways. Brahman is Truth and Reality. Brahman is the right mindfulness and the right concentration. The right One true God who is formless, limitless, all-inclusive, and view requires that the person must have the accurate eternal. Brahman is absolute and infinite; real entity that understanding of the things surrounding him and of his own encompasses every seen and unseen in the universe. views about the things happening. 4. The Vedas are Hindu scriptures that contain revelations 3. The right intention is to do away with wrong harmful plans received by ancient sages. It is believed to be without unto others and wishes them harm like in hatred and animosity. beginning and without end; when all else is gone, the Vedas This is also to avoid negative attachments to wealth and power, remain. beauty or vanity, to aim for control and dominance in the exercise of authority. The right speech is to avoid lying - 5. The goal of every Hindu is to achieve dharma. There is no misleading statements or standing as a false witness against specific definition of dharma. Dharma could be the right another. This also implies avoiding harsh words, demeaning, conduct, righteousness, morals, or duty. If one is sensitive with divisive or gossip. achieving dharma, given duties and abilities, and makes it central to his/her life, then the person is doing the right thing. 4. The right action and the right livelihood are closely linked. Is it the right thing to pass students in class if students do not Murder, stealing, scheming, double-crossing and improper deserve it? If the teacher allows the student to pass, then sexual conduct etc. are not considered pleasant and correct. If he/she will suffer by not doing the dharma expected. people are into these sorts of actions, very likely their livelihood could also be the wrong livelihood, like selling 6. Hindus also believe that individual souls are immortal. The weapons for wars, prostitution, children trafficking, trading individual soul (atman) is one with Brahman thus like Brahman poisonous goods and gas, slavery and selling alcohol and illegal is neither created nor could be destroyed. It has been, it is and drugs that will indirectly and directly harm others. it will be forever without end. Hindus believe in reincarnation as well as part of Karma cycle, saying that actions of the soul in 5.Correct effort means that the means to achieve the goals in the body will reap the consequences in the next life – the same life are attuned to what is right and truthful. For example, one soul is transferring in different bodies trying to perfect the aims to land a good job and the effort is to copy from dharma. The Hindus called that process of moving the soul classmates during exams in college. This person may pass the (atman) from one body to another body as “transmigration.” exams, graduate from college and land on a job, but the effort The kind of body the soul takes in the next life depends on used to land on a job was on cheating. The Buddhist principle karma (actions accumulated in previous lives). assures that if efforts 7. The goal of the individual soul is moksha. Moksha, in English is liberation: the soul’s release from the cycle of death and SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL rebirth. It happens when the soul is one with Brahman by 19. An inhospitable person is an inferior person. realizing the Unity Consciousness and its true nature. A number 20. Repay those who made good to you. of paths lead to this realization and unity. One is called the path 21. It is a virtuous deed - to forgive the one who offended you, of duty; another is the path of knowledge and another is called to give to the one who refused to give to you, to stretch a hand the path of devotion or “unconditional surrender to God.” In of peace to the one that quarrels with you. prayer, the general invocation is that May the Good will come 22. O man! If you are not satisfied with the small, the great can to us. satisfy you neither. 23. Do good deeds without announcing it. 8. Hindus acknowledge that, fundamentally, God is the only 24. Do not wish death to yourself or to others. One — the Absolute, formless, Infinite, Boundless and only 25. The one who does not thank people will thank Allah neither. Reality known as Brahman, the Supreme, Universal Soul (Hinduism). Brahman is the universe and everything in it. Brahman has no form and no limits; it is both the Reality and 27. Allah created diseases, but He also created medicines for Truth – a more pantheistic in view of religion. It equates God them. with the universe. Hinduism also has myriad gods and 28. Allah is generous and likes generous people. goddesses who embody characteristics of God. Such allows 29. For everything there is a way. The way to paradise is devotees to show and render an infinite number of ways of opened by knowledge. worship based on tradition and community traditions and other 30. Do not be lazy to go for knowledge even to distant places considerations that matter. because gaining knowledge is the main duty of a Muslim. 31. Begin a meal remembering about Allah and be not choosy 9. What can be attractive in this religion is that no one goes to with food. hell – eternal damnation. The errors of one in this lifetime can 32. Gates to wellbeing are under lock. The key to it is work. always be rectified in the next lifetimes and depending on the 33. The following features characterize a bad person: he lies in sensitivity of the soul to learn his/her lessons, the oneness with conversation, does not keep his promises, feeling impunity, and Brahman can be attained soon or in a million lifetimes over. does base deeds. Moreover, one who embraces this thought may think about 34. Pay to a worker for his work before his sweat dried up. revenge very seriously. If karma is clear on the person, there 35. Have ‫ملسال مكيلع‬PEACE would be no incentive for the person to take action against an enemy as this only weakens and slows down ones objective of ISLAM becoming one with Brahman. 1. Islam, is derived from the Arabic word root “salaama” (peace, SUMMARY purity, submission and obedience) Islam means submission to the will of God and obedience to His law. All things move to the Hinduism’s concept of God and the Universe are the same. God motion of nature thus - in a state of Islam. Because man has is One Truth- Infinite and Boundless called Brahman. The soul freedom of choice he is invited to submit himself to God and of man connected to the Source is Atman. The journey of man obey His law. Submission and obedience to will of God, i.e. is to be one with Brahman, which can be attained via duty, becoming a Muslim, is to be clothed by God’s protection to knowledge and devotion. The soul can continue to perfect itself ensure peace. The greeting Assalamu-Alaikum” means Peace by transmigration to different bodies in different lifetime. be with you the blessed one. And the response would be Alaikum Musalam” (and be with you too) H A D I T H S ( Muhammad Sayings ) 2. The Qur’an (written by Allah) says that Islam is a way of life. Hadiths are Muhammad’s teachings apart from what the Qur Every deed, every decision, every thought a Muslim should an presents. think, make and implement, is based on the Qur’an. Nothings added or deleted. The Qur’an is the basis of their actions, the 1. Good education is the best legacy for the youth. meaning of their existence, the philosophy of life, their 2. Speak always the truth, even if it is not profitable for you. constitution and religion, their emotional refuge and spiritual 3. Whatever you know, share it with others and teach them. essence. The Qur’an designs the blueprint of their destiny. 4. Him who pitied no one, none will pity. 5. Be not a burden for people. 3. The Five Pillars of Islam “Shahada” (The Testimony of Faith). 6. Do not sit down between two sitting people without first Anyone who intends to become a Muslim should pronounce asking their permission. the “Shahada” without delay. “ASH-HADU ANLAA ILAHA ILLA 7. Be economical and do not bring yourselves to destitution. ALLAH WAASH HADU ANNA MUHAMMADAN ABDUHU WA 8. Do not do things, which then make you conscience- RASUULUH.” stricken.The riches consist not in quantity of goods, but in the breadth of the soul. The English translation is: 9. The knowledge is a treasure which key is inquiry. “I bear witness that there is none worthy of worship but Allah, 10. Step aside from a fool. Avoid intoxicating drinks. and I bear witness that Muhammad is His servant and 11. Calmness is a gain; confusion is a loss. messenger.” 12. Do not hurry in taking decisions and prepare for consequences. 13. Do not judge anyone from assumptions or if you have doubts. 14. Exhort every one not to do evil. 15. If you have to punish the guilty never strike him in the face. 16. He who wakes up lately closes for oneself the door to prosperity. 17. Any bribe is a sin and an odious source of income. 18. He who has flared up should break off immediately. SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL 10. Muslim women are instructed to cover themselves from the head to toes to avoid temptation and to maintain purity.In terms of the extent of women’s dealings, it is totally unacceptable for an unmarried woman to talk with any man not her kin if she is alone. Under ordinary conditions, it is impermissible for a woman to work outside the house. The woman’s domain is the household and, in the household, reigns her power. If Muslim women are educated properly, the influence in the households to their sons shall be tremendous and we can expect Muslim men not to be holding guns going to war in the future. 11. There will be no premarital sex allowed and no extra sex 4. “Salat” (Establishment of Prayers): Muslims are required by relationships outside marriage. One very good example of an the Quran to pray 5 times daily - daybreak, noonday, midday, exemplary woman and wife is the Blessed Virgin Mary of the twilight and evening. In praying, regardless on whether one is Christians. The Blessed Virgin is a Muslim. “Behold! The angels in the mosque or in a congregation, in the office or in the fields, said, “O Mary! God has chosen you and purified you - Chosen near an animal or beside the sea, a believer brings one to the you above the women of all nations.” Qur’an-3:42. According presence of God. Muslims clean themselves before going to to Qur’an, the Angel blew life to the sleeve of Mary and which prayer, God requires Purity from us. No one impure can be with after conceived a son - Isa (Jesus) who would also become one God, (no matter how one tries to justify it). great person of faith. And as such Jesus is a messenger of God and not God himself. 5. “Zacat” (Obligatory Charity) is giving 2.5% of the income for charity. Islam gives to the poorer brothers and sisters in faith. 12. On the other hand, the husband’s basic responsibility is to The objective is to redistribute income equitably - not only for protect and provide support to his wife or wives and to provide shortterm needs but also to support in making a living. economic sufficiency, emotional security and physical protection to all his children. 6. “Saum” (Fast of Ramadan during the ninth month of Islamic 13. What is difficult to understand in Islam is the duty to do calendar to commemorate the first revelation of Qur an to Jihad if necessary. Many takes a bloody Jihad on the premise Mohammad). Muslims fast during Ramadan. It is a time for that such an action is the last recourse and as such is done in prayer, devotion and self-restraint. As a secondary goal, it is the the Name of Allah. Many countries are thinking that if there are time to thank and appreciate God’s bounties. Fasting is found bombings everywhere in the world, these are workings of the scientifically to have physical beneficial effects as well. It starts in the morning till dusk and will be broken with prayer and meal in the evening (if tar). This practice of prayer without food Muslims, discerning that the bombers take such an action in and water continues for thirty days. the Name of Allah. Any other groups or institutions, not necessarily always the Muslims, can do bombings as well. 7. “Hajj” (Pilgrimage to Mecca) - Muslims’ ultimate act of These, we need to be more careful in dropping conclusions. worship is to perform Hajj, the going to Mecca- the birthplace of Mohammed. Hajj aims to achieve humility, generosity, 14. In summary, Islam believes in One God and Mohammed as charity, realization of equality before God, cultivation of prophet. It also believes in the sanctity of sacred scriptures like patience, cooperation, suppressing anger, accomplishing Torah, the Bible and the Qur an. It also believes in the prophets decency and chastity, and spiritual experience. This is done at sent by God like Abraham, Moses, Ismael, Isaac, and Jacob, least once in a lifetime. Jesus (United Reliigions Initiatives). Muslims believe also in resurrection and life everlasting. Islam espoused Divine decree 8. “Jihad” (Struggle) is not part of the pillars of Islam but it is a saying that everything happening in a person is with His duty Muslims must respond. Jihad (struggle or endeavor) in all permission. forms is a call allowed in Islam. This should NOT be interpreted as bloody war only, but any expression of preserving the Good SUMMARY and destroying the destroyer of Good (evil). If corruption is a destroyer of Good, it should be stopped and the struggle The pillars of Islam include the Shahada, the Zacat, the Salat, attached to it is called Jihad. Literally it also means conversion Saum and Hajj. Women’s domain is in the household and their by sword (holy war). If war is needed to defend the country role is to create a sweet environment for children to grow and from the terrorizing invaders then it is too Jihad. husband to rest. The husbands have the obligation to take care of the family and provide protection and food to all his children. 9. Woman’s Place in Islam. The woman creates heaven in the Jihad is not a pillar of Islam but an obligation to do in the name household. She is discouraged to nag. It only makes the house of Allah. an unpleasant place for kids if she does. Regardless of income, the mother should be a person of comfort and joy. The woman UNIT 3 is expected to submit wholly to her husband and follows his Lesson 1: Introduction to Political Thought counsel. If a wife is barren, it is necessary for the husband to look for a second wife. This is permitted only under the 1. Persons settling in one geographical territory, living in a following conditions: if the first wife is barren, if she is already community, sharing similar purposes in life, obeying social on her menopausal stage if she is suffering from certain contracts, organized by an authority, and enjoying freedom sickness that she could no longer provide sexual pleasure to the from any external control is described as a State. Its role is to husband. create a healthy environment, conducive to attaining better welfare and construct policy frameworks that enable various agencies of the state to explore and realize the full potential of SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL the people while maintaining workable standard operations credit. (Social Inequality) that support and protect public interest. 2. Max Weber (pronounced as Max Veba) defined a state as a Lesson 2: The Republic polity that maintains monopoly on the legitimate use of violence. It sounds very cruel but is justifiable if it is to establish 1. To understand the dynamics of political influences and a standard behaviour among residents of the state. For instruments, it is essential to review, Plato‘s best-known work example paying taxes, keeping the environment clean, respect and world’s most influential works of philosophy and political to other members in the society, avoiding all actions that theory, the Republic. The Republic contained Socratic dialogue destroy the future of the young like drug addiction, prostitution, with Athenians and foreigners about the idea and meaning of theft and burglary, etc. justice to an ideal utopian city. Will being just bring happiness to the just man? Will he be happier than the unjust man will? 3. There are four (4) theories of a state: Force Theory, Evolutionary Theory, Divine Right Theory and Social Contract 2. Socrates listened to the various definitions of justice from his Theory. A state is created through some force, as the losers of companions. Justice is essentially, giving what is owed. Justice war subject themselves to the victorious new rulers; the Force is an art that gives good to friends and evil to enemies. Justice Theory follows this thought. The evolutionary theory supports is but the interest of the stronger. Socrates overturned all these the idea that formation of states developed naturally and definitions by asserting that it is advantageous for a man to be gradually as by product of historical development, factors of just and disadvantageous to be unjust. Socrates needed to which include family and kinship, religion, natural social instinct, prove that justice is not only desirable, but that it belongs to economic needs and politics. (Evolutionary Theory) the highest class of desirable things. 4. On the other hand, a political doctrine, in support to 3. His companions presented advantages of being unjust. The monarchical absolutism, asserted that kings derived their unjust man could grow wealthy by injustice and does not need authority from God and could not be accountable for their to be fearful of Divine judgement in the afterlife because he actions by an earthly authority like the parliament. This is the can always allocate a portion of his gains to religious losses, idea pushed by the Divine Right Theorists. The Social Contract thus rendering him innocent in the eyes of the gods. Socrates Theory is the view that persons’ moral and or political emphasized the need to define justice from the city rather than obligations are dependent upon an agreement among them to a person. The individual is unable to supply everything he that form the society in which they live (Internet Encyclopedia needs and thus seeks provisions from the city he called the of Philosophy). Healthy State. 4. The healthy state needs guardians (now called political 5. What is then the role of the government running off the leaders) that protect the city from attacks and the discussion state? Major State responsibilities include schools, hospitals, furthered describing what type of education is appropriate for conservation and environment, roads, railways and public them in their early years. They concluded that to ascribe evil to transport, public works, agriculture and fishing, industrial the gods are untrue and hence, should not be taught. What relations, community services, sport and recreation, consumer should be the lifestyle of the guardians? Essentially, the city is affairs, police, prisons and emergency services. These form assumed to contain individuals who are happy in the government spending and subsidies that are primarily sourced occupations that best suit them. If the city is happy, the from taxes. Moreover, government‘s role to development individuals are happy. includes controls over production, distribution, consumption of commodities. To achieve these objectives, it devises physical 5. For the guardians, in the physical education and diet, the controls, monetary and fiscal measures that are essential for emphasis is on moderation; for both poverty and excessive reducing economic and social inequalities (Suman) that prevail wealth corrupt them. Without controlling their education, the in underdeveloped economies like the Philippines. city cannot control the future rulers. Socrates differentiated the concepts of an ideal city or an ideal state presented in TECHNICAL TERMS the discourse of Socrates and his companions about how to achieve a perfect government as opposed to other kinds of 1. Monetary measures are policies on money supply states. management and interest rates regulation by the Central Bank that help achieve a macroeconomic objective like curving 6.In a just human being, reason rules, spirit is reason’s ally, and inflation, regulating consumption, achieving target growths and appetite is held in check. In this way, the three parts of the soul maintaining certain level of liquidity. are organized in such a way that action is in accordance with knowledge of what the good life is. This knowledge belongs to 2. Fiscal measures are policy handles of the government like reason. In this part of the soul, there is the knowledge that taxation and government spending that greatly affect overall existence in the body is temporary, that the body and its spending adjustments of the country. needs are distractions, and that the good life is one of “contemplation”. (Henry George Liddell) 3. Economic inequality measures the extent to which income, most commonly measured by household or individual, is 7. Accordingly, Socrates defines justice as “working at that to distributed in an uneven manner. which he is naturally best suited”, and “to do one’s own business and not to be a busybody” and goes on to say that 4. Areas of social inequality include access to voting rights, justice sustains and perfects the other three cardinal virtues: freedom of speech and assembly, the extent of property rights Temperance, Wisdom, and Courage, and that justice is the and access to education, health care, quality housing, traveling, cause and condition of their existence. Socrates does not transportation, vacationing and other social goods and services. include justice as a virtue within the city, suggesting that justice Apart from that, it can also be seen in the quality of family and does not exist within the human soul either, rather it is the neighbourhood life, occupation, job satisfaction, and access to result of a “well ordered” soul. SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL at 50 years of age, when they are fully aware of the form of A result of this conception of justice separates people into good and are mature already, they are now ready to lead. three types; that of the soldier, that of the producer, and that of a ruler. If a ruler can create just laws, and if the warriors can 14. The four unjust constitutions are timocracy, oligarchy, carry out the orders of the rulers, and if the producers can obey democracy and tyranny being aristocracy as the best. this authority, then a society will be just.Socrates proceeded to Aristocracy is the just government, dominated by wisdom search for wisdom, courage, and temperance in the city, loving system of government, ruled by the philosopher-king. because justice will be easier to discern in what remains. They When the social structure breaks down and civil war is created, find wisdom among the guardian rulers, courage among the timocracy is formed. Warrior generals, who are the ruling class guardian warriors (or auxiliaries), temperance among all classes of property owners, dominate timocracy. When wealth of the city in agreeing about who should rule and who should accumulation replaces honour, the government formed is be ruled. Finally, Socrates defined justice as a state in which oligarchy, where the rich are the ruling class. each class performs only its own work, not meddling in the work of the other classes (433b). 15. When the number of poor widens and starts a revolt, democracy is established. Democracy emphasizes maximum 8. The virtues are then sought in the individual soul. Socrates freedom and power is distributed evenly. This form of creates an analogy between the parts of the city and the soul government is dominated by desire in an undisciplined and (the city-soul analogy). He argues that a completely unified soul unrestrained ways. Populism of the democratic government could not behave in opposite ways towards the same object, at leads to mob rule, fuelled by fear of oligarchy, which can be the same time, and in the same respect (436b). The guardians, exploited by tyrants to take power and establish tyranny. both females and males, should be educated in wisdom, temperance, justice and courage, gymnastics and physical 16. In a tyrannical government, the city is enslaved to the training. Physical training is aimed at maintaining good health tyrant, who uses his guards to remove the best social elements and physical fitness in order for them to live preventing illness and individuals from the city to retain power (since they pose a and weakness and without needing medical attention to focus threat), while leaving the worst. He will also provoke warfare to their energies in serving the people. consolidate his position as leader. In this way, tyranny is the most unjust regime of all. 9. Socrates and companions assume at essentially each individuals are employed in an occupation that best suit them, TECHNICAL TERMS saying that if the whole city is happy, so are individuals. Moreover, lifestyles of guardians are that of moderation 1. City-soul analogy – Justice is the right order of the soul. The because both poverty and excessive wealth lead to corruption. city-soul analogy refers to Plato‘s argument saying that the just Ensuring good education, the future leaders’ quality is also person is happier than the unjust person and that if the city is ensured. Proper education safeguards lawful behaviour while composed of just persons, then the just city is happier than the poor education causes lawlessness. It is pointless to worry unjust cities. The city cannot go opposite to what is good for about laws when leaders’ behaviour is corrupt. the soul. (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy) 10. Guardians are of three classes – guardian rulers must have 2. Timocracy - A timocracy in Aristotle’s Politics is a state where the wisdom, guardian warriors must possess courage and only property owners may participate in government. The more temperance should be found among classes in the city agreeing extreme forms of timocracy, where power derives entirely from who should rule and be ruled. For Socrates, justice means each wealth with no regard for social or civic responsibility, may shift class performs only its own work and not meddling on the in their form and become a plutocracy where the wealthy rule. work of others. Moreover, Socrates also discovered virtues in Possession of property is required in order to hold office in the city from the individual soul, the city-soul analogy. an Timocracy Also, government power and glory motivates the rulers. (Your Dictionary) 11. He argues that a completely unified soul could not behave in opposite ways – meaning the city and the individual must 3. Democracy is a system of government that bases its possess the same behaviour toward same objective. A person is legitimacy on the participation of the people, uniformly wise if he is ruled by the part of the soul that understands what characterized by (1) competitive elections, (2) the principle of is good for the part and for the whole. A person is courageous if political and legal equality, and (3) a high degree of individual his soul preserves pleasures and pains and that the decision is freedom, or civil liberties. (Dallas Learning Cloud) reached by the rational part; and a person is temperate if the three parts agree that the rational part should lead. One person 4. Aristocracy is a form of government by a relatively small cannot be just if he does not have the other virtues. privileged class or by a minority consisting of those presumed to be best qualified to rule. This word is derived from the Greek 12. The ideal city will have harmonious cooperation of all the word aristokratia meaning rule of the best. citizens of the city. The philosopher-King must be intelligent, reliable and willing to lead a simple life. Education‘s curriculum 5. Oligarchy is the rule of the few. There are numerous kinds of is designed to teach learners THE GOOD. Just as visible objects oligarchy rule and Timocracy and Aristrocacy fall under it. One need to be studied in order to be seen, so must also the objects very attractive rule of government is Geniocracy which is of KNOWLDEGE kings need in order to properly lead. A would exclusively ruled by the geniuses. The criteria to govern include be philosopher – king must study arithmetic, geometry, music excellence in problem solving and creative intelligence. A and astronomy. geniocratic government usually has faster economic growth and better welfare. Germany and Canada are two famous 13. Would be guardians should be educated in military training, countries practising geniocracy. (Buddy Mantra) Technocracy, a gymnastics, martial arts and warfare and philosophy for five quite similarly defined form is a rule where the leaders are years. Math is taught for ten years and five years dialectic technical experts as practiced by Peoples Republic of China and training. Guardians may spend 15 years as young leaders, and of Russia. SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL 6. Tyranny comes from a Greek word tyrannos meaning an absolute ruler who is unrestrained by law Lesson 3: Great Political Theories I will present four political theories only for you to carry as you go through life. These are the ideas on The Social Contract, Romanticism and Idealism, Utilitarianism and Marxism. I hope these concepts will make you more equipped in facing deals and ordeals in the societies you circulate now and in years ahead. 1. The Social Contract The text argues that individual freedom should be reconciled with state authority, similar to the constitution of the land. It suggests that individuals put their power and person in common, under the direction of the 6. Another key theme is the Sublime and the Transcendence. general will and corporate capacity. Each member is considered Many had become fascinated with the ideal of sublime in an indivisible part of the whole, and the contract assumes physical, moral, intellectual, metaphysical, aesthetic, spiritual alienation of each associate's rights to the whole community. greatness. Such greatness is beyond measure and sublimity is This ensures that conditions are the same for all, and no one on the perception of the perceiver, mind and imagination. The has any interest in burdening others. If individuals retained briefest definition of sublimity is the presence of exquisiteand certain rights, there would be no common superior to decide admirable quality of beauty. Edmund Burke disputes such. He between them and the public, leading to a state of nature says there are sublime experiences that bring terror, like seeing where the association would become inoperative and tsunami, or walking in the edge of a cliff etc. tyrannical. 7. Absorbed by the personal genius of man, it was believed that 2. Lastly, each man, in giving himself to all, gives himself to this man got the inspiration from tutelary spirits teaching him nobody, and as there is no associate over whom he does not to work in certain set of acceptable and admirable behaviour. acquire the same rights as he yields others over himself, he This concept of some experiences of inspiration symbolizes the gains an equivalent for everything he loses and an increase of truth of external realm called the transcendence. force for the preservation of what he has. in simple words, The power of the imagination, genius, and the source of social contract is an agreement between the individual and the inspiration is real. society and or the government about upholding certain rights and abiding on certain laws in order to ensure smooth 8. Quotes of Romanticism by William Wordsworth- the man relationship dynamics of citizens in a city or a country. who introduced Romanticism. 3. Romanticism and Idealism theory is a philosophical a. Wisdom is near when we stoop than when we soar. movement during the Age of Enlightenment that emphasizes b. Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings; it emotional self-awareness as a necessary precondition to takes its origin from emotion, recollected in tranquillity. improving society and bettering the human condition. Some c. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. differentiated great political theories established as alternative d. With an eye made quiet by the power of harmony and the standards of operations in a society and polity and explained deep power of joy, we see into the life of things. the subtle meanings underlying the thought. e. Getting and spending, we lay waste of powers. f. Fill your paper with the breathing of your heart. 4. One key theme of the romantic period is revolution, g. The best portion of good man‘s life -his little, nameless, democracy, and republicanism. The essential political thinking unremembered acts of kindness and love of the period is liberty, equality and brotherhood as a reaction against aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of 9. Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that states that the best Enlightenment and of the scientific rationalization of nature. action is the one that maximizes utility. Jeremy Bentham, the While age of enlightenment or the age of reason dominates founder of utilitarianism, described utility as the sum of all intellectual discourse in Europe during 17th and 18th centuries, pleasure that results from an action, minus the suffering of an emerging thought had convinced many that the truest basis anyone involved in the action. Jeremy Bentham (1748— for political power was the consent of the governed. 1832) Jeremy Bentham was an English philosopher and political radical. He is primarily known today for his moral philosophy, 5. By the evolution of time, concepts of democracy and especially his principle of utilitarianism, which evaluates actions republicanism developed. Republic form of government is a based upon their consequences. state ruled by representatives of the citizen body. Citizens do not govern the state themselves but through representatives. 10.Utilitarianism is one of the best known and most influential Democracy is a form of government in which all eligible citizens moral theories. Utilitarians believe that the purpose of morality have an equal say in the decisions that affect their lives. is to make life better by increasing the amount of good things Democracy allows people to participate equally— either (such as pleasure and happiness) in the world and decreasing directly or through elected representatives—in the proposal, the amount of bad things (such as pain and unhappiness). The development, and creation of laws. Though they may not be goal of utilitarian ethics is to promote the greatest happiness identical, there are areas they both share the same such as for the greatest number. Jeremy Bentham, an English election, the current economic system and a particular social philosopher, was the founder of utilitarianism; John Stuart Mill structure. The Venn diagram below presents such condition. was its best-known defender. 11. Utilitarianism is based on the Greatest Happiness Principle, which states that actions are considered moral when they SUN - GE 33 SS REVIEWER FINAL promote utility and immoral when they promote the reverse. and submit to their own exploitation based on fictional divine Utility, itself, is, defined by Mill as happiness with the absence sanction, which Marx called “the opium of the masses.” The of pain. banking and financial system facilitates the consolidation of capitalist ownership of the means of production, ensnares the 12. There are three principles that served as the basic axioms workers with predatory debt, and engineers regular financial of utilitarianism. crises and recessions to ensure a sufficient supply of a. Pleasure or happiness Is the only thing that truly has intrinsic unemployed labour in order to undermine workers‘ bargaining value. power. (Investopedia) b. Actions are right insofar as they promote happiness, wrong insofar 18. Quotes of Karl Marx as they produce unhappiness. c. Everyone’s Happiness Counts Equally. a. Surround yourself with people who make you happy, people who make you laugh, who help you when you‘re in need, 13. Quotes on Utilitarianism people who genuinely care. They are the ones worth keeping in a. Stretching his hand up to reach the stars, too often, man your life. Everyone else is just passing through. forgets the flowers at his feet. b. The power of the lawyer is in the uncertainty of the law. b. The philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various c. It is the greatest good to the greatest number of people, ways. The point, however, is to change it. which is the measure of right and wrong. d. Secrecy, being an instrument of conspiracy, ought never to c. Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the be the system of a regular government. expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. e. All punishment is mischief; all punishment in itself is evil. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a f. Tyranny and anarchy are never far apart. heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the g. Nature has placed humankind under the governance of two opium of the people. sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what d. The less you eat, drink and read books; the less you go to the we shall do. theatre, the dance hall, the public house; the less you think, love, theorize, sing, paint, fence, etc., the more you save-the 14. Marxist social and political thought encompasses the greater becomes your treasure which neither moths nor dust Marxist class conflict and Marxian economics. Together with will devouryour capital. The less you are, the more you have; Friedrich Engels, he wrote The Communist Manifesto that lays the less you express your own life, the greater is your alienated the theory of class struggle and revolution. Marx presented the life-the greater is the store of your estranged being. flaws of capitalism in his book Das Kapital and argued that capitalism shall naturally vanish because of the chaotic nature e. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution. of free market and surplus of labour. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workingmen of all countries unite! 15. Marx portrayed capitalist society as composing of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, i.e. the ones controlling the f. I am nothing but I must be everything. means of production and the workers that transform raw commodities to valuable economic goods. The bourgeoisie‘s g. If anything is certain, it is that I myself am not a Marxist. power to control capital allows them to limit workers‘ ability to produce and obtain what they need to survive. Capitalism is all about commodities bought and sold, reducing the value of h. If money is the bond binding me to human life, binding labour as another kind of commodity for sale, like cars, wine, society to me, connecting me with nature and man, is not cloth and the like making labourers weak in the capitalist money the bond of all bonds? Can it not dissolve and bind all economic system. ties? Is it not, therefore, also the universal agent of separation? 16. One very influential concept introduced in Marxist political i. In proportion therefore, as the repulsiveness of the work and economic thought is the labour surplus theory. This increases, the wage decreases measures the difference between wages paid to the workers and the price of goods sold, which the workers previously UNIT 4 manufactured. For example, if a worker who is making wall clocks is given a daily wage of $300 and his productivity rate is 8 clocks per day, which clock is sold for $300 each and that the market absorbs all 8 clocks daily, then the value of labour of the worker is reduced to only one clock and the revenue from the remaining clocks sold belongs to the capitalists. The $2100 difference is called the surplus value of labour that is not enjoyed by the workers. 17. To maintain their position of power and privilege, the bourgeoisie employ social institutions as tools and weapons against the proletariat. The government enforces the will of the bourgeoisie by physical coercion to enforce the laws and private property rights to the means of production. The media and academics, or intelligentsia, produce propaganda to suppress awareness of class relations among the proletariat and rationalize the capitalist system. Organized religion provides a similar function to convince the proletariat to accept