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GENDER Marcelino|PSY1A|SY:2024-2025 socially constructed concept that refers to the norms, roles, and relationships CHAPTER 1 : BASIC GENDER CONCEPTS between men and women (WHO, 2011). SEX VS GENDER...

GENDER Marcelino|PSY1A|SY:2024-2025 socially constructed concept that refers to the norms, roles, and relationships CHAPTER 1 : BASIC GENDER CONCEPTS between men and women (WHO, 2011). SEX VS GENDER Gender as a Social Construct: SEX Gender is shaped by social, cultural, and psychological factors, influencing how refers to biological or physiological individuals develop masculinity or differences. femininity in their society. Refers to biological differences, including genitalia, chromosomes, Gender and Socio-cultural Roles: hormones, and other genetic factors Refers to masculine and feminine (Newman, 2018). qualities, behaviors, roles, and is a label (male or female) assigned at responsibilities shaped by society. birth based on genitalia and is reflected in the birth certificate. Take Note: Primary Characteristics: Gender plays a key role in shaping identity, socialization, institutional o Includes the reproductive system participation, and life opportunities. Secondary Characteristics: WHO Definition of Gender: Gender refers to socially constructed o Includes other traits like height and characteristics of men and women, such muscularity. (Heather & Keirns, 2015). as norms, roles, and relationships (WHO, 2011). Hormonal Differences: Refers to a person’s physical, mental, o Men and women have different levels of hormones; women have higher levels of SEXUAL ORIENTATION estrogen and progesterone, while men emotional, and sexual attraction to a have higher levels of testosterone. particular sex (male and/or female). Chromosomal Differences: Categories of Sexual Orientation: o Women have 46 chromosomes, Heterosexuality: including two X chromosomes; men o Attraction to the opposite sex. have 46 chromosomes, including one X and one Y chromosome. Homosexuality: o Attraction to the same sex. Take Note: Bisexuality: A person’s biological sex may not always match their gender identity. o Attraction to both sexes. Male and female categories do not change across generations or societies. Asexuality: Gender Equity o Lack of sexual attraction or desire for Refers to the fairness in the treatment of sexual contact. men and women, addressing their different needs and responsibilities. It Pansexuality: involves recognizing the power o Attraction to people regardless of sex, imbalances between the sexes and gender, or gender identity. addressing them (Reeves and Baden, 2000). Queer: Gender equity is about ensuring equality o An umbrella term for various sexual of opportunity, considering the realities orientations and gender identities of women’s and men’s lives (WHO, (Heather & Keirns, 2015). 2011). GENDER ROLES AND STEREOTYPES Take Note: Gender Roles Heterosexuals are referred to as "straight." Learned behaviors in a given society Homosexuals are referred to as "gay." that dictate what activities, tasks, and Inclusive Terms: The acronyms LGBT and responsibilities are perceived as LGBTQ stand for "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, appropriate for males and females Transgender" and "Queer" or (UNDP, 2007). "Questioning." Gender roles can be influenced by age, class, race, ethnicity, religion, SEXUALITY geography, education, and political Refers to the capacity for sexual feelings factors. They change over time due to and attraction (Lumen Learning). various societal developments. It’s about sexual feelings, thoughts, attractions, and behaviors towards Gender Stereotypes others. Overgeneralized beliefs or expectations Sexuality is not solely about sexual acts about what is considered normal or but includes finding others physically, appropriate behavior for individuals sexually, or emotionally attractive. based on their biological sex (Pam, GENDER EQUALITY AND EQUITY 2013). Gender Equality Means that women have the same GENDER AWARENESS, IDENTITY, opportunities as men, including SENSITIVITY AND GENDER-BLIND participation in public life (National Gender Policy, 2014). Gender Awareness: Absence of Discrimination: No discrimination based on sex in terms of Understanding that social behaviors of opportunities or access to resources men and women are learned and affect (Gender Awareness and Development their ability to access and control Manual, UNDP, 2007). resources. Gender Identity: A person's internal sense of being a man, woman, both, or neither, which may or may not align with their biological sex. Transgender and Nonconforming Gender: Individuals whose gender identity or expression differs from their biological sex at birth. Gender Expression: How a person expresses their gender through appearance, behaviors, speech, and activities. Gender Sensitivity: The ability to recognize gender differences, issues, and inequalities, and incorporate these into strategies and actions. Gender-Blindness: The failure to acknowledge that gender is a crucial factor in determining social outcomes in programs, policies, and activities. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT Involves giving women full participation in economic and decision-making processes to improve their quality of life and contribute to sustainable development. Women must develop self-confidence, gain exposure, and achieve independence to be empowered.  people to behave based on their biological sex. Marcelino|PSY1A|SY:2024-2025 Sex vs. Gender: Sex is biological and determined at CHAPTER 2: SOCIAL CONSTRUCT AND birth. SEXUAL ORIENTATION Gender is a social concept, shaped by SOCIAL CONSTRUCT societal and cultural expectations for These are ideas or concepts that exist how males and females should think because people agree on their meaning, and act. not because they have an inherent or Femininity and Masculinity: These are objective reality. They are products of social constructs defining cultural human interaction and shared expectations for women and men: understanding (e.g., countries, money). o Femininity: Expected traits for women include being gentle, GENDER AS A SOCIAL CONSTRUCT nurturing, sensitive, delicate, Gender is often viewed as a social emotional, and dependent. construct, meaning that society creates o Masculinity: Though not and defines what it means to be "male" explicitly described in the or "female" based on cultural norms passage, masculinity typically and expectations, rather than solely on refers to traits like strength, biological differences. independence, assertiveness, Doing Gender: Performing gender is and rationality expected from more than conforming to or challenging men. norms—it’s about embodying, o Steven E. Barkan's View: He believing in, and engaging with societal explains that femininity is often expectations. By doing this, people characterized by positive and reinforce the idea that there are only negative traits, such as being two distinct categories of gender (male soft, graceful, and pretty, and female). reinforcing a certain image of Social Reinforcement:When individuals what it means to be feminine. "do" gender, they uphold the societal GENDER PREFERENCES belief that men and women are Lesbian inherently different. This reinforces behaviors and norms that make them A female who experiences romantic or appear fundamentally distinct from sexual attraction to other females. each other. Gender Presentation: People perform Gay gender to be perceived in specific ways Primarily refers to males who are (e.g., male, female), and society judges homosexual but can also apply to them based on how well they "measure lesbians. up" to these expectations. Interaction-Based: Gender is developed Bisexual and maintained through social Attracted to both males and females, or interaction. It is not an inherent quality to people of any sex or gender identity. but is shaped by how society expects Transgender (Trans) Agender A term for people whose gender identity People who identify as having no gender differs from the sex they were assigned or being without any gender identity. at birth. Gender Queer Transsexual A broad term for gender identities that Individuals who experience a gender are not exclusively masculine or identity that is inconsistent with the sex feminine, outside the gender binary. they were assigned at birth. Bigender Two-Spirited Moving between feminine and A term used by some Indigenous North masculine identities, or identifying as Americans to describe people who two genders simultaneously. embody both male and female spirits. Gender Variant Queer Individuals whose gender An umbrella term for sexual and gender expression or behavior does not minorities not heterosexual or conform to traditional gender cisgender. Once used pejoratively, it has norms. been reclaimed by the LGBTQ+ community. Pangender Questioning People who identify as all genders, with varied presentation and pronoun use. Refers to individuals exploring their gender identity, sexual orientation, or both, who may not yet be certain of their labels. Intersex People whose sex characteristics (chromosomes, genitals, etc.) do not fit typical definitions of male or female. Asexual A lack of sexual attraction to anyone or low interest in sexual activity. Pansexual Sexual attraction to people regardless of their gender or sex, often described as gender-blind.  Traditional Gender Roles: Marcelino|PSY1A|SY:2024-2025 o Functionalist theory reflects a conservative view of the family where CHAPTER 3: THEORIES ON GENDER men and women have distinct roles. Men are seen as breadwinners SOME MAJOR SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES (instrumental role), and women are FOR GENDER responsible for nurturing and 1.Functionalist Theory maintaining the household (expressive This sociological theory posits that role). society is a system of interconnected Sociologists Behind the Theory: parts that work together to maintain balance and social equilibrium. Each o Prominent figures such as Emile part of society, including gender roles, Durkheim, Herbert Spencer, Talcott serves a function that contributes to the Parsons, and Robert Merton contributed overall stability of society. to this theory, which argues that According to functionalist theory, the different societal roles are necessary for division of labor between men and a well-functioning society. women arises from cultural and social perspectives passed down through Take Note: generations. These roles are viewed as Highlights the gender-based limitations essential for the smooth functioning of and inequalities that arise from these modern society. predefined roles. While functionalist theory justifies Functionalist theory emphasizes the traditional gender roles, it has also been traditional division of labor between men criticized for perpetuating gender and women as a necessary component inequality. The mentality that men for societal balance. should work and provide while women stay home and take care of the family 2. Symbolic Interactionalist Theory often limits women’s opportunities and creates a dilemma between career and focuses on how individuals interact with family life. one another and how these interactions shape social behavior, including Instrumental vs. Expressive Roles: concepts of gender. o Instrumental Role: Typically assigned This theory explains human behavior as to men, this role involves providing a result of interactions with others. economic support and discipline within Through these interactions, people the family. It is associated with assign meaning to symbols, and their responsibility, work, and leadership. behavior is influenced by these shared o Expressive Role: Typically assigned to meanings. women, this role focuses on emotional Every society is shaped by social support, nurturing, managing conflict, interactions, and understanding the and taking care of the well-being of meaning behind these interactions is family members. key to understanding human behavior.  Symbols are central to social Conflict theory argues that society is interaction. The meaning of a symbol is always in conflict because individuals created socially and is not fixed. These and groups compete for limited meanings can evolve over time, as resources such as wealth, power, and demonstrated by the example of the social status. word "gay," which has shifted from Key figures include Karl Marx, Max meaning "cheerful" to primarily Weber, and Ralph Dahrendorf. Marx, in denoting homosexuality. particular, viewed society as People’s identities are shaped through fragmented into groups competing for their interactions with social groups. resources. According to him, those in This includes adopting traits or power use their influence to maintain behaviors from others whom they control over political, economic, and admire or interact with. social resources. Gender, according to West and Conflict theory views society as a Zimmerman, is a result of social struggle for dominance among different interactions and is not a static social groups. In the context of gender, characteristic. Instead, it is produced men are seen as the dominant group and and reproduced through daily women as the subordinate group. interactions. This means that gender Gender inequality arises because men roles and identities are changeable and create the rules and opportunities for fluid because they depend on ongoing success, which often favor them over social interactions. women. People tend to interact with others who share similar characteristics or Take Note: identities, as reflected in the phrase Conflict Theory views society as an “Birds of the same feathers flock arena of ongoing power struggles, with together.” men historically holding dominance over women, which creates and sustains Take Note: gender inequality. The competition for resources like Symbolic Interactionism explains how political power, economic opportunities, social behavior is shaped through the and social influence leads to a society meanings people assign to symbols and where those in power continue to their interactions with others. oppress the less powerful, reinforcing It emphasizes that gender is not a fixed social and gender divides. biological trait but a social construct that can be transformed through ongoing interactions. 4. Feminist Theory The theory aims to analyze how gender 3. Conflict Theory inequality manifests in various spheres explains society through the lens of such as social structure, sexual power struggles and competition over orientation, race, economic status, and scarce resources. nationality. Key figures in feminist theory include Wilhelmina Drucker, Voltairine de  Cleyre, Margaret Sanger, Florence emphasizing the significance of Nightingale, Simone de Beauvoir, individuals in relation to their roles Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, within society. and Susan B. Anthony. These women The family is considered the most contributed significantly to advancing integral component of society. It plays a women’s rights, from suffrage to crucial role in defining individual reproductive health and sexual freedom. functions and contributing to societal Patriarchy—a social system where men stability. hold power and dominate roles in Structural Functionalism views gender political leadership, moral authority, roles as essential for societal stability. social privilege, and control of For example, it suggests that traditional property—leads to the marginalization gender roles—where men are the of women. primary wage earners and women Feminism seeks to amplify women’s handle domestic responsibilities—are voices and challenge the structures that functional and maintain order. contribute to their marginalization. The theory posits that gender roles were established long before the industrial Take Note: era, with men typically handling responsibilities outside the home and Feminist Theory works towards women managing domestic tasks due to dismantling the societal structures that physical constraints related to perpetuate gender inequality, advocating for women’s rights, and promoting pregnancy and nursing. equality in various spheres of life. Modern critical sociologists argue that as women enter the workforce, they can shift power dynamics within the family, 5. Structural Functionalism Theory potentially leading to more egalitarian arrangements, though women may still provides a framework for bear a significant domestic burden. understanding how various parts of society contribute to its stability and Take Note: function. views society as a system composed of Structural Functionalism Theory various institutions and structures that explains that society functions work together to maintain equilibrium. harmoniously through the These institutions include government, interdependence of its various institutions. education, religion, family, and media. It views gender roles as integral to Key figures in this theory include Émile societal stability, although this Durkheim, A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, perspective may reinforce traditional Herbert Spencer, Robert K. Merton, and gender inequalities. Bronislaw Malinowski. Historical and contemporary shifts in A. R. Radcliffe-Brown argued that social gender roles challenge and sometimes phenomena should be studied at the adjust these traditional structures, social level, as people are temporary reflecting changes in societal values and occupants of social roles. He viewed the functions. social world as a distinct level of reality, 6. Psychodynamic Theory siblings arrive, potentially leading to an inferiority complex. Sigmund Freud: o Middle Children: Often feel less Psychoanalytic Theory: Freud's theory pampered, but their competitive emphasizes the role of early childhood nature can drive them to achieve experiences and unconscious processes more. in shaping personality. o Youngest Children: May feel less Id, Ego, and Superego: powerful and overly pampered, o Id:The pleasure-seeking part of which can lead to issues with personality, driven by basic inferiority. needs and desires. Erik Erikson: o Ego: Develops to mediate between the Id and reality, Psychosocial Development Stages: aiming for realistic and socially Erikson’s theory focuses on the acceptable ways to satisfy development of identity through eight desires. stages, each involving a psychosocial o Superego: Represents conflict: internalized moral standards and Infancy (0-1 year): Trust vs. Mistrust. ideals from parents and society, Developing trust in caregivers is guiding us on what is right or essential for future confidence. wrong. Early Childhood (1-3 years): Autonomy Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Freud vs. Shame and Doubt. Gaining a sense of believed gender identity develops independence and self-control. during this stage. Boys experience the Preschool (3-6 years): Initiative vs. Oedipus complex, identifying with their Guilt. Learning to assert oneself and fathers and adopting male gender roles. plan activities; avoiding excessive guilt. Girls experience the Electra complex, School Age (6-12 years): Industry vs. identifying with their mothers and Inferiority. Developing competence and adopting female gender roles. pride through achievements and Impact of Early Relationships: Freud learning. emphasized that gender identity is Adolescence (12-18 years): Identity vs. heavily influenced by early interactions Role Confusion. Forming a stable with parents and primary caregivers. identity and sense of self. Young Adulthood (18-40 years): Alfred Adler: Intimacy vs. Isolation. Building Inferiority Complex: Adler proposed meaningful relationships and that individuals are born with a sense of commitments. inferiority, driving them to strive for Middle Adulthood (40-65 years): superiority. This feeling of inferiority is Generativity vs. Stagnation. a crucial motivational force. Contributing to society and supporting Birth Order: the next generation. o Firstborns: May develop a sense Late Adulthood (65+ years): Integrity of inferiority when younger vs. Despair. Reflecting on one’s life and feeling a sense of fulfillment or regret.  depicts gender-stereotyped behaviors Take Note: can reinforce traditional gender roles. Psychodynamic Theory emphasizes the influence of early childhood experiences Take Note: and unconscious processes on personality and behavior. Social Learning Theory provides insight Freud focused on the roles of the Id, Ego, into how children learn gender roles and Superego in gender identity through observation, imitation, and the development and the importance of reinforcement of behaviors. early relationships. Albert Bandura’s work emphasizes the Adler highlighted the role of inferiority impact of environmental factors and role and birth order in personality modeling on behavior development. development. By observing the behaviors of others and Erikson’s psychosocial stages outlined the consequences they face, children the development of identity through develop an understanding of what is various life stages. considered appropriate for their gender and adjust their behaviors accordingly. 7. Social Learning Theory 8. Cognitive-Developmental Theory focuses on how individuals learn behaviors through interactions with Explains how intelligence and their environment, emphasizing the understanding develop through a series role of observational learning and of stages and interactions with the reinforcement. environment. Key Proponent: Albert Bandura: Social Lawrence Kohlberg: Learning Theory: Bandura, a Canadian- American psychologist, is known for his Gender Development Stages: Kohlberg's contributions to social learning theory. theory outlines stages of gender He emphasized the importance of understanding, including gender observational learning, imitation, and identity (around age 2-3), gender modeling in behavior development. stability (around age 4-5), and gender Gender Role Acquisition: Social constancy (around age 6-7). His work learning theory explains that children emphasizes that children's learn gender roles by observing and understanding of gender evolves with imitating behaviors associated with cognitive development. their gender. For instance, a boy might Jean Piaget: learn that playing with trucks is a “male” activity and thus choose to Cognitive Development: Piaget's theory engage in this behavior to align with describes stages of cognitive societal expectations. development (sensorimotor, Impact of Media and Family: Media preoperational, concrete operational, portrayals and family dynamics play a and formal operational stages) that significant role in shaping gender roles. influence how children think and learn For example, exposure to media that about gender roles. Piaget’s work laid the foundation for understanding how  cognitive processes impact gender human behavior, including gender understanding. roles, have evolutionary roots. Lev Vygotsky: David Geary: Sociocultural Theory: Vygotsky’s Sex Differences: Geary’s research theory focuses on the social aspects of explores how evolutionary processes cognitive development. He introduced have influenced cognitive and concepts such as the zone of proximal behavioral differences between sexes. development and scaffolding, which He examines how these differences are highlight how children’s cognitive reflected in educational and abilities are supported and enhanced occupational outcomes. through social interactions and J. Kuhn: guidance. Critiques of Equality: Kuhn has argued Take Note: that evolutionary theory suggests innate differences in competitiveness Cognitive-Developmental Theory and risk-taking between men and provides insight into how children women, which may affect career understand and internalize gender roles through various stages of cognitive advancement and the effectiveness of development. equal opportunity policies. This theory highlights that cognitive maturation and social interaction play Take Note: crucial roles in shaping gender identity and roles. Evolutionary Theory suggests that gender roles are a product of our evolutionary history and are encoded in our genes. 9.Evolutionary Theory This perspective has been criticized for posits that many aspects of human potentially reinforcing stereotypes and behavior, including gender roles, are undermining efforts toward gender rooted in our evolutionary past and are equality by implying that these roles are predetermined and unchangeable. encoded in our genes. This theory suggests that gender roles are adaptive traits that have developed to maximize 10. Women in Development (WID) survival and reproductive success over time. theory emerged in the 1970s to David Buss: address the unequal impact of economic development on men and Evolutionary Psychology: Buss’s women. research focuses on how evolutionary Advocates of WID argued that pressures have shaped human mating development efforts often strategies, mate preferences, and overlooked women's roles, gender differences in behavior. His work supports the idea that many aspects of marginalizing their contributions and perpetuating gender inequality.  The theory emphasized the need to being male or female, especially break traditional gender regarding access to resources. expectations and ensure equal Social Relations Analysis: Exposes hierarchical power relations in social opportunities for women, institutions, demonstrating how these particularly in education and contribute to the discrimination of employment. women. Economist Ester Boserup was a key proponent of WID, highlighting Take Note: women's critical role in development processes. The GAD approach highlights the socially constructed differences between men and women, unlike previous approaches Take Note: that focused mainly on women. 'Women in Development' (WID) was GAD addresses the issue of women's coined by a network of female subordination and exclusion from development professionals in international development discussions. Washington in the early 1970s. WID challenged the idea that economic development affects men and women equally, highlighting the differences in their experiences. 11. Gender and Development (GAD) Theory GAD aims to promote gender equality by challenging traditional gender roles, such as the expectation that women manage the household and raise children while men work as breadwinners. GAD was influenced by scholars such as Oakley (1972), Rubin (1975), Lourdes Benería, and Amartya Sen (1981), who explored the social and economic dynamics, including the effects of colonialism on gender inequality. Key figures in GAD include Caroline Moser, who developed the Galing Framework, and Caren Levy from the University of London. Gender Roles: Focuses on the social construction of identities within the household and the expectations tied to  Beliefs Marcelino|PSY1A|SY:2024-2025 The convictions or acceptance that certain ideas are true or real, often CHAPTER 4: SOCIALIZATION AND GENDER shaped by socialization experiences. UNDERSTANDING SOCIALIZATION Actions Socialization The behaviors or deeds that individuals The process by which individuals learn perform in response to their social to adjust to a group and behave in a environment. manner approved by that group. Roles Values The expected patterns of behavior and The beliefs or ideals that individuals responsibilities associated with a acquire through socialization, which particular position within a society. influence their behavior and decision- Society's influence making. The effect that societal norms and Habits: expectations have on individual The established practices or routines behaviors and attitudes. that individuals develop through social Social norms interaction and socialization. The accepted standards and rules that Attitudes of a society govern the behavior of members within The collective mindset or emotional a society. responses that are shaped by the Gender consciousness cultural and social environment of a particular society. Awareness of the social and cultural roles associated with being male or Social interaction female, often developed through The process through which individuals socialization. engage with one another, which is Gender socialization crucial for learning social norms and behaviors. The process by which individuals learn and internalize the behaviors, Human learning expectations, and norms associated The lifelong process through which with their gender. individuals acquire knowledge, skills, Parental influence and social behaviors. The effect that parents have on the Behaviors socialization of their children, The actions or reactions of individuals, including how they interact with and often influenced by social norms and raise their daughters and sons values. differently.  AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATIONS FOR Differential Treatment: Teachers and GENDER IDENTITY students treat male and female students 1. The Family differently, reinforcing gender norms. Introduction to Gender Roles: Family is Normative Gender Expectations: the first agent of socialization where Students apply and enforce gender individuals learn gender roles and expectations among peers, leading to identity. Parents introduce their disapproval for those who do not children to gender differences. conform. Gendered Descriptions: Parents often Consequences of Non-Conformity: describe their sons as strong and active, Students who express interests outside while their daughters are described as traditional gender roles, like a girl pretty and delicate. wanting to learn martial arts, may be labeled negatively. Play and Interaction: Parents engage in different types of play with sons and Inclusive Education: The emergence of daughters, reinforcing gender-specific inclusive schools that accept both activities and expectations. genders in traditionally gendered programs helps reduce the gap between Autonomy and Restrictions: As children boys and girls. grow into young adults, parents tend to 4. Church give sons more freedom while imposing more restrictions on daughters. Religious Beliefs and Gender: Religion 2. Peers influences individual beliefs about gender roles, often reflecting Peer Influence: Peers play a significant patriarchal structures. role in encouraging gender socialization and maintaining group norms. Gendered Participation: More women than men serve in certain roles within Social Belonging: For boys, religious communities, but leadership belongingness in a group is important, positions are often held by men. leading to activities that reinforce traditional masculinity, such as sports. Separation in Worship: Some religious practices separate men and women Exclusivity: Boys often find it easy to during worship, reinforcing traditional form exclusive friendships, while girls gender roles. may prefer more intimate gatherings at home. Emergence of Feminism: The feminist movement within religious Challenges for Non-Conformity: communities is challenging patriarchal Individuals who do not conform to norms and advocating for women's expected gender roles may face roles in church leadership. rejection or ostracism within their peer groups. 5. Media 3. School Gender Representation: Media portrayals often reinforce traditional gender roles, with men depicted in  leadership and adventurous roles, while women are shown in supportive or domestic roles. Content in Publications: Men's magazines focus on sports and business success, while women's magazines cover beauty, parenting, and household management. Advertising Influence: Commercials and advertisements further promote gender norms by targeting specific products and roles to men and women. Impact on Perception: Media influences societal perceptions of gender roles, affecting how individuals understand their own identities.  Moral Virtue vs. Happiness Marcelino|PSY1A|SY:2024-2025 Moral virtue alone is insufficient for a fulfilling life; true happiness is achieved CHAPTER 5: GENDER, POLITICS AND through active, rational engagement. VIOLENNCE Virtuous Leadership UNDERSTANDING POLITICS Political leaders must demonstrate Politics virtuous character (Greek: "ethikë Politics is not limited by gender; it arete") to achieve happiness and fulfill encompasses both men and women. their roles. Activities related to the governance of a Gender and Political Leadership country. Ways in which people in groups make Inclusivity in Leadership: Aristotle did decisions. not restrict the call for virtuous living to The art of governance requiring specific men; both men and women aspiring to skills and training. political leadership must adhere to Origin: The word "Politics" derives ethical standards. from the Greek term Politikos, which Feminist Perspectives relates to citizens (polites) and cities (polis). Male Domination: Research by Celis, Politics is fundamentally about Kantola, Waylen, and Weldon (2012) managing the affairs of cities. critiques patterns of male domination in politics, asserting they are neither Characteristics of Good Governance natural nor desirable. Key Traits: Feminist Theory Integrity Kent Jennings (1983) highlights that Transparency women face discrimination in politics Accountability and society, but these gender Caring leadership differences do not diminish their Expectations: Political leaders, capabilities for equality in political regardless of gender, are expected to engagement. embody these traits. RULE OF MEN IN HISTORY Etymology of Politics Male Dominance in Ancient Civilizations Affairs of Cities: Politics is fundamentally about managing the Greek and Roman Empires: affairs of cities. o Authority: Men held the ultimate Aristotle's Perspective power, epitomized by emperors. Historical Context: Aristotle, a 4th- o Role of Emperors: Emperors century BCE Greek philosopher, was one were the highest authority and of the first to use the term "Politics." accountable for all empire activities.  o Restrictions on Women: Wives of ▪ The Archbishop emperors were not allowed to represented the Catholic intervene in governance. Church's power. 2. Male Philosophers and Educators 5. Evolution of Political Leadership in the Philippines Dominance in Philosophy: Modern Political Landscape: o Historically, philosophers were predominantly men known for o Presidency of Male Leaders: their wisdom. From Emilio Aguinaldo to Rodrigo Duterte, men o Notable Figures: Socrates, Plato, predominantly held the Aristotle, Origen, Augustine, and presidency. Aquinas were influential male philosophers, shaping thoughts o Breaking the Mold: in various disciplines such as ▪ Cory Aquino became the rhetoric, arts, and sciences. first female president in o Their contributions established 1986 through a them as respected figures in revolutionary history. government, marking a shift in power dynamics. 3. Leadership in Pre-Colonial Philippines ▪ Gloria Macapagal Arroyo Indigenous Leadership: took over the presidency in o Key Figures: Sultan, Rajah, and 2006 following the Datu were male leaders with imprisonment and significant authority in their removal of her communities. predecessor. o Governance: They held power REIGN OF WOMEN PRESIDENT IN THE and were respected by their PHILIPPINES constituents. 1. Gender Dynamics in Philippine Politics 4. Spanish Colonization Male Dominance: Philippine politics is Political Structure: predominantly male-dominated, especially by individuals from wealthy o During the Spanish colonization families. (300 years), men dominated the highest political positions. Observation: Higher positions in public service are often held by men from o Key Figures: affluent backgrounds. ▪ Governador y Capitan 2. President Corazon Cojuangco Aquino General oversaw civil governance. Transformation of Women’s Roles: The political landscape for women began to shift during Aquino's presidency,  challenging traditional views of Assumption of Power: Filipinas. o Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo Historic Significance: became president after Joseph Estrada was ousted from office in o First Filipina president and the 2001 during another popular first female leader in Asia. uprising following an o Marked a significant change in impeachment trial. the perception of women as Background: active nation builders. o Arroyo is the daughter of former Rise to Power: president Diosdado Macapagal, o Corazon Aquino became suggesting a familial inclination politically active after the toward public service. assassination of her husband, Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino Jr., at GENDER ROLES IN POLITICAL Manila International Airport. PARTICIPATION 1. Traditional Patriarchy in Filipino Families o She emerged as the presidential candidate for the Laban coalition Patriarchal Structure: Historically, party against the incumbent Filipino families have been patriarchal, president, Ferdinand E. Marcos. with the father or eldest male making most decisions. Election and Uprising: Diminishing Patriarchy: The traditional o The snap election in 1985 view of the patriarchal family is resulted in Marcos being declared gradually changing due to modern the winner, despite widespread influences and the rise of women’s allegations of election fraud. empowerment. o Civil unrest followed, leading to a 2. Shifting Roles and Responsibilities massive gathering of Filipinos in EDSA, culminating in a peaceful Shared Responsibilities: The role of the revolution (EDSA People Power breadwinner is no longer solely the Revolution) that ousted the father's responsibility; it has become a Marcos regime. shared duty among all earning family members. Presidency: Consultative Decision-Making: o Aquino took her oath of office and Decision-making power is evolving began her term, forming a from being solely the father's to a more cabinet that included former consultative process involving all family high-ranking officials from the members. Marcos administration, such as Fidel Ramos and Juan Ponce 3. Women in Political Participation Enrile. Feminine Influence in Politics: The 3. Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo political landscape in the Philippines is  increasingly incorporating women, development championed in Rawls' from local to national levels. theory. Political Rights Recognition: The 7. Universal Human Rights Declaration (1948) participation of women in political Human Rights Entitlements: Stipulates decision-making was acknowledged as that everyone is entitled to rights a political right with the adoption of the without discrimination based on sex or Universal Declaration of Human Rights other factors. (UDHR) in 1948, which mandates equal political rights regardless of sex. Importance of Gender Equality: 4. Legal Framework Supporting Gender o Emphasizes the need for equal Equality rights in work, pay, and education as fundamental to UDHR and ICCPR: societal development. o UDHR Articles 2 and 21: Stipulate o Reinforces the idea that gender equal enjoyment of political equality is essential for social rights without discrimination. justice and sustainable o ICCPR (1966): Reaffirms the development. principle of non-discrimination in public and political life. RELATIONSHIP OF GENDER AND POLITICS 5. Case Study: Muntinlupa City 1. Importance of Gender in Governance Research Findings (Ecoben & Palparan, Inclusive Participation: Gender plays a 2017): crucial role in allowing individuals to o Greater participation of women participate in governance, promoting in policy-making at the barangay active nation-building. level. Diversity in Leadership: Leadership and o Acknowledgment of women's power are not exclusive to men; women roles in decision-making and individuals of other gender processes within public service. identities are equally entitled to engage in political activities. Gender Sensitivity in Leadership: Public service leaders in Muntinlupa 2. Political Rights of Citizens City are gender-sensitive, treating Equal Rights for All: Every recognized women as equal partners in governance. bona fide citizen has the right to 6. Theoretical Framework exercise their political rights, regardless of gender. John Rawls' Theory: Emphasizes equal basic rights and the cooperation of free Empowerment through Participation: citizens within an egalitarian economic Ensuring everyone can participate system. enhances the democratic process and empowers marginalized groups. Muntinlupa City as a Model: Reflects the principles of gender equality and 3. Collective Responsibility for Society  Shared Duty: Establishing a humane World Health Organization (WHO): society is the responsibility of all Describes violence as the intentional citizens, transcending gender lines. use of physical force that can result in injury, death, or psychological harm. Eliminating Marginalization: Efforts to build a better society must include CAUSES OF VIOLENCE everyone, with no one marginalized Emotional Motivations: based on gender preference. o Violence as a means to express 4. Promoting Good Governance feelings like anger, frustration, Gender Equality in Leadership: Good or sadness. governance is rooted in promoting o Use of violence for manipulation equal opportunities for all genders. or retaliation. Gender Sensitivity in Leadership: Learned Behavior: Effective leadership must be gender- sensitive and responsive to the needs of o Exposure to violence as a child diverse groups. can normalize aggressive behavior. 5. Sustainable Development through Gendered Politics o Overlooking healthier alternatives to express emotions. Empowering All Genders: Gendered politics fosters an environment where Contributing Factors: everyone can realize their potential. 1. Influence of peers Pathway to Sustainability: Inclusive 2. Lack of attention or respect governance contributes to sustainable development, benefiting society as a 3. Low self-worth whole. 4. Experience of abuse or neglect UNDERSTANDING VIOLENCE 5. Witnessing violence in the home, VIOLENCE community, or media Universal Challenge: Violence is a 6. Access to weapons widespread issue affecting all countries and communities. INDICATORS OF VIOLENCE Forms of Violence: It can occur in Signs of Potential Violence: various settings: streets, homes, workplaces, and even within oneself. o Pointing a weapon Impact on Relationships: Violence o Pleasure in hurting animals destroys relationships and undermines the happiness and health that everyone o Voicing threats or plans to harm deserves. others Encyclopedia of Psychology: Defines o Risk-taking behavior violence as an extreme form of aggression, including assault, rape, or o Substance abuse murder. o Destruction of property  o Loss of control over emotions Violence maintains existing structural inequalities, affecting individuals of all GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE genders, with a majority of victims Violence against women based on their being women and girls. subordinate status in society, including Historical Example: acts or threats by men or male- dominated institutions to inflict The issue of "comfort women" during physical, sexual, or psychological World War II, where many women were harm. forced into sexual slavery by the Japanese military. Root Causes: Statistics: Deeply rooted in gender inequality. According to the National Demographic A prominent human rights violation in and Health Survey (2017), one in 20 contemporary societies. women and girls aged 15-49 have Consequences of Gender-Based Violence: experienced sexual violence in their lifetime. Permanent disabilities TYPES OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Unwanted pregnancies Lingering psychological trauma Domestic Violence: Sexually transmitted infections, A pattern of abusive behavior in any including HIV relationship used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over Death another intimate partner. Ministry of Women's Affairs Definition: Five Types of Abuse: Gender-based violence is any act likely Physical Abuse: to result in physical, sexual, psychological, or economic harm based o Examples: Hitting, slapping, shoving, on a person’s gender, primarily grabbing, pinching, biting, hair pulling, affecting women and girls. etc. o Includes denying medical care or Types of Gender-Based Violence: forcing alcohol and/or drug use. Rape and sexual assault Sexual Abuse: Intimate partner violence (in o Definition: Coercing or attempting to heterosexual and same-sex coerce any sexual contact or behavior partnerships) without consent. Sexual harassment o Examples: Marital rape, attacks on sexual parts of the body, forcing sex Stalking after physical violence, treating one in a sexually demeaning manner. Prostitution and sex trafficking Reflection of Structural Gender Inequalities: Emotional Abuse: ▪ Family Violence: Includes child maltreatment, o Definition: Undermining an individual's intimate partner violence, sense of self-worth and/or self-esteem. and elder abuse. o Examples: Constant criticism, diminishing one's abilities, name- ▪ Community Violence: calling, damaging relationships with Involves violence between children. strangers, violence related Economic Abuse: to property crimes, and violence occurring in o Definition: Making or attempting to workplaces or other make an individual financially institutions. dependent. o Examples: Maintaining control over 3. Collective Violence: financial resources, withholding access to money, forbidding attendance at o Definition: Violence committed school or employment. by larger groups of individuals. o Subdivisions: Psychological Abuse: ▪ Social Violence: Violence o Definition: Causing fear through stemming from social intimidation and threats. issues. o Examples: Threatening physical harm to self, partner, children, or partner's ▪ Political Violence: family; destruction of pets and Violence motivated by property; forced isolation from family, political motives or friends, school, or work. agendas. THREE SUB-TYPES ACCORDING TO THE ▪ Economic Violence: VICTIM-PERPETRATOR RELATIONSHIP Violence driven by 1. Self-Directed Violence: economic factors or o Definition: Violence in which the disparities. perpetrator is the individual Statistics themselves. Global Context: o Subdivisions: o Estimated that 35% of women ▪ Self-Abuse: Harm worldwide have experienced inflicted on oneself. physical and/or sexual intimate ▪ Suicide: The act of partner violence or sexual intentionally causing violence by a non-partner at one's own death. some point in their lives. 2. Interpersonal Violence: o National studies indicate that up to 70% of women have o Definition: Violence occurring experienced physical and/or between individuals. sexual violence from an intimate o Subdivisions: partner in their lifetime.  o Women who have experienced o Education: Improving such violence report higher rates educational opportunities for of depression, abortion, and women to gain skills. acquiring HIV compared to those o Job Opportunities: Creating job who have not. programs specifically for CHALLENGE OF GENDER TO END women. VIOLENCE Impact of Economic Empowerment Prevalence of Gender Violence Increasing women’s financial capacity Gender violence primarily occurs in can minimize domestic violence and domestic settings and workplaces. marital misunderstandings rooted in Victims are often mothers and women. financial stress. Barriers to Leaving Abusive Situations Ultimately, empowering women economically can lead to a significant Fear of Financial Dependency: reduction in gender-based violence. o Many women endure maltreatment due to the fear of being unable to support themselves and their children without financial assistance from their husbands or partners. o The anxiety of not being able to provide for their children often leads women to tolerate abuse. Empowerment as a Solution Economic Independence: o Providing women with opportunities to earn a living can reduce their dependence on abusive partners. o Economic empowerment allows women to seek safety for themselves and their children. Role of Gender Advocates Advocates must propose programs that enhance women’s financial independence. Initiatives should focus on:  o Improved Banking: Enhanced financial transactions. Marcelino|PSY1A|SY:2024-2025 o Better Learning Techniques: CHAPTER 6: GENDER AND TECHNOLOGY Innovative educational methods. DEFINING TECHNOLOGY o Medical and Surgical Advances: The sum of techniques, skills, methods, Technological improvements in and processes used for production or healthcare. achieving objectives. o Scientific Research: Progress in Machinery and equipment developed various scientific fields. from scientific knowledge to enhance productivity and quality of life. 3. Dual Impact of Technology Derived from the Greek words "techne" o Positive effects: Increased food (art, craft, skill) and "logos" production (agricultural (knowledge, study). technology), healthier lives Merriam-Webster Definition: (medical technology), efficient Application of knowledge for practical delivery and mobility human aims and manipulating the (transportation technology), and environment. global communication (internet BENEFITS OF TECHNOLOGY and telephones). 1. Comfort and Ease of Life o Negative effects: Inequality in access to technological o Technology's role in making life advancements, particularly more comfortable and work affecting marginalized easier. populations (the poor, women, 2. Advantages of Technology and children). o Ease of Access to Information: COMMON TYPES OF TECHNOLOGY The World Wide Web as a global Types of Technology social village. 1. Information Technology o Time-Saving: Increased efficiency in tasks. o Definition and significance in managing and processing o Ease of Mobility: Improved information. transportation and movement. 2. Network Technology o Better Communication: Enhanced means of staying o Explanation of how networks link connected. devices to share data effectively. o Cost Efficiency: Reduction in 3. Sensors costs for products and services. o Description of sensors and their o Innovation: Advancements role in collecting data from the across various fields. environment. 4. Internet of Things (IoT) GREATEST TECHNOLOGICAL INVENTIONS o Overview of IoT and how List of Greatest Technological Inventions interconnected devices 1. Microwave Oven communicate and share information. o Description of how it revolutionized food preparation 5. Robotics and convenience in the kitchen. o Definition of robotics and its 2. Digital Music applications. o Overview of the transition from o Description of robots as analog to digital music and its machines that can replicate benefits, including improved human actions. sound quality and reduced waste. o Examples of different types of 3. Personal Computer (PC) robots, including humanoid robots and microscopic robots. o Brief history of the evolution of computers and the impact of the 6. Mechanical Technology personal computer on society. o Explanation of mechanical 4. Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and its applications in various fields. o Explanation of GPS technology and its role in navigation and 7. Agricultural Technology location tracking. o Overview of technologies used in 5. Cellular Phones agriculture to enhance productivity and efficiency. o Discussion of the evolution of mobile phones and their 8. Architectural Technology significance in communication o Description of technology used in and internet access. designing and constructing 6. Internet buildings and infrastructure. o Overview of the invention of the 9. Transportation Technology internet and its transformative o Explanation of advancements in effects on communication and transportation technology that information dissemination. improve mobility and logistics. 7. Computer Mouse 10. Electronic Technology o Brief history of the computer o Overview of electronic mouse and its importance in user technology and its role in modern interface design. devices and systems. 8. Remote Control  o Explanation of the convenience Discussion on how this affects women's brought by remote controls in economic empowerment and decision- operating electronic devices. making power. 9. Video Conferencing CHALLENGE OF TECHNOLOGICAL WORLD o Description of how video TO GENDER EQUALITY conferencing technology enables Introduction to Gender Disparity in virtual face-to-face Technology communication. Statement on the equal capacity of men 10. Digital Cameras and women in technology-related fields. o Overview of digital cameras and their ability to capture and share Overview of the issue of gender disparity moments instantly. in access to technological training and workshops. RELATIONSHIP OF GENDER AND Dominance of Men in Technology Training TECHNOLOGY Gender Disparities in Literacy and Education Analysis of the male-dominated nature of technology training workshops. Discussion on the lower levels of literacy and education among women, Discussion on how societal roles and particularly in developing countries. stereotypes affect women's participation. Impact of educational gaps on women's employment opportunities and Stereotypical Gender Roles and Their Impact technological engagement. Examination of how traditional roles Employment and Economic Inequality hinder women’s opportunities for training and career advancement. Analysis of women's roles in the workforce, particularly as domestic Insights into the limitations posed by helpers among Overseas Filipinos. maternal responsibilities on women's professional development. Contrast with men's involvement in highly technological jobs and The Role of Science and Technology in Gender production processes. Equality Examination of income disparities Overview of the critical importance of between men and women in various science and technology in promoting sectors. equitable development. Control Over Production Processes Reference to UNESCO’s recognition of S&T in improving quality of life and Overview of the limited control women socio-economic conditions. have over production processes compared to men. Five Lessons on Building Gender Equality through Technology  Get women and girls involved: Technology as a human rights issue. Change the narrative: Celebrating women leaders in science and technology. Encourage early engagement: Introducing girls to technology solutions relevant to them. Foster inclusivity: Engaging everyone in discussions to close the gender technology gap. Support change-makers: Highlighting women and organizations using technology for gender equality. Vision for the Future Statement on the necessity of equal access to technology for both genders. Call to action for making technology a tool for women’s dignity, welfare, and empowerment.  Contributions of Dutch travelers (Betje Wolff, Aagje Deken) and others (Joanna Marcelino|PSY1A|SY:2024-2025 Schopenhauer, Albertine Clément- CHAPTER 7: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Hémery, Ida Hahn-Hahn, Lady OF GENDER CONSCIOUSNESS Morgan) in promoting women's welfare from the 1780s to 1850 (Age of THE 19TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURY Enlightenment). HISTORIES OF WOMEN Historical Perspectives on Women's Introduction to Women's History Contributions Reference to Christine de Pisan's The Sarah Taylor Austin's belief in the Book of the City of Ladies (1945) as a importance of studying women's starting point for presenting women activities for understanding social and femininity in historical narratives. fabric. Overview of the impact on academic The assertion of women's moral worth discussions and debates regarding the and social contributions through the moral value of women and feminism. efforts of early women historians. Notable Historical Figures Feminist Historians and Advocates Joan of Arc: Significance as an early Overview of Alice Stopford Green and symbol of women's strength and her work on Irish nationalism and social leadership. justice. Women's Role during the French Contributions of other active women's Revolution: movement advocates like Lina o Chroniclers and historians like Eckenstein, Eileen Power, Julia Stephanie de Genlis and Laure Cartwright, and Margaret Oliphant in d'Abrantes. the U.S. and Great Britain. o Contributions of the Strickland WOMEN'S HISTORIES AFTER 1960 sisters, Elizabeth and Agnes. Introduction to Post-1960 Women’s Histories Influential Filipino Women Overview of the evolving focus on Gabriela Silang: Contribution to women’s roles and contributions in women's empowerment and national historical narratives. liberation. Key Publications and Contributions Tandang Sora and Melchora Aquino: E.P. Thompson's The Making of the Their roles in advocating for women's English Working Class (1963): rights and nation-building. o Focused primarily on male Nanay Isay of Panay: Highlighting her laborers but highlighted the vision for women's empowerment. importance of feminist activism. Travel and Investigative Writing Natalie Zemon Davis and Jill Conway:  o Their work at the University of The social history of European women Toronto in the late 1960s has contributed to innovations in produced a comprehensive gender consciousness, the advancement bibliography of women, marking of women's rights, and recognition of the start of a professionalized women's contributions to socio- research agenda in European economic and political development. women's social history. DEVELOPMENT OF GENDER Feminist Literature and Classifications CONSCIOUSNESS Simone de Beauvoir and Betty Friedan Introduction to Gender Consciousness (1970s): Definition and significance of gender o Conducted in-depth consciousness in promoting equality examinations of women's among all individuals, regardless of sex, experiences, categorizing them race, status, color, age, or nationality. into groups such as married Historical Context and Key Documents women, lesbians, housewives, and older women. United Nations Charter (1945): Studies on Women's Labor o First official global recognition of equality and non-discrimination Cissie Fairchilds and Theresa McBride: based on sex. o Investigated the interactions Universal Declaration of Human Rights between women servants and (1948): middle-class women in England and France, highlighting the o Solidified the commitment to potential for social advancement equality and non-discrimination. through domestic labor. First World Conference for Women (1974) Jill Liddington and Jill Norris: Location: Mexico City. o Explored the lives of women Outcome: textile factory workers, revealing their political activism and social o Introduction of the Women in awareness. Development (WID) approach, emphasizing women's rights to Notable Works on Specific Populations economic participation and Rose Glickman’s Russian Factory representation in national Women (1984): development. o Provided insights into the varied o Empowerment of women as work experiences of women in central to the development mixed agricultural and agenda. manufacturing industries. Evolution of Development Approaches Impact on Gender Consciousness and Women in Development (WID): Women's Rights  o Focused on incorporating women empowerment, with indicators into existing development such as: frameworks. 1. Ratios of girls to boys in Transition to Women and education. Development: 2. Share of women in wage o Called for structural changes in employment in non- the global political economy to agricultural sectors. better support women's roles and 3. Proportion of seats held by rights. women in national Gender and Development (GAD): parliaments. o Emerged in the late 1980s, Importance of Gender Equality focusing on larger inequalities Gender equality as a critical element for and the socially constructed achieving social transformation and biases affecting relationships sustainable development. between men and women. o Advocated for systemic FILIPINA WOMEN transformation towards gender equality and people-centered Introduction development. Overview of the role of Filipina women The Fourth World Conference on Women during Spanish colonization as partners (1995) in nation-building. Location: Beijing. Historical Example of Empowerment: Malolos Women Outcome: o Adoption of the Beijing Platform The petition by the 20 Malolos women to Governor-General Valeriano Wyler for Action, which included for the establishment of a night school mechanisms for promoting for women. women's rights through national Significance as an early example of action plans, gender strategies, women's empowerment. and legal frameworks. Dr. Jose Rizal's Response United Nations Millennium Declaration (2000)