G11 Physical Science First Quarter PDF

PHYSICAL SCIENCE Sequence of Events FIRST QUARTER REVIEWER 1. Singularity Team President, Academics Committee 2. Inflation...

PHYSICAL SCIENCE Sequence of Events FIRST QUARTER REVIEWER 1. Singularity Team President, Academics Committee 2. Inflation 3. Formation of Matter and Antimatter LESSON 1: ORIGIN OF ELEMENTS 4. Annihilation (Cancellation of Matter & Antimatter) Big Bang Theory 5. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis Most plausible theory of all time Widely accepted theory of all time in terms of the 6. Cooling Down of the Universe (Annihilation) creation of the very universe that we live in 7. Recombination It cannot be a law because we cannot go back in time to witness what happened then 8. Dark Ages A big event, a series of events. 9. Formation of Cosmic Bodies It was first proposed in 1920 by Belgian Astronomer Georges Lemaitre (1894-1966) as the “primeval atom” theory. SINGULARITY EVIDENCES OF THE BIG BANG THEORY The origin point of the universe. It all started here. REDSHIFT About 13.7 billion years ago, all matter and ○ Observations by American astronomer Edwin energy existed in the universe in a compact Hubble showed that galaxies are moving point. away from each other, suggesting an This compact point had infinite density & expanding universe. temperature. Cosmic Background Radiation (CMB) The collapse of singularity is part of inflation ○ The thermal leftover from the early universe, ○ Entity providing a snapshot of the universe 380,000 ○ Space years after the Big Bang. ○ Time ○ It was discovered by Robert Wilson and ○ Matter Arno Penzias. ○ Energy ○ This contradicts the Steady State Theory. The Steady State Theory suggests that INFLATION everything in the universe is constant and uniform. A rapid expansion that smoothened out Abundances of the light elements in the inconsistencies in the early universe. This universe inflation resolved the problems of Flatness & ○ The observed ratios of hydrogen, helium, and Horizon. lithium in the universe match predictions from Refers to a period of extremely rapid expansion. Big Bang nucleosynthesis. It collapsed way faster than the speed of light. Expanded and cooled 1x10-32 = 0. (31-0)1 FORMATION OF MATTER AND ANTIMATTER ○ -⅓ charge of down Neutron Energy constantly fluctuates into short-lived ○ 2 down, 1 up pairs of particles and their corresponding ○ How the atom was is just the same with antiparticles, including electrons and positrons, anti-atom because it also has antiprotons and and quarks and antiquarks. antineutrons and the opposite of electrons is If these two particles come in contact, they will called the positron. annihilate each other (completely destroyed). BIG BANG NUCLEOSYNTHESIS Matter It should have space to occupy, which is volume. Formation of light elements in the early universe. It should have mass as well. It is a thermonuclear reaction that produces a Quarks and electrons new chemical element from another element. Should have volume and mass even though it is There are no matter and antimatter now. indefinite. If none, then it is an energy. The elementary particles that constitute or that It has mass because of particles. make up the matter were present. Matter and antimatter have the same mass Nucleosynthesis but different charges. ○ A thermonuclear reaction that produces a new ○ If I am 95kg rn, my evil queen is also 95 kg, chemical element from another element. but we have different charges. ○ As the universe cools down, protons and neutrons can fuse to form heavier atomic Antimatter nuclei. Has anti-volume and anti-mass ○ Nucleo means nucleus ○ Has anti-mass because it has anti-particles ○ Synthesis - manufacture or produce nucleus Inside of that matter, it has the smallest unit, of the atom which is the molecule. Inside of a molecule, it has a tiny particle which is the atom. Inside an atom, it has subatomic particles. Matter, atom, Nucleus; electron, Proton; neutron and proton, quark It also has this version of hydrogen, known as an anti-hydrogen atom. Wherein the anti-proton has a negative charge, and the one that revolves around the antiproton ○ Inevitably, Protons and Neutrons will get is the positron (positively charged) attracted or they will fuse with one another in the process known as Nucleosynthesis. Electron ○ There will be a Nucleus of the atom. ○ Given in lepton ○ Matter or atoms are still not present because ○ Continuously moving around its nucleus or the there is still no electron. proton Proton ○ 2 up, 1 down (U+,U+,D-) ○ NO number equals to one ○ +⅔ charge of up COOLING DOWN OF THE UNIVERSE As the universe expanded, matter started to (ANNIHILATION) clump together under the influence of gravity. Fog of neutral hydrogen that trapped the light of As the universe cools down, it continues to the first stars in galaxies. expand further. The fog didn’t lift after 1 billion years. Heat death - a slow process where everything After 200 million years, there’s the formation of becomes less energetic and spreads out. cosmic bodies. Particle annihilation - canceling of matter and antimatter. FORMATION OF COSMIC BODIES Laws that we need to obey: ○ Law of charges After the Dark Ages, the first generation of stars Same charges repel was formed, also known as the “Population III Opposite charges attract Stars.” (+,-)(-,+) ○ These stars produce light, ionizing radiation, and heavy elements. Why did they have an inevitable collision? This is the formation of galaxies, planets, and → Because they have different charges, both stars. These are formed from matter but are matter and antimatter had no choice always under the influence of gravity. → Electron (-) and Positron (+) had no choice but to get attracted to one another, ending Age of the universe. dead, but we have gamma rays → Left Elementary particle belongs or constitutes/forms the matter FORMATION OF ELEMENTS 1. Nuclear Fusion Forms larger Nuclei Exothermic reaction RECOMBINATION 2. Exothermic Means release of energy, Reaction release of great temperature This is the part where the universe reaches the temperature being cooled down. 3. Nuclear Splits into smaller nuclei Protons and electrons combine to form neutral Fission endothermic reaction hydrogen (no charge). 4. Endothermic (pagpasok ng energy or ○ This process will turn the universe from being Reaction temperature) opaque into a transparent space that is Ex. (To melt the ice, leave it filled with neutral atoms. in a hot place) This is also the process that releases the protons of light (aka CBM - Cosmic Microwave Background) Helium nuclei combine with electrons to form helium atoms. ○ Hydrogen - lightest element ○ Helium atom - 2nd lightest element DARK AGES Lasted from 380,000 to 200 million years.  Deuterium 3 Types of Nucleosynthesis in General ○ 1 atomic number 1. Big Bang Formation of light ○ 2 atomic mass Nucleosynthesis elements (H, He, / Primordial traces of Li) Tritium Nucleosynthesis ○ 1 atomic number ○ 3 atomic mass 2. Stellar Formation of heavy Nucleosynthesis elements (Li to Fe). ISOTOPES 3. Stellar Starts with cobalt and explosion/ ends with uranium. Elements with the same number of protons but Supernova/ Formation of elements with different number of neutrons/mass number. Hypernova heavier that Fe (Co to Nucleosynthesis U) Nucleosynthesis Notes → Stellar Nucleosynthesis ○ The formation of heavy elements is commonly referred to as the hydrogen burning phase. ○ Two types of phases: the proton-proton cycle and the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle. The CNO cycle is a catalyst for hydrogen to speed up the formation of helium. Equations: → Supernova Nucleosynthesis ○ Explosion of a massive star (5 to 10 times ○ Atomic Number (Z) = number of protons = the mass of the sun) when it runs out of number of electrons fuel. ○ Mass Number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons ○ A – Z = number of neutrons ○ Atomic charge = number of protons - number of electrons DIFFERENT TYPES OF HYDROGEN Protium ○ 1 atomic number You will call it by the virtue of its mass. ○ 1 atomic mass ○ Retain the atomic number  → It is an element if the mass is just the same with the periodic table. → It is an isotope if it is different from the periodic table. FORMATION OF ELEMENTS To form isotopes or new elements out of the old light or heavy element, that old element has to undergo radioactivity. Any substance, any original element, or isotope that interacts with any electromagnetic spectrum, NUCLEAR REACTIONS - Specific Types syntegration is formed. 1. Alpha Decay Loss of an alpha particle So, the original element will be changed to a new element. 2. Beta Decay Loss of a beta particle It can be lighter or heavier than the original element. 3. Gamma Radiation Emission of gamma-ray When that happens, it is a radioactive element. 4. Positron Emission Conversion of a proton in a nucleus into a neutron, along RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES with the release of a positron 5. Electron Capture Drawing of an electron into Neutron an atom’s nucleus Proton Electron 6. Bombardment of Addition of alpha particle Alpha Particle Alpha Particle Beta Particle 7. Spontaneous Fission Loss of a neutron Positron BALANCING OF NUCLEAR EQUATIONS LEFT SIDE RIGHT SIDE Changes in nuclei that result in changes in their atomic numbers, mass numbers, or energy CAPTURE RELEASE states are nuclear reactions. 6 Kinds of Nuclear Reactions BOMBARDMENT DECAY ○ It is a must to balance everything. EMISSION  TERMS USED FOR NUCLEAR REACTIONS LESSON 2: POLARITY OF MOLECULES Before the arrow Symbol After the arrow ATOMS NEUTRON RELEASE OF CAPTURE NEUTRON Atoms bond to form compounds and attain stability. BOMBARDMENT ALPHA DECAY OF ALPHA Types of chemical bond: PARTICLE ○ Ionic Bond ○ Covalent Bond POSITRON POSITRON ○ Metallic Bond CAPTURE EMISSION ELEMENTS VS. COMPOUNDS ELECTRON BETA DECAY CAPTURE Elements - contains only one kind of atom. Ex. He, O2 GAMMA GAMMA Compounds - contains two or more kinds of RADIATION RADIATION atoms. Ex. H2O PROTON RELEASE OF IONIC BOND CAPTURE PROTON Results from the TRANSFER of one or more valence electrons from one atom to another. Exists between a metal (M) that tends to lose BALANCING OF NUCLEAR REACTIONS electrons and a nonmetal (NM) that tends to accept electrons. Before the arrow or left side of the arrow is called Two types of Ionic Bonds: reactants. ○ Monoatomic Ions After the arrow or the right side is called ○ Made of exactly one atom. products. Has an unequal number of protons and In balancing the nuclear reaction, we need to electrons. follow the Law of Conservation of Mass. Depending on the charge, these ions ○ It states that the mass, during the nuclear may be classified as cations or anions. reaction, it is neither created nor destroyed. ○ Polyatomic Ions ○ It is conserved or preserved before and after Made up of two or more atoms. the nuclear reaction. It can be referred to as a polyatomic ion ○ If the before reaction is 50g, the after reaction or molecular ion. should be 50g. Depending on the charge, these ions may also be classified as cations or anions. COVALENT BOND Formed when SHARING of an electron pair between atoms exists.  Occurs between nonmetals. The values can be seen in the picture above. It could be polar or nonpolar. POLARITY POLAR NON-POLAR State or a condition of an atom or a molecule Unequal (partial charges) Equal (neutral charges) having positive and negative charges, especially in the case of magnetic or electrical poles. If the compound is Monoatomic/diatomic hydrogen and is directly Evenness and unevenness of the valence attached to N, O, and F. electrons. OH - the presence of Contains only carbon and MOLECULAR POLARITY alcohol bond means you hydrogen in a compound. have hydrogen bond which makes it polar. (EVEN-NON-POLAR-HYDROPHOBIC) ○ Water fearing It does not have symmetry. Symmetry = outer elements Ex. S=C=O are the same. (UNEVEN-POLAR-HYDROPHILIC) ○ Water loving ELECTRONEGATIVITY NO small delta means partial It is the tendency of an atom to attract electrons toward itself ELECTRONEGATIVITY DIFFERENCE The absolute value of electronegativity difference between two atoms determines the type of chemical bonds that can be formed between them. ○ Nonpolar Covalent Bond = 0 - 0.40 ○ Polar Covalent Bond = 0.41 - 1.79 ○ Ionic Bond = 1.8 and above Guidelines: Bond polarity differs from molecule polarity Only one type of atom is said to be NONPOLAR If a net dipole moment is found, then the molecule is said to be POLAR. Dipole moment is the measure of strength of the polarity of a bond Example: 1.Determine the electronegativity, bond polarity, To get the electronegativity, simply, subtract the number of dipole moments and polarity of values of the elements. Example: molecule. ○ Hydrogen = 2.1 | Oxygen = 3.5 H20 ○ 2.1-3.5 = 1.4 ○ There, it is a polar bond. EN = 1.4 Polar bond  Total valence = 8 (1 x 2 + 6) NON-polar molecule H2O = 8 e = 4e = 4e ○ Oxygen is the central atom DM not equal to 0 LEWIS ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE (LEDS) Polar molecule STEPS IN WRITING LEWIS STRUCTURE 2. Prove why the molecular identity of CF4 is the ff: 1. Draw the skeletal structure of the ○ Electronegativity difference of 1.5 compound, showing what ○ Polar bond is bonded to each other. Place the least ○ Zero vector dipole moment electronegative atom at the center except H. ○ Non-polar molecule 2. Use a pair of electrons to form a bond EN = 1.5 between each pair of bound atoms. Polar bond 3. Arrange the remaining electrons to satisfy Total Valence = 32 e the octet rule (or duet rule for hydrogen). Fluorine is highly electronegativity Opposite directions are canceled Gilbert Newton Lewis DM = 0 ○ Representation of the valence electrons of an atom that uses dots around the symbol of the element. Examples: 1. PCl3 - P = 5 valence electrons - Cl = 7 valence electrons each.  Ex. WRITING OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS Polyatomic Ions ○ Write the element symbol for the metal and its charge. (Periodic Table) Write the chemical symbol of the elements. ○ Find the name and charge of the polyatomic Write the number of electrons to be donated or ion. accepted by each element. ○ Balance the charges by adding subscripts. Ex. Criss-cross the number of electrons and drop as subscripts. Simplify the number if necessary (for the same numbers, even numbers). Ex. LESSON 3: INTERMOLECULAR Monoatomic Ions ○ Identify the Element: Determine the symbol FORCES OF ATTRACTION of the element from the periodic table. INTRAmolecular FORCES ○ Determine the Charge: Based on the element’s position in the periodic table, They work inside the molecule and keep the determine whether it forms a cation (+ charge) structure of the molecule intact. Responsible for or anion (- charge) the stability of the compound. ○ Write the Ion’s Formula: Write the element’s These are the forces that act WITHIN a single symbol. Indicate the charge as a superscript: molecule. “+” for cations and “-” for anions, followed by All hydrochloric acid molecules must be bonded the number if the charge is greater than one. with one another correctly.  STRENGTH OF BOND INTERMOLECULAR FORCES Types Involves Occurs Strength of Forces that exist BETWEEN molecules. They of IMFA Between… Attraction work OUTSIDE controlling how molecules move London Temporary Nonpolar Low around with each other. Dispersion Dipoles Molecules They are weaker than Intramolecular. Force Called Van der Waals forces, named after the Dipole-Dipole Permanent Polar Medium Dutch scientist Johannes van der Waals. Force Dipoles Molecules Physical properties of matter (e.g. density, hardness, melting point, boiling point, solubility, Hydrogen Bond Permanent Polar Medium to physical state) are attributed to IMFA. Dipoles Molecules High exclusive to F, O, and N 4 MAJOR TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES Ion-Dipole Full Ion and Ion and High Force Dipole Polar Molecule Ion- Dipole Forces ○ Result when an ionic compound dissolves in a polar solvent. PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCE/LIQUIDS ○ Occurs between a charged particle and a polar molecule. Surface Tension Dipole- Dipole Forces ○ Force that causes the surface of a liquid to ○ Forces between polar molecules. contract. ○ Results from the net inward attraction Hydrogen Bonding experienced by the molecules on the surface ○ It is a special type of dipole-dipole force of a liquid. between polar molecules having an H atom ○ The stronger the intermolecular force, the bonded to a highly electronegative atom with greater the surface tension is. lone electron pairs. ○ As the temperature of a liquid increases, the ○ Occurs between molecules with H bonded to surface tension decreases. a highly electronegative atom (O, N, or F). Viscosity London Dispersion Forces ○ Liquid’s resistance to flow. ○ Fritz London ○ An increase in temperature decreases ○ These forces are produced when temporary viscosity. dipoles are induced in nonpolar molecules. ○ Related to the ease with which the molecules ○ Momentary dipole - temporarily became can move past each other. dipole substance ○ The greater the number of H-bonds, the ○ Present in all molecules caused by stronger the intermolecular force of attraction fluctuations in the electron distribution within is, and the higher the viscosity of a liquid. atoms or molecules. Capillary Action  ○ The ability of a liquid to flow up a thin tube against the influence of gravity. ○ It results from the competition between cohesive and adhesive forces. ○ The stronger the adhesive force between glass and liquid, the higher the capillary action. Adhesive Forces Pull the surface liquid up to the side of the tube. Attraction between different molecules. STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF WATER Cohesive Forces Pull the interior liquid with it. Structure of Water Attraction between like molecules. ○ Pure water is colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid ○ It turns to ice, its solid form, at 0°C and 1 atm ○ At 100°C, it becomes a gas, called steam. Vapor Pressure ○ Water molecules have bent shape, with two ○ Resulting from evaporation of a liquid above a partially positive hydrogen atoms and a sample of the liquid in a closed container partially negative oxygen atom Vaporization - change of state from liquid ○ It is a polar molecule. to gas Vapor - gaseous state of a substance Properties of Water which is normally a liquid or solid at room ○ High Boiling Point - strong intermolecular temperature forces caused by the formation of H-bond. ○ If a liquid has weak intermolecular force, the Water is liquid at room temperature. escaping tendency is high, its vapor pressure ○ High Specific Heat - water can absorb or is high as well. release large amounts of heat without a ○ An increase in temperature increases vapor change in temperature pressure. ○ High Density in its Liquid Form - only ○ Molar Heat of Vaporization substance that contracts when cooled. It is Amount of heat needed to vaporize a tightly packed. H-bond is more extensive in its given amount of liquid at its boiling point. solid state than its liquid state. The stronger the intermolecular forces of ○ High Surface Tension - caused by H-bond attraction, the higher the heat of formation among water molecules. It causes vaporization. water to move upward. ○ High Heat of Vaporization - it takes a lot of Melting and Boiling Point energy/heat for liquid to turn into gas/vapor. ○ Melting Point - at which matter changes from solid to liquid form ○ Boiling Point - the temperature at which matter changes from liquid to gas. Also, temperature at which the vapor pressure is PROPERTIES AND TYPES OF SOLIDS equal to the atmospheric pressure ○ If a liquid has strong intermolecular force, the escaping tendency is low, its vapor pressure Properties of Solids is low, and it has a high BP. ○ Have very strong forces of attraction  ○ Definite shape and volume ○ Often involves energy changes in heat, light, ○ Particles packed closely together or sound. ○ Particles vibrate in place ○ Have high densities Physical Change ○ A change in the state or appearance of a Types of Solids substance without altering its chemical ○ Crystalline Solid composition. Particles are arranged in regular ○ Properties changed: only physical properties. geometric pattern Ex. shape, size, phase, or texture change Highly ordered and repetitive pattern ○ May involve changes in energy, but no new Ex. NaCl and sugar substances are formed. ○ Amorphous Solids Have fixed shape and volume but COLLISION THEORY particles are not arranged in geometric pattern. Set of principles that states that the reacting Appears to have been cooled at very low particles can form products when they collide temperature and viscosity is very high. with one another provided those collisions Ex. Glass, rubber, plastic have enough kinetic energy and the correct orientation. Types of Crystals Proposed by Max Trautz (German) in 1916 and ○ Molecular Solids William Lewis (British) in 1918 Atoms held together by intermolecular A theory that explains how chemical reactions forces occur and why reaction rates differ for different Soft, low to moderately high melting reactions. points, poor electrical and thermal conductivity Chemical Reaction ○ Metallic Solid ○ A process that leads to the chemical Joined by metallic bonds transformation of one set of chemical Strength of force depends on the nature substances to another. of metal Good electrical and thermal conductors, Rate of Reaction malleable and ductile ○ Rusting of Iron Fe+o2 - Fe2o3 LESSON 4: COLLISION THEORY Very slow AND RATE REACTION ○ Burnt cheesecake Average CHEMICAL CHANGE VS. PHYSICAL CHANGE ○ Igniting a sparkler Very fast Chemical Change ○ Transformation of substances into new Criteria substances with different chemical ○ Reactants must be in their proper orientation compositions. or they must collide at the correct angles. ○ Occurs when there is a rearrangement in the Proper orientation of the reactant particles particles of a certain substance that leads to allow for effective bond formation during the formation of a new collision. compound/element/product.  ○ Molecules must possess a minimum amount of energy. The energy that the reactant particles must possess to initiate the reaction is referred to as Activation Energy (Ea) FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF REACTIONS ○ The smaller the pieces, the larger the surface area. More collisions means a greater change Increased Temperature of reaction. ○ Applications: Incomplete Combustion of Coal and melting of ice Use of Catalyst ○ If the temperature of a reaction system is increased, the average speed of the particles is also increased (increasing temperature = increasing kinetic energy). ○ Maxwell-Boltzmann ○ Application: Ripening of fruits ○ A substance that speeds up a reaction, but is chemically unchanged at its end. When the Increased Concentration and Pressure reaction has finished, the mass of the catalyst ○ Concentration and Pressure - both refer to is the same as at the beginning. how many particles there are per unit of ○ Lowers the activation energy providing an volume. alternative reaction pathway. ○ Concentration generally refers to solutions. ○ Higher proportion of successful collisions ○ Pressure refers to gasses. ○ An increase in concentration or pressure LESSON 5: BIOMOLECULES means that there’ll be more particles per unit of volume which makes the collisions Compounds found in living organisms. more frequent and so increases the rate of They include organic and inorganic substances. reaction. Tiny blocks that make up living things. Includes sugars, fats, proteins, and DNA. Increased Surface Area of solid reactants These molecules have functions like giving ○ If there are more molecules available on the energy, building structures, and carrying genetic outside of a substance to react, then the information. faster the rate of reaction. These are crucial for life to function. ○ Higher surface area will also increase the rate of reaction CARBON AS THE CENTRAL ELEMENT All biomolecules contain a Carbon chain or ring  Carbon is often referred to as the central element of life. It serves as the backbone for many biomolecules. Carbon has 4 outer shell electrons. Its bonding capacity is great. It forms covalent bonds. Once bound to other elements (or to other Polysaccharides Carbons), it is very stable. MONOMERS AND POLYMERS Monomers are made into polymers via dehydration synthesis reactions. Polymers are broken down into monomers via ○ Starch - for energy storage of plants and hydrolysis reactions. algae. ○ Glycogen - for energy storage in animals, fungi and bacteria. ○ Complex carbohydrates made up of Monosaccharides units. ○ Serves as energy storage and structural support for living organisms. CARBOHYDRATES: STRUCTURE Monosaccharides ○ Also known as simple sugars ○ Cellulose- Form of cell walls of plants and ○ Only one 3-C, 5-C, 6- chain or ring involved algae. ○ Chitin - Form of cell walls of fungi, exoskeleton of arthropods, and scales of fishes. BREAKING DOWN OF CARBOHYDRATES Disaccharides This happens through digestion. Without ○ Double sugars digestion, it won’t break down. ○ Consist of two 6-C chains or rings bonded When we eat carbohydrates like bread, our body together. breaks them down during digestion. ○ They are formed when 2 Monosaccharides ○ Then enzymes in our mouth turn them into undergo a condensation reaction, releasing a smaller sugars like glucose. molecule of water. ○ These sugars are absorbed into the bloodstream and used for energy for ourselves. ○ The leftovers are then passed out of the body as waste.  Ex. Loaf of bread — Bread Crumbs — ○ Solid at room temperatures Polysaccharide — Disaccharide — Polyunsaturated fats leave LDL-cholesterol Monosaccharide unchanged but lower HDL-cholesterol (safflower and corn oil) CARBOHYDRATES: FUNCTIONS Monounsaturated fats leave LDL and HDL levels unchanged (olive oil, canola, avocados) Provide quick energy to the body. ○ One double bond in the carbon chain Dietary fiber can help lower blood cholesterol. ○ Liquid at room temperature Spare protein from being burned so it can be ○ Heart healthy fats used to build and repair. One variety of polyunsaturated fat (Omega Stores energy. 3-fatty acids) guards against blood clot Provide structural support in plants and aid in formation and reduces fat levels in the blood digestion. (certain fish, walnuts and almonds). ○ Has two or more double bonds in the carbon LIPIDS: CLASSIFICATIONS chain ○ Liquid at room temperature Macromolecules made up of fatty acid monomers. → If there is a double bond between the They are waxy or oily substances, which are carbon chains, it is easier to digest. present in all living organisms as a main constituent of all cell membranes. TRIGLYCERIDE: STRUCTURE It has 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol that is Triglycerides - commonly known as fats or oils. good for energy storage. They are the ones who store the energy. Type of Fat found in blood. Phospholipids - essential for building cell Store excess energy from your diet. membranes. However, high levels of Triglyceride can increase Steroids - These include cholesterol and the risk of heart disease. hormones like estrogen and testosterone. Waxes - provide protection and waterproofing for PHOSPHOLIPID: STRUCTURE plants and animals. FATTY ACIDS: TYPES It is a complex liquid that is a component of the cell membrane. Molecules made up of a chain of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms. Saturated fats raise LDL-cholesterol levels in the blood (dairy, animal fats, cocoa butter) ○ Have no double bonds between carbon atoms  PROTEINS Bond Classification ○ Proteins are the basis for the major structural components of animals and human tissues. ○ They are natural polymers of amino acids. ○ The no. of amino acids in a protein molecule STEROIDS: STRUCTURE may range from two to several thousands. Cholesterol ○ It is an essential component of animal cell membranes and a precursor for the biosynthesis of steroid hormones, bile acids and vitamin D. Structure ○ Another class of indispensable biomolecules which make up around 50% of the cellular dry weight. ○ Proteins are polymers of amino acids arranged in the form of polypeptide chains. ○ Structures are classified as: Hormones Primary Protein Structure- linear ○ They are chemical messengers that are sequence of a chain of amino acids released in one tissue and transported Secondary Protein Structure - local through the circulatory system to one or more folding of the polypeptide chain into alpha other tissues. helices or beta sheets ○ One group of hormones is known as steroid Tertiary Protein Structure - hormones because these hormones are three-dimensional folding pattern of a synthesized from cholesterol, which is also a protein due to side chain interactions steroid. Quaternary Protein Structure - protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain LIPIDS: FUNCTIONS Energy source. Functions Protecting and structuring organs. ○ Enzyme catalysts - specific for 1 reaction Help in insulation the body. ○ Defense - antibody proteins, other proteins Generate heat. ○ Transport - Hemoglobin and Lipids Giving cell membranes structure. (Lipoproteins)  ○ Support - keratin fibrin, collagen Sugar molecule: Ribose ○ Motion - actin and myosin (muscle contraction) Functions ○ Regulation - some hormones, regulatory ○ Responsible for the transmission of proteins on DNA, cell receptors inherent characters from parent to offspring ○ Storage - Ca and Fe attached to storage ○ Responsible for the synthesis of protein in proteins our body. ○ DNA fingerprinting is a method used by NUCLEIC ACIDS: STRUCTURE forensic experts to determine paternity. ○ It is also used for the identification of Long thread-like water-soluble macromolecules criminals. present in high concentration in the nuclei of all ○ It has also played a major role in studies living cells. regarding biological evolution and genetics. Responsible for transmission of hereditary characters from their offspring and for the biosynthesis of protein. LESSON 6: MOLECULAR Two types: DNA and RNA GEOMETRY Basic components: Pentose sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous bases The study of the three-dimensional arrangement In DNA, adenine always pairs with thymine (A-T), of the atoms that constitute a molecule. and guanine always pairs with cytosine (G-C). Gives information about the general shape of the RNA is the same, except that adenine always molecule. pairs with uracil (A-U). TYPES OF MOLECULAR GEOMETRY Linear Molecular Geometry ○ 2 molecules are attached to the central atom ○ They are arranged in the opposite direction in order to minimize their repulsion. ○ Bond angle: 180° Types ○ DNA Mainly found in the nucleus. The nitrogenous bases are: A, G, C, and T. It controls the transmission of hereditary effects. Double-stranded (Helix) Sugar molecule: Deoxyribose Carries genetic instruction Trigonal Planar Molecular Geometry ○ 3 molecules attached to the central atom ○ RNA ○ They are arranged towards the corners of an Mainly found in cytoplasm equilateral. The nitrogenous bases are: A, G, C, U ○ Bond angle: 120° It controls the synthesis of protein. Single strand  Tetrahedral Molecular Geometry ○ 4 molecules attached to the central atom ○ Arranged toward the centers of a tetrahedron References: Content from Ma’am Iza RJ R. Jacinto’s PPTs and Panopto Videos Trigonal Bipyramidal Molecular Geometry ○ 5 molecules attached to the central atom ○ Bond angle: 90° and 120° (equilateral) Octahedral Molecular Geometry ○ 6 atoms attached to the central atom ○ Outer atoms: Ligands ○ Arranged at the vertices of an octahedron Proofread by the Team Secretary, Team President, and Team Vice President