Development of Capitalism & Nationalism 1815-1914 PDF

**[UNIT -- ONE]** **[DEVELOPMENT Of CAPITALISM&NATIONALISM]** [**1815** - **1914**] **Features of Capitalism** - Capitalism has been the dominant economic system in the Western world since the collapse of feudalism. - In the capitalist system, most means of production are privately...

**[UNIT -- ONE]** **[DEVELOPMENT Of CAPITALISM&NATIONALISM]** [**1815** - **1914**] **Features of Capitalism** - Capitalism has been the dominant economic system in the Western world since the collapse of feudalism. - In the capitalist system, most means of production are privately owned. - The growth of capitalism was influenced significantly by the Industrial Revolution. - The Industrial Revolution first started in England in the 18^th^ century. - The great Industrial Revolution was mainly responsible for the remarkable economic transformation in Western Europe and the United States of America in the 19^th^ century. - After England, Belgium, France, and the German states were European countries that became industrialized. - Following the Industrial Revolution, new sources of energy and power,\ particularly coal and steam, replaced wind and water powers. - The Factory system was created to replace the domestic system. - Proletariat is a social class comprising those who do manual labor or work for wages - Bourgeoisie - is a social class b/n the lower and upper classes or Middle class - The means of production in the capitalist system are owned by a small group of wealthy individuals known as capitalists or bourgeoisie. - Products and services in a capitalist economy are based on demand and supply, or free commerce and competition, as in a market economy. - In command economy the government is in charge of the economy. It is also an economy in which the government controls the volume of production, their distribution and prices. [ **Features of Nationalism &Formation of Nation States**] **Nationalism is a feeling of belonging and to think of themselves as a nation or feeling of your own country.** Factors helped the growth of nationalist sentiments were: - **The Renaissance**- developments of national language and its literature, helped to bring about a national self-consciousness. - **The Protestant Revolution-** broke out religious unity of Europe and ended the supremacy of the pope. - **Trade and colonies-** brought in wealth and helped to build a strong state. - Britain - Russia - Prussia and Austria drew the treaty of Vienna in 1815. - **Objective ;-** to prevent any single dominant power in Europe. - To establish a lasting peace in Europe. - To reverse all the changes that was brought about in Europe during napoleon wars and to restore the monarchies. - The desire for self governance. - The need for economic and political integration. - To create a unified Italian state. At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Italy faced three obstacles to unity. A\) The Austrian occupation of Lombardy and Venice in the north and northeast of the Italian peninsula. B\) The Papal States (under the sovereignty of the pope) the Papal States included the centre of the peninsula. C\) The existence of independent states like the Kingdom Piedmont-Sardinia, the Kingdom of the two Sicily. D\) The existence of Small states like --the duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena, all governed by relatives of the Habsburgs (Austria). [ **Leaders and the process of the unification movement of Italy**] **A) Giuseppe Mazzini:** - He was a member of the Carbonari meaning a secret society of Italian unification formed to abolish foreign rules in Italy. - In1831, Mazzini founded "Young Italy" and wanted a liberal democratic republic to govern a united Italy. **B) Count C. Cavour:** - In1852, Cavour became prime minister of the independent Kingdom of Sardinia. - He strengthened Piedmont by promoting industry, encouraging railroad building, improving agriculture, fostering education and enlarging the army. - Since Austria was the greatest obstacle to Italian unity, Cavour and NapoleonIII made a secret agreement (1858) and Napoleon agreed to send troops to drive the Austrians out of Lombardy and Venetia. **On the other hand,** Cavour promised to give the regions of Nice and Savoy to France. - After Austria lost the battle, Sardinia got Lombardy and Venetia. France was to keep Nice and Savoy. - Parma, Modena and Tuscany drove out their pro-Austrian rulers, and by plebiscites, they voted to be annexed to Sardinia. **C)Giuseppe Garibaldi:** - In southern Italy, Italian nationalists were led by Giuseppe Garibaldi. - He led the **Red Shirts, an army that wore bright red shirts into a battle,**captured the island of Sicily and then crossed into the Italian mainland. - They conquered Southern areas and agreed to unite with Piedmont-Sardinia in the north. - In 1861, the kingdom of Italy was established, and King Victor Emmanuel II became its king. - The new kingdom included every part of Italy except Venetia and the Papal States. - The Unification of Italy was completed when Venetia and the Papal States became part of Italy. - In 1866, following the defeat of Austria in the Seven Weeks War (Austro- Prussian War), Italy got Venetia. - When the Franco-Prussian war broke out in 1870, all of the French armies withdrew from Italy. - Rome was proclaimed the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. - The Pope continued to govern a section of Rome known as Vatican City. **Unification of Germany** - In the mid 19^th^century, many Germans were driven by nationalistic feelings to support a unified Germany. - Congress of Vienna (1815) created the German Confederation, which consisted of 39 separate autonomous states. - The Austrian Empire dominated the German Confederation. - The state of Prussia took the leading to unifying them into Germany. - Various forces that opposed to the unification of Germany before 1870 were: **Step towards Unification** - Under the dominance of the Napoleonic French Empire (1804--1814), the Germans developed a sense of common cause to remove the French invaders. - The development of the German railway was the first indicator of a\ unified state. - During the 1848 Revolution, the German liberals initiated a movement for a unified Germany by giving emphasis to the importance of tradition, education and linguistic unity of people in a geographic region. - But, failed because of division of the German ruling classes on the type of government. - In 1834, Germans created the ***Zollverein**,* an economic alliance (the removal of tariffs) between the German states which promoted trade and a strong economy. [ **Bismarck's Plan for Germany**] - Otto von Bismarck was a conservative politician and a leading force behind German unification. - Bismarck came from the Junker class (the landed nobility) in Prussia. - In1862 the new Prussian king, Wilhelm I, chose Bismarck as prime minister. - Otto von Bismarck led Germany towards unification using his political\ philosophy of Realpolitik, or "the politics of reality" and the \"Blood and Iron\" policy using Military power to achieve German unification. - Otto von Bismarck led German unification by appealing to national feelings and through the following three wars: - DanishWar1864 - - against Denmark - SevenWeeksWar1866 \--against Austria - Franco-Prussian War -1870/71 \--against France - **The Danish War** 1864 - The first war of German unification was, - which began over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. - Schleswig was given to Prussia, while Austria kept Holstein. - **The Austro-Prussian War of 1866**: - Was seven weeks war between Prussia and Austria. - Prussia was supported by **Italy** during the war to control the territory of **Schleswig** and **Holstein** - At the Battle of **Sadowa** on 3 July 1866, the Prussian army quickly defeated the Austrian forces. - Finally **Holstein was annexed by Prussia, Venetia was given to Italy and Austria was excluded from German affairs** - **Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71** - To provoke France to declare war on Prussia, Bismarck published the Ems Telegram,a carefully edited version of conversation. - The **Ems Telegram** was significant because it encouraged France to declare war on Prussia in 1870. - The Southern German states entered the war on the side of Prussia opposing French invasion. - On September 2, 1870, French forces were defeated at the battle of **Sedan.** - **In the Treaty of Frankfurt signed on 10 May1871**: A\) France agreed to cede Alsace and Lorraine (rich in coal and iron)\ B) France agreed to pay huge war indemnities to Germany. - In 1871, the German Empire was proclaimed at the Palace of Versailles in France. **American Civil War(1860-1865)** - Civil war is a war between the factions in the same country. - The American civil war was between the north and the south +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The North | The South | +===================================+===================================+ | - Unionist | - Confederates | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Need to abolish slavery | - Keep slavery | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Want to create USA | - Want to declare independent | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Industry sources of economy | - Plantation sources of economy | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Believed slavery is unfair | - Believed slavery is essential | | | for survivals | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ - Most of the fighting took place in the south, leaving the southern states devastated. - This economic disparity led to opposing differences in societal and political views. - In the north, people of different cultures and classes lived and worked together. While in the South, a social order based on white supremacy in both private and political life. - Mainly in the north came to view slavery as not just socially unjust, but morally wrong. And there was a strong anti-slavery movement known as Abolitionism. - Some famous leaders of Abolitionism movement were William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass. - Abraham Lincoln won the presidential election in the year 1860. He and the Republicans promised to prevent the spread of slavery into newly incorporated territories. - Shortly after the election of Abraham Lincoln, eleven southern states formed the Confederacy led by Jefferson Davis, a rich plantation owner, and declared secession. - In January 1863, Lincoln issued the [Emancipation Proclamations] and [Homestead Law], - **Emancipation** means **\* freeing someone from the control of another person.** - Homstead **refers to settle land given by the government and occupy it**. - Many slaves from southern states gathered to the north and join the Federal army. - The last Confederate surrender occurred on November 6,1865. - President AbrahamLincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Boothon April 14, 1865. **Results of the civil war** On December 6, 1865, officially outlawed slavery. The collapse of the plantation economy in the southern part.\ The rise of industrialization, and the development of infrastructures such as railroads, banks, and factories while in the southern progress was slow. The constitutional changes acted as a point of departure in the struggle for equal civil and human rights. - **[Nationalism and the "Eastern Question"]** - The Eastern Question was a diplomatic problem posed in the 19^th^ andearly20^th^ centuries. - It arose as a result of the rise of nationalist feelings among the Balkan people the declining Turkish (Ottoman) empire and interests of Great powers in the near east. - The Balkans was part of the decaying Ottoman Empire. This region was hometopeople with multi-ethnic backgrounds (Ex.Serbs, Bulgarians, Rumanians, and Greeks). - In the early 1800s, discontent in the Balkan region was increased by the riseof the nationalism. - Following the decline of the Ottoman Turkish rule in this region,\ different countries competed to dominate the Balkans in the struggles between the Turks and the nationalist groups. - **Russia**: Russia supported the Balkan nationalists for several reasons: - 1\) The Russians were Slavs, like the Bulgarians and the Serbs. 2\) They were Orthodox Christians. 3\) Russia wanted to gain access to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. - **Britain:** Britain's main concern was to protect its interests in India and did not want the Russians in the Mediterranean. - **Austria**: Austria supported the Ottomans because they did not want Russian expansion in the region. **[UNIT -- 2]** - **[AFRICA & THE COLONIAL EXPERIENCE (1880S -1960S)]** - **[General Background to Colonialism]** - Colonialism is defined as the direct and total dominance of one country byanotherbasedon the possession of state authority by a foreign power. - Colonialism has been practiced since ancient times. The ancient Greeks, Romans,Ottomans,and others established overseascolonies. - Following the end of the Atlantic Slave trade, Europeans began trading withAfricainwhat became known as "legitimate trade." During this time rawproductsfromAfrica,particularlycashcrops,wereexchanged for goods fromEurope. - The era of "legitimate" trade shifted the relationship between Africa and Europefrom commerce based on human merchandise to merchandise of tropicalcrops. - Missionaries came intoAfricaalongwithcolonial administrators and traders with the plan to introduceChristianity,commerceandcivilization. - Missionaries in critical times of need depended on traders for funds, and reliedcompletely on administrators for physical security and protection.\ **[Motives of European Colonialism]** - The main reasons for European colonization of Africa were:\ **A.Economic:** - Demand for raw materials and the need for new market centers. - Africa was believed to have a great amount of untapped raw materialresources. **B.Political/Strategicinterest:** - European powers were more interested indominatingstrategicterritoriesandfavorable locations for military and navalbases. **C.TheCivilizingMissionand the White Man's Burden:** - The civilizing mission is a rationale for intervention or colonization of othernon-western people like Africa. The Europeans presented themselvesashavingamissionofspreading civilization, commerce and Christianityacrosstheglobe. **D.Religious factor:** - Some missionaries supported the colonization of African countries believingthatEuropean control would provide a political environment thatwouldfacilitatetheirmissionary activities in Africa. - **3. Scramble for Africa and the Berlin Conference** - Before the 1880s, only 10% of Africa was ruled by foreign powers. - A fierce rivalry, massive and rapid colonial expansion of Europeans in Africafromthe1880s to the first decade of the 20th century is called the Scramble for Africa. - **[Berlin Conference: 1884-1885]** - The Berlin Conference was held from 1884 to 1885 in Berlin, Germanyand Bismarck was the head of the conference. - Thefourteencountriesrepresented at the Berlin conference were Austria-Hungary, Belgium,Denmark,France,Germany,Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal,Russia,Spain,Sweden-Norway,Turkey,and the United States of America. - The main goal of theconferencewastotalkofdividing up Africa among the European Colonialpowers. - The competition between European powers intensified when King LeopoldIIofBelgium and Germany entered the competition for African colonies. - TheBerlinConference marked the real beginning of colonization inAfrica.\ 1. ***Principle of effective occupation:*** According to Article 35 of the FinalAct,Colonial powers could acquire rights over colonial lands only iftheypossessedthem. - 2\. ***Doctrine of the Sphere of Influence***- According to article 34 of the GeneralActoftheBerlin Conference, any fresh act of taking possession of anyportionoftheAfricancoastwould have to be notified by the power takingpossessiontotheothersignatorypowers. - 3\. ***The Congo Free State (today's Democratic Republic of the Congo)*** wasconfirmedasthe private property of King Leopold II of Belgium.\ 4. ***Free navigation of the Niger and the Congo.*** - Europeans were successful in rapidly partitioning Africa during the scramble, because:- - 1\. The major factor for European victory over Africa was the military superiority.\ 2.Lack of cooperation and solidarity among Africans. **[Colonial Policies and Administration]** **1. [Company Rule]** - In the early days of colonialism, European nations allowed the establishmentofprivatecompanies that were granted large African territoriestoadminister. - Thesecompanieswereformed by businessmen who wereinterestedinexploitingthenaturalresourcesoftheAfrican territories. - The company rule was exercised from the 1880s to 1924. Example:-The BritishSouth Africa Company. - The companies' rule failed due to a shortage of finance and oppositionfromAfricansand missionaries over their harsh company rule. **[2. Direct Rule and Assimilation]** - The French, Belgians, Germans, and Portuguese are considered to have usedthismodelto govern their African colonies. - In the direct rule system, Africanindigenousrulersandlocal governments were removed and replacedbyEuropeanpersonnel. - Underthedirectrule,theFrenchgovernmentconsidereditsAfricancoloniesaspartofFrance. - The French colonial policy of direct rule and assimilation was designed by**AlbertSarrout.** - Accordingtotheassimilation policy, an African, after receivingFrencheducation,stoodachanceofbecomingFrench. - Assimilation accepted the inherent superiority of French culture over\ all others. **[3. Indirect Rule]** - The architect of the British Indirect rule policy was Frederick Lugard. And he exercised this policy when he was a governor of Nigeria and BritishEastAfrica. - Thissystem of governance used indigenous African rulers within the colonialadministration. - Frederick in his book the Dual Mandate in British tropical Africa,publishedin1922, explained the importance of the indirect rule. - AccordingtoLugard, indirectrulewaspreferable to administer colonies in Africabecauseitwasthe cheap stand most effective way and it also reduced African resistance. **[4. SettlersRule]** - Europeans came and settled in Africa, in many cases, displacing indigenousAfricans. - Settler colonies were found in southern Africa including the colonies of SouthAfrica,Southern and Northern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe and Zambia), Angola,Mozambique,andSouth West Africa (Namibia). - In addition, settlerrulewaspracticedinKenya,aBritishcolony in East Africa, and Algeria, a French colony in North Africa. Here the fertile landsof the African peasants were taken and given to minority white settlers. - Due to settler rule,Africansbecame laborers and landless tenants. - In general, colonial administrative policies implemented by European colonialrulersvaried from country to country. - Despite the differences, allcolonialgovernmentsshared certain common features:-\ Allcolonialsystemswereundemocratic, Colonial rule imposed without consent from the Africanpeople,\ All forms of colonial rule engaged in "divide and rule". **[Early African Resistance Movements ]** - The first or early Africanresponses to the colonial conquest occurred from about 1880 to 1914. - Thesecondstagecovered from 1914 to1945. - The third stage conducted fromthe1950sto1980swasa period of decolonization of Africa and was characterizedbytheemergenceofnationalliberation movements that aimed at achieving independence. **1. Resistance in West Africa** **A. AhmaduSeku:-** - From 1830s to 1845, he resisted French rule in western Africa using variousmethods. - Inthe beginning, he preferred to use diplomacy over armedresistance.But, whentheFrenchviolated their promise and started territorialexpansion,AhmaduforcesclashedwiththeFrench-Senegalese troops. - Finally, Ahmadu's forces were defeated and his empirebrokeup.Hewas exiled to Sokoto, where he died. Then after, the FrenchalliedwithAhmadu'sbrothertocontroltheregion. **B. SamoriTure** - SamoriToure was a Muslim leader in the MandinkaEmpire,whoengaged the French in protracted armed resistance from1882to1898. - SamoriTurewho governed an areainwhatistodayGuinea,Mali,andCoteD'Ivoirestrongly resisted French colonial expansion - FrenchcapturedSamoriand the FrenchexiledSamoritoGaboninCentralAfrica. **C. The Asante** - In West Africa, the British did not acquire large territories like the French. - TheBritishacquired the coastal areas of Nigeria and Ghana before the start of the scramble. - In Ghana, British colonial expansionfacedoppositionfromtheAsantekingdomledbyAsantehene(King). - TheBritish defeated the local resistance and wereabletoestablishtheircolonyoftheGoldCoast over all of Ghana in 1900. - The British used the strategy of divide and rule and their superior weaponsaswellasrecruited African troops, to conquer the whole of Nigeriain1910. **2. [Resistances in East Africa]** **[Maji-MajiUprising]** - The *MajiMaji*Uprising in Tanganyika was the most significant African challengetoGerman colonial rule from 1905 to 1907. - The four German coloniesinAfricawereTanganyika (now- Tanzania), Togo, Cameroon andNamibia. - TheGermanrulersimposed high taxation and a system of forced labor ontheircolonialsubjects. - A movement against the Germans ledbyaprophetNgwaleeruptedinTanganyika. - Ngwale taught the peopletosprinkletheirbodieswithsacredwaterknownas *MajiMaji*which "would turn bullets of their enemies into water." - TheGermansfollowed a 'scorched earth\' policy, destroyingvillagesandcrushingtheuprising. **[3. Resistances in South Africa]** - The Germans' rule in Africa was harsh and characterized by land alienation. - Ex: -InS/West Africa, land was taken from AfricansandgiventoGermansettlers. - The indigenous Herero and Nama peasants were forced to reduce their grazingland. - Finally, Both Herero and NamauprisingswerecrushedbytheGermans. **[4. Resistances in North Africa]** - After the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, Britain and France were engagedin a fierce struggle to influence Egypt. - 1879, Britain and Franceagreedtoimplementdualcontrolover Egypt. - In 1881, the Egyptian people revolted opposing the imperialist domination of Britain and France under Colonel Urabi Pasha. - In 1882, under the bannerof controlling the revolt, the British colonial forces entered Cairo andEgypt became a British colony. **[Impacts of Colonial Rule on Africa]** **[1. Political impacts]** - Africans lost independence and freedom. - The African indigenous administrationsweredestroyed. - Europeans created artificial boundaries without the approval ofthelocalcommunity. Etc. **[2. Economic impacts]** - Africa remained a supplier of raw materialsforEurope. - Africans were not neither allowed nor encouraged to go into manufacturing. - TheEuropeanshadintroducedmodern education but the introduction of colonialeducationmadeAfricansabandontheirindigenous technological skillsandeducation. - Africannaturalresourceswereexploited by European colonizers. **[3. Social Impacts]** - Colonialism also disrupted the development and way of living of local communities. - During the colonization process communities had to be moved and relocatedtocreatewhite settlement areas for large scale farming. - Colonization also brought about different types of diseases. Ex:-Rinderpest disease -- affectedthelivestockofthe Shona people( Zimbabwe), the *Kefu-Qen* in NorthEthiopia. - **[PositiveOutcomesof Colonialism]**:- - Tribal warfare ended after theintroductionofcolonialadministration - Introductionof differentmodernideas - Constructionofrailways,roadstotransportraw materials to ports. **[UNIT -- THREE]** **[SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS\ IN ETHIOPIA FROM MID-19th C. TO 1941]** - **[1. Long Distance Trade in 19th Century and the Cottage Industry]** - **[Trade Routes, People's Interaction, Major Market Centers, Medium of Exchange, and Trade Items]** **[The Trade Routes]:-** - \* Themainmarketcentersalongthe Bonga lines were Bonga, Hirmata, Saqa, Asandabo, Basso, and Gondar. - At Gondar it branched into two: the first went westward through Chilga toMatamma(Gallabat) and thesecond route passed through Adwa, AsmaraandterminatedatMassawaontheRedSeacoast. - \* The second started from Bonga and passed through the famous\ market centres of the century like Hirmata in Jimma, Soddo in southern Shewa,and Roggeatthe foot of Yarar Mountain, AliyuAmba or Abdul RasulinnorthernShewaandHararineastern Ethiopia. - AtHarartheroutebranchedintoZeyilaand Berbera. - The principal commodities that dominated the long-distance trade in the centurywereivory, civet musk, salt bars (*amole*) and slaves. - Thesaltbars(amole)servedasamediumof exchange and were used side by side with Maria Theresa Thalers. - Maria Theresa wasacoin introduced from Austria to the Horn of African regionbyArabtradersattheendofthe 18^th^c. **[Merchants:- ]** - The northernMuslimmerchants known as Jabarti and Southwestern MuslimOromomerchantsknownasAfqala. - TheArgoba from the Kingdom of Shewa were also active merchants in\ the trade between Harar and the northern Somali coast. **[2. Role of Cottage Industries]** - The Cottage industry and handicraft technology existed in Ethiopia sincetimeimmemorial. The most common cottage industries: - metalworking, Pottery, Tannery, Carpentry, Masonry, Weaving, Jewellery and Basket making. - The general public's attitude towards artisans was not at all encouragingastheyweremostly disdained and marginalized. As a result,thelocallyproducedagriculturalimplements and household furniture did not show any significant improvement. - Among the cottage industries, blacksmiths were responsible for the manufactureofawide variety of articles of considerable economic and military importance. - Materials manufactured by smiths:- pick-axes, sickles, spearheads, daggers, swords, bullets and spare parts for the rifles, tent-pegs, hammers, pincers, drills, nails, hatchets etc. **[2. Making of Modern Ethiopian State 1855-1913]** - The first Emperor who attempted to unify the country was KassaHailu ofQuara, who took the throne name Tewodros II (1855-1868). - Kassa became prominent when he was serving his half-brother, *Dejjazmach*KenfuofDambya and helped him in defeating the Egyptians atWadKaltabuin1837. - 1848, Kassa also fought against the Egyptians at a place called Dabarqi,wherehewasdefeated because of the Egyptians' superior militaryorganization,discipline,andbetterarmaments. - Kassa became popular and this attracted the attention of *Yejju*(*Warra-Sheh*) lords. As a result, they decided to have Kassa on their side throughamarriagearrangement and gave him Tewabech (daughter of *Ras*AliII). - The Major regional lords defeated by KassaHailu before his coronation were:- - **A)***Dejjach*GoshuZewdeof Gojjam at [GurAmba] on November 27, 1852; - **B)**BirruAligazandother *Dejjazmachs*at [GorgoraBichegn] on April 12,1853; - **C)***Ras*Ali II (Ali Alula) of*Yejju*DynastyatAyshalon29June1853; - **D)***Dejjazmach*WubeofSemenandTigrayatDeresgeon8February1855. - KassaHayluwasanointedbyAbunaSalama at Deresge Mariam church on 9 February 1855 and became Tewodros II, King of Kingsof Ethiopia. - Emperor Tewodros was a man with a mission. He knew that his country wouldnotremainindependent unlesssomefundamentalmeasuresweretaken. - Immediatelyafterhiscoronation, he set out to unify the country.\ The Wallo campaign started in March1855 and captured Maqdala on 12 September 1855 which marked the end of Tewodros'scampaign to Wallo. - His campaign to Shewa also lastedsomefive months. It was concluded after the Shewan force was defeated at the Battle of\ Bereket in November 1855. - TewodrosleftShewabyappointingHaile-Mikael,thebrother of Haile-Melekot, the king of Shewa who died in the middle of thecampaign. - The end of the Shewan campaign marked the peak of Tewodros's\ power and also the beginning of the end of his reign. **[ReformsIntroduced by Tewodros II]** - Tewodros II introduced drastic reforms in the areas of military, administration and socio-economy. - In themilitary sphere: - he introduced military titles like *YasrAleqa*(commanderoften),*YamsaAleka*(commander of the hundred), and Y*eshiAleqa*(commanderofthethousand). - He tried to organize and replace the regional armies of the *Zemene-Mesafint*with a salaried national army. - HeestablishedanarmsmanufactureatGafat(nearDebre Tabor) with thehelpofEuropeanmissionariesandartisans.Ex-35cannonswereproduced at Gafat and his famous mortar known as "Sebastopol." - To get some extra land to distribute among the landless and increase the productivesection of the population, he confiscated church land and reducedthenumberofpriestsand deacons in each church to five. **[Challenges/Opposition for Tewodros's reforms]:-** - **Internally-** his administrative and social reforms were opposed by the forcesofregionalism, who wanted to maintain their indigenous power intheirrespectiveprovinces. - The clergy saw his involvement in the affairs of the church as dangeroustothechurch's authority. - **Externally** - lack of support from foreign powers with that assistance he plannedtomodernize the country brought him into conflict with the British. - The storming of Meqdela on April 30, 1868, by the British and the subsequentsuicideofTewodros brought an end to his reign. - Following the death of Emperor Tewodros, three contenders to the throneemerged; - WagshumGobeze of Lasta, KassaMircha of Tigray, and Menilek of Shewa. - Immediately after the end of Tewodros, Gobeze came to power as Emperor Tekle-GiorgisII(1868-71). - Emperor Tekle-Giorgiscame to an end following the battle of Assem(July 1871) where KassaMircha became victorious. **[Reign of Yohannes IV]** - Yohannes IV (1872-1889) attempted to introduce a decentralized systemofadministration. - Ex. He recognizedMenilek as *Nigus*of Shewain1878bythe Liche agreement and he designated *Ras*AdalTesema of Gojjam as\ *Nigus*Tekle-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881. - Emperor Yohannes IV sought to end the religious controversy within theEthiopianOrthodox Tewahdo Church and presided over the CouncilofBoruMeda(1878),where Tewahdo was declared the only doctrineoftheEthiopian Orthodox Church. - Ethiopian Muslims were forcedto be converted to Orthodox Christianity. **[Menelik's Expansion:-]** - The process of territorial expansion carried out during the time of MenilekIIcanbecategorized into three phases. - The first phase--it was madewhenhe was king of Shewa (1865-89). - The second phase - was from the time of his coronation\ as Emperor of Ethiopia in 1889 up to the battle of Adwa in 1896. - Thethirdphasewasafter the battle of Adwa (1896-1900). **[Peacefully submitted territories]**:- - NorthernGurage, the KistaneGurage, Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and Jimma. **[Forcefully submitted territories:-]** - WesternGurage, led by Hassan Enjamo of Qabena,\ ArsiandHararghe. - TheArsiresistancewassuppressedbytheforcesof*Ras*DargeSahlaSellasie at the battle of Azule on 6 September 1886. - In Haraghe, the combined forces of the Harari and the Oromo forces weredefeatedatthebattleofChalanqo on 6 January 1887. - In 1889, Menilek became the Emperor of Ethiopia and he continued the processofexpansion. - From1889 to 1894, areas like Dawuro, Konta, Kambata,Bale,Sidama,GamoGofa and Wolaita were incorporated. - The Wolaita resistance was put under control after KawoTona\ was arrested in 1894. - In 1897, Kafa was incorporated after the forces of TatoGakiSherocho were defeated by Menilek's army led by *Ras*WoldeGiorgis. **[Reforms Introducedby Menelik II]** - Hefoundedthefirstmodernbank- the Bank of Abyssinia in 1905. - He established the first Modern School -Menilek II in 1908. - He introducedthe first modern postal system. - He introduced the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway with the support of France in 1894. - Heintroducedelectricity (in Addis Ababa), thetelephone,telegraph, the motor car, and modern plumbing. - Hestarted to mint a coin to replace the Maria Theresa Thaler. - The treaty which delimited the boundaries between Ethiopia and the surroundingcolonieswas signed. - Ex. - The first boundary that was delimited and concluded in 1897wasthe boundary between Ethiopia and French Somaliland (Djibouti), followedby the delimitation with British Somaliland in 1897,withItalianEritreain1900, with Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1902, with the British EastAfrica(Kenya)in 1907, and with Italian Somaliland in 1908. - With the signing of these boundary delimitation treaties the process of definingEthiopia's modern territorial extent is completed. - Theseagreementsgavethecountryapproximatelyitspresent shape. - NB: -The delimitation on the map was not followed by demarcation onthe ground. **[External Aggressionsand the Unity ofEthiopians 1871-1896]** - The second half of the 19^th^ c was a period during which thesurvivalofEthiopian independence was put to a threat. - In1862,TewodrossentalettertoQueenVictoriaof Great Britain requesting militaryassistancethroughConsulCameron. But, he cameback without any response. Then, Tewodros imprisoned British citizens in Ethiopia. - To free their citizens arrested by Tewodros, the British sent in late 1867,alargemilitaryexpedition commanded by Sir Robert Napier. - On 10 April 1868, 8,000 Tewodros' soldiers under the command of GeneralGebriyedefeatedatthebattleofAroge. - On 11 April 1868, Tewodros released his European captivesandon13April,1868,Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdala. - \*After Ethiopia's defeat by the British at Maqdala, immediately the Egyptians showed a keen interest to occupy Ethiopia. - In1875, Khedive Ismail Pasha (the Egyptian leader) senthistroopstoinvade Ethiopia in three directions. - a)The ZeilafrontledbyMohammedRaufPasha which resulted in the occupation of the Harar Emirate (1875 to 1885). - b\) The Tajura front was led by Werner Munzinger (the architect of the invasion). But, he and his forces were destroyed by the Afars. - c\) The Massawa front led by Colonel Arendrup and ArakelBeywith their 2,000 well-armedtroops. - Emperor Yohannes IV and his general *Ras*Alula mobilized about 20,000forcesand encountered the Egyptians at the Battle of Gundat (16 Nov. 1875),inwhichthe Egyptian troops were harshly defeated. - TheEgyptiansagain reorganized theirforcesand sent army to invade Ethiopia.But, they weredefeatedattheBattleofGura(7--9March1876). - \* With the openingofthe Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region had acquired great strategic andcommercialimportance. The Italian foothold on the Horn of Africa beganwhenanItalianprivateshipping company (Rubatino) had bought the port of Assab from the local chiefs in 1869. And transferred totheItaliangovernmentin1882. - \* Great Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy in 1885. Usingthese bases as a springboard, Italy began penetrating northern Ethiopia -- MerebMelash. But, the Italians were defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by *Ras*Alula Engida in 1887. - The British arranged a treaty known as the Hewett Treaty between Ethiopia and Egypt in 1884. - According to the Hewett Treaty, Ethiopia agreed to facilitate the evacuationofEgyptiansoldiers encircled by the Mahdist in eastern Sudan in return for the use ofMassawa by Ethiopia. - The Hewett Treaty becamethemain cause for the clashes between the Mahdists of Sudan and Ethiopian forcesfrom 1885 to 1889. - In 1888 the Mahdists led by Abu Anja, defeated *Nigus*Tekle-Haimanot'stroopsatSarWuha in Dembia. - Hence, on 9 March 1889, the Emperor marched to Metemma where he diedfightingtheMahdists. - Following the death of Emperor Yohannes,Menilek II came to power. **[Treaty of Wuchale:- ]** - The Italians used the treaty of Wuchale to advance their colonial interests. - ThetreatywassignedbyKingMenilekIIand, the Italian representative, Antonelliin the town of Wuchale on 2 May 1889. - Article XVII of the treaty in its Amharic version indicated that Emperor ofEthiopia"could"use the good offices of the Italian government in his dealings with other foreignpowerswhile the Italian text of the treaty made it obligatory. - EmperorMenilekunilaterallyabrogated the treaty in 1893.To achieve their intentions, the Italians crossed the Marab River. - Following Emperor Menilek's proclamation for general mobilization, about100,000troops from every part of the country gathered at Wara-Illu. - A force led by *Fitawrari*GebeyehuGurmu defeated the Italians at\ Amba-Alaje and forced them to retreat to Mekelle. - InJanuary1896,undertheleadershipof*Ras*Mekonnen, the Ethiopian forces defeated the Italians at Mekelle. The Italians came under siege that prevented their access to a well, which they used for drinking. This was commonly called the "siege of Mekelle" and was believed to be designedbyEmpress Taytu. - The last and decisive phase of the war was fought at [Adwa] on March 1^st^ 1896.TheEthiopian forces were led by Emperor Menilek, Empress Taytu and wargeneralslike*Ras*Mikael, *Ras*Makonnen, *Ras*Alula, *Ras*Mangasha and NigusTekle-Haymanot. - Thetreaty of Addis Ababa was signed on October 26, 1896 between Italy and Ethiopia in which Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia. **[Impacts of Victory of Adwa]**:- - The victory has since served as a symbol of unity, independence and nationalpride for all Ethiopians. - The victory of Adwa was the first decisive victory of black people over apowerfulwhite European power. - For black people who were fightingfortheirfreedomandindependence across the world, it served as a source of pride and motivation. - In Italy,the defeat led to the collapse of the government of Premier Francesco Crispi. - **[The beginning of Power Struggle among the Ruling Elites 1906 to 1935]** - The year 1906 might be regarded as a watershed moment in post-Adwa Ethiopia\'spolitical history. Why? - 1\) Menilek suffered his first stroke in 1906, an illness that would claimhis life seven years later. - 2\) The death of hiscousin,*Ras*MekonnenWalda-Mikael (who was widely expected to replace him) in1906. - As a result of these developments, the issue of succession has arisen. As a result, the surrounding colonial powers, the United Kingdom, France, and Italy, formed a Tripartite\ Treaty in the same year, assuming that Ethiopia would fall into disorder if Menilek died.\ Britain and France will each have a sphere of influence over the Nile basin and the railway\ zone, respectively, according to this pact. The hinterlands of Italy\'s colonies, Eritrea, and\ Italian Somaliland were considered as part of Italy\'s interests. - Emperor Menilek established Ethiopia\'s first cabinet (ministers\' council) in 1907 to\ address the looming crisis of succession and power vacuum. In 1909, he also named his\ grandson LijIyasu as his successor (regent). In the meanwhile, Empress Taytu\'s influence\ grew, but she faced stiff opposition from the Shewan nobles, who saw her as a significant\ danger to their dominion. They organised resistance against her, and she was forced to\ abstain from participating in the country\'s politics in 1910.\ Iyasu began to wield his full powers with the fall of Taytu and the death of *Ras*Tesema\ Nadaw, and his de facto rule lasted from 1911 until 1916. Iyyasu enhanced laws and\ regulations on the one hand, he announced a series of actions and policies that might\ be described as progressive and bold, yet contentious on the other. Some of Iyyasu\'s\ actions brought together internal and external forces, eventually leading to his overthrow\ in 1916. - Iyasu maintained Menilek\'s modernization agenda, which included the construction of\ Addis Ababa\'s first police force. He tried to reform property ownership and taxation,\ removed the traditional Quragna system of tying plaintiffs and defenders together, and\ outlawed the indigenous institution of lebeshay, or magical thief catchers. - Iyyasu was deposed on September 27, 1916, and Zewditu, Menilek\'s daughter, was\ crowned empress of Ethiopia. *Dejjach*TeferiMekonen was promoted to the rank of *Ras\ *and named successor to the throne.\ Following Iyyasu\'s removal from power by a palace coup, Iyyasu\'s father, *Nigus*Mikael,\ tried unsuccessfully to reverse the coup. His plans were thwarted when his soldiers were\ decisively defeated and he was captured by the Shewan army, led by *Ras*Teferi, at Sagale\ on October 27, 1916, in the deadliest battle since Adwa.\ Power was shared between *Empress* Zewditu, Menilek II\'s daughter, and Teferi\ Mekonnen, son of the renowned *Ras*Mekonnen, following the successful palace revolt\ against LijIyyasu in 1916. The political settlement of 1916 marked the start of a difficult and\ unusual period of dual governance known as the time of diarchy. The time was\ characterized by an ongoing dispute between Empress Zewditu\'s adherents, known as\ the conservative or indigenous camp on the one hand, and the progressive prince Teferi\ Mekonnen and his supporters on the other. The conservative camp was led by *Fitawrari\ *HabteGiyorgisDinagde.\ The expulsion of the ministers in 1918, with the exception of HabteGyorgisDinagde,\ Minister of War from 1907 until 1926 was the first step towards enhancing Teferi's\ power. HabteGyorgis died peacefully in December 1926, putting an end to their silent\ struggle.\ Nonetheless, there were several open challenges to the regent\'s expanding power. *Dejjach\ *BalchaSafo, governor of Sidamo, and *Ras*Gugsa Wale, governor of Begemdir and\ ex-husband of Zewditu, issued an open challenge to Teferi. The conflicts were ended\ when *Dejjach*Balcha was removed from his governorship in 1928 and *Ras*Gugsa was\ defeated at the Battle of Anchim in 1930. - The coronation of *Ras*Teferi as *Nigus*in 1928 and Emperor in 1930 marked the\ beginning of Haile Selassie's autocracy. After gaining virtual control of power, the emperor\ implemented a series of reforms and adjustments aimed at setting the groundwork for\ autocratic rule.\ The first written constitution of 1931 established the legal basis for emerging absolutism.\ The Constitution provided a legal framework for Haile Selassie\'s emerging autocratic\ rule. The constitution recognized the emperor\'s unrestricted rights to make appointments\ and dismiss officials, administering justice, declare and end wars, and grant lands and\ honours.\ The provincial hereditary aristocracy lost a lot of political influence with the 1931\ Constitution. With the exception of Tigray, which was permitted to be ruled by\ descendants of its local hereditary chiefs, the country's other provinces lost their internal\ autonomy and were replaced by individuals nominated directly by the Emperor. The\ formation of a national army was another measure through which the emperor\ attempted to consolidate his power. In 1930, the Belgian officers began trainingtheImperial Bodyguard. In 1934, the first officer training school wasestablishedatHoleta,west of the capital, by a Swedish military mission. The first batch of officers three year\ training program was disrupted by the Italian invasion. Rather than career officers, the\ cadets began to make history as passionate patriots. - **3.5 Fascist Italian Aggression and Patriotic Resistance** - Despite their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians had never given up their desire to\ colonize Ethiopia and were waiting for an opportune time to revenge on their defeats.\ When Benito Mussolini, the leader of the fascist party, came to power in 1922, he was\ determined to restore ancient Roman power and glory. To divert attention away from\ problems he encuntered in Europe, he planned a larger military operation in Africa.\ Mussolini just needed a pretext to invade Ethiopia after a long period of planning.\ Ethiopian and Italian forces clashed at Walawal, in the Ogaden, on December 5, 1934,\ over an ill-defined border between Ethiopia and Italo-Somaliland. - The Italian soldiers crossed the Marab River on October 3, 1935, and by November 8,\ they had taken control of Mekele. Emilio de Bono, who was subsequently succeeded by\ Pietro Badoglio, headed the Italian troops in this direction. On the northern front,\ Badoglio headed the war\'s most brutal phase. With air attacks, his men advanced\ quickly into Tigrai. Three hundred planes were dispatched to drop the internationally\ banned poison gas on Ethiopians. General RudolfoGraziani was in charge of the Italian\ army in the south. - The Ethiopian government\'s mobilization order was met with a huge response.\ Ethiopia\'s counter-offensive, on the other hand, arrived more later than expected. The\ delay was caused by two factors. First and foremost, Ethiopia placed its faith in the\ League of Nations and the international world, hoping for fair justice. Second, Ethiopians\ intended to extend Italy\'s supply line by enabling it to move deeper into the country.\ Ethiopian soldiers eventually went out to fight the Italians on two fronts: the northern and\ southern fronts.\ *Ras*KassaHailu had overall command of the northern front. Under him were *Ras\ *MulugetaYeggezu (minister of war), *Ras*SeyoumMengesha (ruler of Tigray), and\ *Ras*Emeru Haile-Selassie (governor of Gojjam). Ethiopians fought the Italians in three\ directions. At the Battle of AmbaAradom, the forces of Minister of War *Ras*Mulugeta\ Yegezu, fought on the eastern front. The armies of *Ras*Kasa and *Ras*SeyoumMengesha\ were in the centre. *Ras*Emeru Haile Selassie commanded an army that battled the Italians in Shire, in the west. On the western front, the Ethiopians won a few battles. They\ were, however, unable to stop Italy\'s overall advance. Ethiopians were unable to resist\ the aerial bombardment and poison gas used by the Italians. The battles of Tembien and\ AmbaAradom were won by the Italians. *Ras*MulugetaYigezu was killed in the second\ combat. Only in the battle of Shire, on the western front, did the Ethiopian army gain a\ modest victory.\ The final battle on the northern front was fought at Maychew, on March 31, 1936. The\ emperor led the remaining troops and the Imperial bodyguard. The Italians were well fortified because of the delay from the Ethiopian side and thus helped by their air\ superiority, the Italians achieved victory over the Ethiopians.\ On 2 May 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie, his royal family, and some notable officials\ left Addis Ababa for Europe via Djibouti. On 5 May 1936, Addis Ababa came under the\ control of the Italian army led by Marshal Badoglio.\ Meanwhile, Ethiopians in Ogaden, Sidamo, and Bale were putting up a strong fight\ on the southern front. On this side, *Ras*DestaDamtew, *Dejjach*NesibuZeamanuel,\ *Dejazmach*BalchaSafo, and *Dejjach*(later *Ras*-bitwadad) MekonnenEndalkachew\ commanded Ethiopian soldiers against Marshal Rodolfo Graziani\'s Italians. Despite this,\ they were unable to stop the Italian advance. The Italians took control of Harar a few days\ after Addis Ababa fell,\ The Italians\' success was largely due to their greater preparation, superior weapons,\ a crucial monopoly of airpower, and the deployment of the banned mustard gas. The\ Ethiopians, on the other hand, experienced logistical issues (absence of roads, radio\ communication and maps). Ethiopia was in the process of transitioning from feudalism to\ modernity. Ethiopian commanders lost the Adwa-era military courage without replacing\ it with contemporary military skills. - Following Marshal Badoglio's occupation of Addis Ababa, Benito Mussolini declared,\ "Ethiopia is Italian". Italian-occupied Ethiopia was officially merged with Eritrea and\ Somalia into an entirely new territory called Italian East Africa, or in its Italian version,\ *Africa Orientale Italiana*(AOI). - The viceroy was the senior representative of fascist power at the top of the Italian\ colonial administrative structure. Badoglio was Musoloni\'s first viceroy, but he was soon\ replaced (at the end of May 1936) by Graziani, whose reign was likewise cut short by an\ assassination attempt on February 19, 1937. He was succeeded by Amadeo Umberto\ d\'Aosta, Duke of Aosta, a more liberal figure who ruled until Italy\'s surrender in 1941.\ Ethiopian resistance fighters, named \"Patriots\" (locally known as *Arbegnoch*), began\ to reassemble in their respective areas under the leadership of local leaders in order to\ challenge the enemy. The Italians were confronted with a national resistance almost from\ the beginning. Despite the Italians efforts to divide the patriots, the resistance movement\ encompassed nearly all areas and ethnic groupings. - The resistance began almost soon after the Battle of Maychew. These Patriots were active\ throughout the occupation era, making life tough for the Italians, particularly in rural\ northern, eastern, and central Ethiopia. "ተነስ! አትነሳምወይሀገርሲወረርዝምትላለህ\ ወይ" (\'Stand! Oh rise up; you cannot sit there while the nation is invaded\') became the\ popular slogan at the time. As a result, the country was never effectively occupied. - Some of the notable leaders of the first phase of the patriots resistance were *Ras*Emeru\ Haile-Sellase, *Ras*DestaDamtew, the emperor\'s son-in-law, the brothers Abera and\ AsfawasonKasa. *Dejjach*BalchaSafo, *Ras*AbebeAregay, and *Dejjach*Feqre-Maryam\ Yennadu. AbunePetros, a bishop of Wallo who became a martyr, is said to have been\ the motivating spirit. MogesAsgedom and AbrehaDeboch, two young Ethiopians,\ attempted to kill Italian Viceroy Graziani on February 19, 1937. Graziani was seriously\ wounded while some other officials were killed.\ As a kind of revenge, Italian forces massacred Ethiopians in the city. The episode is\ known as the Graziani Massacre or the February Massacre. Approximately 30,000\ Ethiopians were slaughtered in three days.\ The Italians primarily targeted Ethiopians with a high level of education. Mass\ massacres revealed Fascism\'s real face and sparked a fresh phase of national opposition to\ Italian authority. This event signaled the beginning of the resistance\'s second phase. The\ nobility and local notables launched the second wave of patriotic resistance. It took on\ the form of guerilla warfare and was mostly concentrated in rural regions. It was mainly\ strong in the regions of Shewa, Gojjam and Begemidir. Many renowned guerrilla leaders\ fought the enemy in different battles.\ Haile Mariam Mamo, AbebeAregay, GeresuDuki, and BekeleWoya in Shewa, and\ Belay Zeleke in Gojjam, and AmorawWubineh in Gondar, were some of the popular\ patriotic leaders. - Ethiopian resistance fighters lacked a well-organised supply and provisioning\ infrastructure. They relied heavily on individual donations as well as looting enemy\ possessions. Patriots often used peasant homesteads for shelter and food. The Ethiopian\ peasantry provided food and shelter to the combatants. On various occasions, peasants\ fought with patriots against the Italians. They also provided crucial information to the\ patriots. - *YewustArbegnoch*(\"inner patriots\") made a great contribution to the patriotic\ struggle. These were patriots who lived in towns among the Italians and frequently\ worked with them, but who also passed on vital information to the patriots. Some of\ these group\'s members used to provide underground support to patriots battling in the\ bushes. Their main task was to collect weapons, medicine, food, and intelligence reports\ to be secretly delivered to fighters. As *YewustArbegnoch*, Ethiopian women played an\ important role. Women used to get crucial information from Italians. Some went to the\ extent of arranging secret killings of Italian authorities. - The patriotic struggle continued often under difficult circumstances. Shortages of\ arms, food, clothing, and medicines had always been serious challenges to the patriots\ throughout the period of struggle. There were also personal conflicts among patriotic\ leaders which even sometimes led to the extent of armed clashes. The patriots also lacked\ proper coordination. They had no strong uniting political organization. Their slogan was\ fighting for the Ethiopian flag and monarchy.\ Despite the above mentioned weaknesses, the patriotic resistance continued throughout\ the five years of Italian occupation. It played a great role in the gradual weakening of the\ fascist forces and enhanced the liberation of Ethiopia. Yet, the final liberation of Ethiopia\ was achieved by the combined efforts of internal and external forces which was partly\ related to the Second World War.\ In June 1940, Italy entered World War II on the side of Germany. This incident led to\ British military intervention in the liberation campaign of Ethiopia. Britain believed\ that military intervention in Africa would protect her colonial interests. Emperor Haile\ Selassie, who was in exile in London, requested British military assistance, and a joint\ Anglo-Ethiopian liberation operation was started in Sudan and Kenya. **[UNIT -- FOUR]** **SOCIETY AND POLITICS IN THE AGE OF WORLD WARS\ [1914-1945]**