F.Y.B.A. Political Science Introduction to Politics (Eng) Syllabus PDF

Revised Syllabus for F.Y.B.A. – Political Sciece INTRODUCTION TO POLITICS FYBA-PAPER I SECTION I Module 1 The study of Politics 1.1 Definitions Nature and Scope [Note: The definition should reflect the...

Revised Syllabus for F.Y.B.A. – Political Sciece INTRODUCTION TO POLITICS FYBA-PAPER I SECTION I Module 1 The study of Politics 1.1 Definitions Nature and Scope [Note: The definition should reflect the changing understanding of politics] 1.2 Normative and Empirical Approaches Feminist Approache. Module 2 Society State and Nation State 2.1 The state and society and civil society 2.2 National ism and Nation State Module 3 Meaning and types of: 3.1 Power and Authority 3.2 Legitimacy 3.3 Sovereignty Module 4 Select Concepts: 4.1 Law : Nature, Scope and Types 4.2 Political Obligation 4.3 Resistance: Civil Disobedience, Revolution SECTION II Module 5 Basic Political Values 5.1 Liberty 5.2 Equality 5.3 Justice - Procedural, Distributive Module 6 Rights: 5.1 Definition, Meaning 5.2 Types: Civil, Political, Economic 5.3 Contemporapy Issues and Debates Module 7 Form of Government : 7.1 Democratic and Non-democratic forms of Government 7.2 Pre-requisites of Democracy 7.3 Democracy in India Module 8 Ideologies: 8.1 Significance and Classification of Ideologies 8.2 Communism 8.3 Gandhism (w.e.f. from academic year 2011-12)    List of References 1. Ball, Terence, Ideals and Ideologies: A Reader, Addison- Wesley, Boston, 1995. 2. Ball, Terence and Dagger. Richard, Political Ideologies and the Democratic Ideal, fourth Edition, Longman, 2003. 3. Barry, Norman, An Introduction to Modern Political Theory, Macmillan, London, 1981. 4. Bird, Colin, An Introduction to Political Pnliosophy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2007. 5. Farrelly, Colin, An Introduction to Contemporary Political Theory, Sage, London, 2003. 6. Gaus, Gerald F., Political Concepts and Political Theories, Westview Press, Boulder, 2000. 7. Goodin, Robert E. and Klingemana, Hans-Dieter, A New Handbook of Political Science, Oxford University Press, Oxford 1998. 8. Greenstein, Fred I. and Pclsby, Nelson W, Handbook of Political Science, Addison Wesley Longman, Reading, 1975. 9. Hawkesworth Mary and Kogan, Maurice (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Government, Vols. I, II Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1992. 10 Held, David, Political Theory and the Modem State, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1989. 11. Heywood, Andrew. Political Ideologies: An Introduction Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2003. 12. Heywood, A, Political Theory - An Introduction, Third Edition, Palgrave Basingstoke: 2004. 13. Hoffman, John and Graham, Paul, Introduction to Political Theory, Longman, Harlow, 2006. 14. Kaviraj, Sudipta and Khilnani, Sunil, Civil Society. History and Possibilities, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001. 15. Mackenzie, I., Political Concepts: A Reader and Guide, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2005, 16. Marsh, David and Stoker, Gerry, Theory and Methods in Political Sciences, Macmillan, Houndmills, 1995. 17. Mohanty, Memoranda, Contemporary Indian Political Theory, Sanskrit, New Delhi, 2002. 18. Okin, S. M., Justice, Gender and the Family, Basic Books, New York, 1987. 19. Plant, R., Modern Political Thought, Blackwell, Oxford, 1991. 20 Varma, S. P., Modern political Theory, Vikas, New Delhi, 1983. 21. Vincent, A., Modern Political Ideologies, Blackwell, Oxford, 1992.    1 MODULE I Unit 1 THE STUDY OF POLITICS Unit Structure 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Definitions of Political – Science 1.3 Nature of Political – Science 1.4 Scope of Political Science 1.5 Summary 1.6 Questions 1.0 OBJECTIVES 1) To understand the changing meaning, nature and scope of political – science as a social Science 1.1 INTRODUCTION The lesson would enable the student to know the Definitions and Meaning of Political science. The Definitions would reflect the changing understanding of Politics. It is difficult to give a single precise definition of Political Science. It varies from person to person depending upon the importance he gives to various aspects of political life. The study of Political Science began with the Greeks. 1.2 DEFINITIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE Various definitions of Political Science given by the ancient, Medieval and modern political scientists of this subject are as follows 1] Origin :- The term `politics‟, is derived from the Greek word `Polis‟, which means the city state According to Greek Philosophers, Politics was a subject which dealt with all the activities and affairs of the city state. Their City States were known as `Polis‟. City state was an all inclusive term, as the ancient Greeks made no distinction between the state and the Government on one hand, and State and Society on the other. They never differentiated between personal life and social life. Hence according to them Politics was a total study of man, society, state, morality and so on. 2] Politics as the study of the state:- Traditionally Political science is a science of state. Political thinkers like R.G. Gettel, J.W. Garner, Bluntschli and many others were of the view that political science was the study of the state. R.G. Getlel defined “Political Science as a study of state in the past, present and future and of Political institutions and Political theories”. J.W.Garner States, “Political Science begins and ends with the state” 3] Politics as the study of the Government :- Some Political Scientists like Paul Janet, George Catlin, Hans Eulan have accepted the view which states that politics deals with the state and government. Paul Janet writes “Political Science is concerned with the foundations of the state and principles of government. George Catlin states “Politics means either the activities of political life or the study of these activities. And these activities are generally treated as activities of the various organs of government.” Prof Hans Eulan considers in his definition of politics that the study of formal government is a fundamental concern of politics. The Oxford English Dictionary defines Political Science as “the study of the state and systems of government.” 4] Politics as the study of national Institution :- Bridal expressed the view that “Political Science is, above all, descriptive study which brings together the description of national political institutions, their history, their ideological principles, their working, the forces that direct them, the influence they undergo, the results they obtain and their effect on the life of the country and its relations with neighboring states “. Traditional Approach :- The concept of Political Science as a study of State, Government and national Institution is not considered adequate today. This aspect of above definitions emphasizes the legal structure only. They do not pay attention to what is happening withing the State. Political Science must include the study of informal structures, facts and reality of Politics. Hence, modern Political thinkers defined Political Science differently and taken modern approach. 5] Political Science as a Study of Power :- Modern Political thinkers like Lasswell, Robert Dahl have defined politics in terms of power, influence, and authority. According to these thinkers Power has acquired prominent position in political thought. Harold Lasswell considers, “Politics is the study of shaping and sharing Political powers” Robert A. Dahl defined that, “A Political system is any persistent pattern of human relationship that involves, to a significant extent power, rule or authority.” According to the view of these thinkers entire political activity directed towards capturing and maintaining power/ “Power” is the central idea in Politics – who get, what when and How”. 6] Political Science as a study of Conflict Resolution :- This view was suggested by Miller in his `Nature of Politics‟. The purpose of a political activity is either to bring about a change or resist a change. People compete with each other to satisfy their needs. When resources are limited and the people who want to utilize them are many conflicts arise. Politics is a means to resolve this conflict. According to Peter B. Haris “ The Modern emphasis in the study of Politics is laid on disagreements and reconciliation or resolution of these disagreement. 7] Political Science as a Study of Co - relation of many Forces Encyclopedia of Social Sciences States, “Present day political science revolves around the problem of the attainment, consolidation and distribution of political power whether in an actually existing state or a hypothetical state”. Political Institution and politics can not function in vacuum. Social and economic forces affect the political process. Hence they also must be taken into account. Analysis and Conclusion :- The several definitions of the term Political Science reflect the changing understanding of the discipline. From above definitions we may say that there are mainly two approaches of looking at Political-Science. 1) Teaditional approach 2) Morden approach. The Traditional Approach suggests that Political-Science is the study of State, Government and National Institutions. It studies the formal, legal structures and theoritical part. The Modern Approach emphasizes “What is actually happening in the state”. It stressed on reality and actual facts of politics. Thus it studies various forces, processes and informal structures making it dynamic. However, it can be said that political - Science is a systematic study of the State, Government, Political institutions, Power, influence and authority, Political processes and Political forces.  Table about definitions and meaning of political - science Traditional definitions Modern definitions 1) Origin as a as a study of as the study 2) as a study of the sate study of power conflict co-relation and Government Resolution of many forces A) Getlel b) Garner c) Janet Emphasizes on d) Catlin Reality and actual e) Hans Eulan facts of politics f) Bridal 3) Emphasizes on – Theroitical part legal structure Check Your Progress 1. Give any two definitions of Political Science. 2. Who is called the father of Political Science? 1.3 NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE Political – Science is a social science. Its nature is different than physical sciences like physics and chemistry. Whenever we study the origin, evolution and development of Political Science; we find various aspects of the nature of Political Science. The definitions and meaning of Political Science shows that it is a systematic study of Political theory, Political Institutions, Political forces and processes. When we call Politics as `Political Science‟, we have to see how far this subject stands to the tests of science in the strict sense of the term. In this unit we discuss the nature of Political – Science as a social science. 1] Is it a Science ? Very often a question is raised whether the discipline of Politics can be regarded as a science? There is no unanimity among Political thinkers whether the subject is a Science. What is a Science? “Science is a systematic body of knowledge, the facts of which have been accurately and impartially collected, arranged and classified through the use of various scientific methods of observation, comparison and experimentation”. Various arguments are forwarded for and against the discipline being a science. ARGUMENTS THAT IT IS NOT A SCIENCE :- Political Scientists like Maitland, Burke, Gettel do not think that Politics is really a Science. Their arguments are as follows :- 1] Disagreement in Definition, Terminology and Methods :- There is no general agreement among Political thinkers regarding definition, scope, terminology etc. There is no exactness or precision in the political science, as a result, they cannot be accepted and applied universally. This does not happen in case of natural sciences like physics and chemistry. 2] Lack of Precision :- Principles of Political Science are not precise, clear and they lead to many controversies. Where - as a formula in physics or chemistry is clear and universally accepted. eg. The laws of gravity or the principles of arithmetic i.e. Two plus two equals four every where. However Political Science like pure and natural sciences such as physics and Mathematics does not possess any such universally relevant principles. 3] Human Beings :- Politics deals with human beings whose minds are unpredictable. Political scientists have to deal with man (human beings) who are not under their control. Human behavior is unpredictable and not always logical. Whereas physics and chemistry deal with matter or inanimate objects (non living objects). Natural scientist work in laboratories and the objects are perfectly under their control. Hence their rules and laws are absolute, and universal. 4] Limited Experimentation :- Experimentation in laboratory or in an isolated environment is not possible in Politics like natural sciences. 5] Lack of Objectivity :- Political Science lacks objectivity but subjective element is very strong. Political-science is subjective and relative because political scientist has to deal with human beings in relation to society, State, Government etc. 6] Diffcult to Predict Future :- Political phenomena do not follow proper sequence like exact science. At times, the effects are contrary and therefore the results cannot be predicted. Inspite of the above arguments, the subject is regarded as a science because :- Arguments that it is a Science :- 1] Political Science is not a pure science but a social Science – Politics is a systematized body of knowledge. Its facts are collected and organized through proper observation, comparison and experimentation, etc. eg. Studies on election. Science is a systematic and formulated knowledge of a specified subject. In that sense Political Science is certainly a science. 2] Political Experiments are not completely ruled out. The government itself is a continuous experiment. The application of Marxist principles in the USSR was one such experiment. 3] Broad Conclusions can be drawn in Political Science eg. Independent impartial judiciary, free press is essential for democracy. 4] Empirical studies are based on careful observation and classification :- Policial Science puts hypothesis to empirical verification. Theories are not built on speculation. Political Scientists today employ survey methods, graphs, charts etc. to arrive at their research conclusions. Thus political science is not a pure science, but a social science. 2] Is Politics an Art? The term `Art‟ refers to the practical application of knowledge. Political Science applies the knowledge about political events for creating a good social and political order. Hence it is an art. Robert Dhal States that “Political Science is both – Science and Art. Whenever students of Political Science test their theories against the data of experience by observation, the political analysis can be regarded as scientific. When this political analysis is applied for the working of political institution it is an art”. 3] Politics or Political Science? :- What should the subject be called Politics or Political Science? Aristotle called his studies in Political Phenomena as `Politics‟. Prof Laskis work was named as a “Grammer of Politics”. However, most of the modern writers prefer the subject to be called as `Political Science‟ and not as Politics. Because Political Science is a systematic study of Political theory, political institutions, political forces and processes. The term `Politics‟ indicates the current political problems or issues. Many times common people use the term of Politics as a dubious, messy, rotten affairs. `Politics‟ is a wide spread and universal activity and that is analysis in political - science. Study of politics is a part of the study of political Science. Politics is an activity and that what it analyses as a political science is only a part of it. The term `Politics‟ is not precise to give us whole range of knowledge pertaining to state and other political institutions. There is distinction between a politician and political scientist. A politician is a person who actively participates in the political affairs. Whereas a political scientist is an expert in the subject. He studies the subject systematically. Hence it is preferable the subject be called a `Political Science and not Politics. Table Nature of Political Science 1 2 3 It is a science Is it an Art Is it a politics 1 2 It is not a science It is a science Application Politics is only of political theory and the part of the philosophy study of 1) Disagreement in 1) It is a social science political definitions 2) Experiments possible science 2) lack precision 3) Broad conclusion 3) Deals with human possible beings 4) Empirical studies 4) limited experiments 5) lack of objectivity 6) difficult to predit 1.4 THE SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE The scope of Political-Science means the subject matter or content of Political Science. Various Political thinkers are not in agreement about the exact scope of politics. The lack of precise definition and terminology have created confusion regarding the subject matter of Political Science. Despite the ambiguity and controversy in the field various aspects included in the study of political science are as follows :- A conference of political thinkers held in Sept 1948 at the UNESCO House decided the scope of Political Science. 1.4 1] Political Science is the study of Political theories :- Over the centuries, Political scientists have concerned themselves with formulating political theories and political ideas. e.g., Plato explained theory of Ideal State, Theory of justice, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau explained theory of origin of state. These theories enable us to organize their observations and offer a foundation on which future observations and analysis can be based. 1.4 2] Poltical Institutions :- Study of Political Science includes the study of various constitutions, various systems of government their merits, demits etc. eg. Whether it is parliamentary, presidential, dictatorial, democratic, coalition form of government. Such a study helps us to reform out political institutions in order to realize our goals. 1.4 3] Political Parties and Pressure Groups :- It studies the various systems of political parties, their role and importance. Pressure groups and interest groups are becoming more important. Political science studies their role, methods etc. in a given political system. This makes the study of Political - Science more realistic. Opposition political parties, pressure groups Non-Governmental organizations (NGOS) do not directly form the government. They indirectly influence governmental policies and decisions. Hence the study of governance (act of governing) is incomplete if it is limited to the study of government. 1.4 4] International Relations :- It includes the study of international organization, and policles. States do not live in isolation. Domestic Policy and foreign Policy are interrelated. Hence the study of international relations becomes significant more in the times of globalization. 1.4 5] Political Science is the study of the relationship between government and civil society :- The state is comprised of two entities : government and civil society. Both entities influence governance in different ways. Civil society includes citizens, Non- governmental Organization (NGOS), pressure groups, opposition Political parties. Civil society influence governance indirectly, by influencing the government and convincing it to adopt certain policies. Whereas the government possesses the power and authority to influence governance directly. Hence the relationship between government and civil society is an important determinant of governance in the state. Political Science Studies this relationship in order to better understand the nature of the state and the efficacy of governance. 1.4 6] It is the study of Power, Authority, Influences, Political activities, Political Processes :- Political Science is normative as well as empirical. Normative approach of Political Science studies norms, ideals, morals, principles, philosophy of Political Science eg. What should be the nature of the state etc. Empirical approach of political Science observes and analyses political activities and institutions as they are in a scientific way. 1.4 6] Morgenthau said scope of Political-Science includes three branches :- a) Political Sociology b) Political theory c) Political Institutions Modern political Scientists feel that man‟s social life is an integrated whole. Any change in man‟s social environment have repercussions on man‟s political life. The modern state cannot escape from that impact of the social, psychological, economic and cultural forces. According to Leacock Political- Science must not content itself with a mere analysis of Political institutions as existing at any given time, it must take account of the process of change and evolution, and the alteration of social and intellectual environment.” 1.4 7] ‘Master Science’ :- Aristotle called political science the „Master Science‟ because Politics determines the environment within which every person will organize his life. No one can claim that he has nothing to do with Politics. No one can escape from the parameters set by politics. The ancient Greeks never made any distinction between man‟s personal life and political life. According to them Politics is the total study of man, Society, State, Morality etc. 1.4 8] Study of Political system and its environments :- Varied political systems exist and function in different environment. Political science studies them with reference to the response given and feedback secured. The policies of one system have an impact on the other systems. Also political decisions are not made in vacuums. These are influenced by economic structure, social institutions and the whole environment in which the state functions. 1.5 SUMMARY Summary Table The Scope of Political – science meaning of the scope The scope of political-science 1. study of political theories 2. study of political Institutions 3. study of political parties and pressure groups 4. study of international relations 5. study of the relationship between government and civil society 6. study of power, Authority, influences, political activities and political processes. 7. It is a master – science 8. study of political system and its environments. 1.6 QUESTIONS 1. Define Political Science and examine its nature. 2. Explain the Meaning of Political Science. Is it a Science or an art? 3. Write in details about the scope of Political Science.       2 MODULE I Unit 2 THE APPROACHES NORMATIVE, EMPIRICAL AND FEMINIST Unit Structure 2.0 Introduction 2.1 Approaches 2.2 Normative approach 2.3 Empirical approach 2.4 Feminist approach 2.5 Questions 2.0 INTRODUCTION The study of Political Science can be approached in different ways from different angles and perspectives. The origin of the study of political science can be traced to the Greck Period. Aristotle is regarded as the founder (father) of Political Science. Through the ages, there was much theorisation on affairs of the state and government and by and large the approach was normative. The post first world war period witnessed behavioral revolution. More emphasis was given to the study of political processes and political forces. Thus in the study of political – Science transition happened from traditional Political theory (structure) to modern political analysis (political processes). In modern world “Power” is the key issue in Politics. Hence processes of acquiring and exercising power got a important place in the study of political-Science. Thus there is a radical transformation in the nature and content of Political Science. The study of Politics has undergone many changes. It was due to the new approaches and methods applied to the study of political science. 2.1 APPROACHES Approaches mean the different stand – points from which the study or investigation of a political phenomenon may be undertaken. Meaning - Approaches means the different angles and ways from which the study of political phenomena may be undertaking. It is the way of looking at things. Approach is an outlook. In the study of Political Science a verity of approaches are applied by the Political Scientists, Popular and main approaches are as follows :- Types - 1] Normative approach 2] Empirical approach and then the Behavioral approach 3] Feminist approach The main features of these approaches have been examined below:- 2.2 NORMATIVE APPROACH Normative approach to the study of Politics is known as traditional approach. The works in Political Science from Plato to Karl Mark can be regarded as Traditional Political Science. These thinkers emphasized the study of state and government. They kept in mind cartain norms and values. The method was to begin with cause and reach to the effect. The important features of this approach are as follows. (1) Idealistic and Prescriptive :- The emphasis in this approach is on norms and ideals. It does not concern itself with things as they are. It does not adopt a realistic view of political actions, and institutions. Through the ages Political thinkers have focused their ideas and theories on what they perceive to be the ideal for the state. They prescribe cartain forms of conduct rether than describe events or facts. This approach was inclined to ignore “What is” and gave more importance to “What should be”. Therefore it is prescriptive Plato, Hegel and Green are some of the idealist thinkers. 2] Value Oriented approach :- Normative thinkers emphasized ethical and moral values such as good bad, just, unjust etc. It is a value loaded approach. It was more concerned with setting standards for organizations and governance of society. 3] Optimistic and utopian :- Normative theories are based on the assumptions. It believes that a better system is possible. Accordingly normative thinkers suggest the ways and means to achieve this better system. In that sense this approach is optimistic. Eg. Plato‟s concept of Ideal State. 4] Institutional formal and Legal approach :- Normative approach suggests that political – Science is the study of State and government. It studies the formal, Legal Structures of Political system. e. g., Study of the origin of the State, functions of the State, Structure of the government, provisions about the rights etc. 5] dominated by Philosophy and History :- From Plato, Aristotle (ancient Greek thinkers) to Rousseau used Philosophical deductive method in adopting the normative approach to make political enquiry. Evaluation of the Normative Approach :- The normative approach to the study of Politics has its uses as well as its disadvantages. Critics of normative theories have pointed the following drawbacks in the approach :- 1] Ideas, Theories formulated by philosophers cannot be verified. Most of the theories are based on assumptions. It has no historical evidence. 2] Too much theoretical :- Political Philosophers more emphasized on philosophical principles than reality of Politics. Hence there is a gap between the normative theorists ideal world and real world. 3] Philosophers have not even reached a universally acceptable definition of the term philosophy. Advocates of the normative approach listed some advantages of this approach as follows :- 1] Normative principles are a sources of guidance for empirical researchers, and provide their studies with a purpose. 2] Normative theories remind us to seek the good in life such as justice, morals etc. Table Normative approach Features or characteristics Evatuation Drawbacks Advantages 1 2 3 4 5 Idealistic value utopian formal philosophical and based Legal, Institutional Institutional Check Your Progress 1. What do you mean by Approach? 2. Normative Approach is value based Approach. Why? 3. Explain – Contribution of Normative Approach. 4. What was the focus of Normative Approach. 2.3 EMPIRICAL APPROACH The Industrial revolution and other social problems pressed Political Scientists for solution. In the 20th century Political Scientists were unable to find solutions to real life Political problems. At this stage the interest in philosophical speculation declined. In the beginning, the empirical approach was viewed as a supplement to the normative approach. But after 1940s the empirical approach monopolized the study of Politics. Graham Wallas, Arthur Bentley, Charles Merriam are some empirical thinkers. Grahm Wallas in his book “Human Nature in Politics “ introduced greater realism and psychological dimension in political studies. Arthur Bentley in his book introduced sociological dimension in politics. The important Features of this approach are as follows :- 1] Modern approach :- Empirical approach emerged in the 20th Century. But empirical tradition can be traced back to the earliest days of Political thought. It can be seen in Aristole‟s (384-22 BC) attempt to classify constitutions, in Machiavelli‟s (1469-1527) realistic account of statecraft and in Montesquieu‟s theory of government and law. In 20th century it monopolized the study of Politics. In that sense it is modern. 2] Stresses Scientific Method :- Empiricists Studied Political Processes using scientific techniques such as survey, research, observation, experiment, measurement etc. eg. A normative approach to electoral studies may philosophize on why people should vote. Where as empirical approach would conduct surveys and interview of voters to find out the actual voting process. The goal of empiricists is to develop a science of Political behavior. 3] Value free :- The empirical approach does not bother with morals, ethics and values. It is a rational approach. It restricts itself to what is and was rather than what ought to be. Empirists draw a line of difference between fact and value. They take value neutral attitude. 4] Inter-disciplinary:- While studying the Political issues empiricists welcome social Sciences like sociology, Psychology and economics. It believes that political behavior of man is only one aspect of his total behavior and so the inter disciplinary Study would help Political analysis. Eg. To study voting behavior of the people we should study one‟s loyalties to caste, religion and political party economic condition require to be examined. 5] Descriptive :- It is descriptive. It means it seeks to analyze and explain where the normative approach is `prescriptive‟ in the sense that it makes judgments and offers recommendations. 6] Emphasis on informal processes of Politics:- In the modern approach, greater emphasis has been put on informal processes of Politics and less on Political institutions in isolation. 7] Realistic :- Empirical theories are realistic. These theories are not based on assumptions but on facts. Eg. A normative philosopher may believe that an ideal state is one where the Capital Punishment (death penalty) is banned. On the other hand an empirical thinker may produce statistical evidence to prove that countries that practice capital punishment show lower instances of killings than countries where the death penalty is not practiced. The death penalty saves several innocent lives by taking the life of a hardened criminal. 8] The behavioral approach :- Behaviouralism is a further refinement of some aspects of empirical Method. It emphasized to the Study of man‟s Political behavior instead of State. It aimed at, “the development of a science of the Political process”. Its emphasis on scientific methods. Political-Science was in danger of becoming abstract and remote from reality. Therefore the behavioral approach completely abstains from “armchair” speculation. It requires the research to be systematic, hypothesis, data, evidence etc. Its theory is subjected to empirical verification. They identify problems and try to find out solutions. Evaluation of the EMPIRICAL APPROACH Criticism :- 1] Critics say that an entirely value free approach is not desirable because civilization would stagnate if political science divorced itself from morality. 2] Although in the initial years the empirical approach generated a lot of excitement amongst Political academics. But now several of these academics are becoming disillusioned with the empirical approach. The main reason for this is that the approach appears to have failed to deliver on its biggest promise to find a solution to world problems. Advantages of the Empirical approach :- 1] Broadening of Frontiers of Politics :- New Political terms and Phenomena‟s found a place in the study of Politics. Eg. Power, influence, authority, Political behaviour, Political culture etc. 2] Given Scientific Orientation to Politics :- It has made research in Political Science more realistic. Subjects like voting pattern, elections can be more reliably analysed with the help of case analysis, interviewing, observation etc. 3] Made Politics More dynamic :- The empirical approach has enabled political Scientists to take their theories beyond Political institutions. Today Political Scientists focus a lot of attention on the political behavior of individuals, groups. 4] Fulfils the short comings of the old approaches :- It does not neglect the institutional element but tries to approach the institutions in their fullness as they work. Eg. The normative theories gave us the ideal of democracy. Resolving questions such as:- Is a presidential or parliamentary system more conducive to democracy in Indian conditions? What percentage of Indians are casting their vote and how many are doing so freely? Can be achieved only after fact finding by employing empirical techniques. Table  Empirical Approach Features or characteristics Evaluation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Modern Scientific value- Inter- Informal Realistic Behavioral free disciplinary Criticism Advantages Check Your Progress 1. Why Empirial Approach is called as Modern Approach? 2. Explain about Empirical Approach. 2.4 FEMINIST APPROACH Feminist Approach The feminist approach to the study of politics is a new age development in the evolution of Political Science. The approach emerged with growing awareness of the rights of women. Evolution of Feminism :- Feminism as a political force and movement can be divided in three waves :- 1] Women‟s suffrage movements of the 19th and early 20th century. 2] Second wave began in the 1960s. It was concerned with legal and social equality of women. i.e. ending the legal sex discrimination. Right for women to have access and equal opportunity to the workplace. 3] Third wave as the continuation of second wave in 1990s. concerned about the question of sexuality, reproductive rights. Growth of different schools of thought on Feminism :- The French Revolution of 1789 proclaimed to the world the universal concepts Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. That championed the cause of feminism by strongly advocating on gender equality, empowerment of women and equal rights. This led the growth of different schools of thought on feminism :- 1] Liberal Feminism :- It is an individualistic form of feminism. It asserts gender equality through political and legal reforms. Eg. Equality before the law. It focuses on women‟s ability to show and maintain their equality through their own actions and choices. 2] Marxist Feminism :- It highlights the theoretical relevance of understanding the gender oppression. It emphasized that the tyranny and atrocities over female is a product of the social eco- political order. 3] Social Feminism :- Social feminist trace the root of all oppression in economic factors eg. Exploitation of women in the forms of low wages for the same type of work etc. It also highlights the negative role of institution of family in perpetuation of women‟s oppression and exploitation from their birth till their death in the diverse forms and customs. 4] Radical Feminism :- Radical feminist became aware of their own oppression and exploitation. It stressed on ending societal domination and elitism. 5] Cultural Feminism :- It is non-political in nature. It assumed that women are kind, warm, Loving than men. It believe that if women ruled the regions, there will be less possibility of war and greater sharing of love, joy in the world. 6] Eco-Feminism :- It merger ecology and feminist theory. It stressed on the respect for all living being. Evolution of Feminism and the growth of different schools of thought on feminism views political theory from the female perspective. The main Features of the feminist approach are as follows :- 1] Stands for women’s liberation and empowerment of Women :- Feminism is a belief in the right of women and equality with men. It takes the view for the betterment and emancipation of women in society, supported for women‟s rights in politics and in life. 2] Root of all problems is gender inequality :- Feminist thinkers emphasise that gender inequality to be the root cause of all ills in the state. It condemn the established theories of the state on the ground that such ignore the equal rights of women and subjugate them to male dominance in all areas e.g. All governments are dominated by men, all decisions that are taken at the local, national and international level are made from the male perspective, Feminists have highlighted what they see as the political relationship between the sexes the supremacy of man and the subjection of women. 3] Criticizes Male Bias:- The feminist approach to Political Studies is based on the assumption that the government, it laws, its members, the bureaucracy and civil society all are patriarchal. They are based on a system wherein men are considered to be superior to women. The feminist theory criticizes this male bias and holds it to be unjust. 4] Tackles Problems of Women:- The feminist approach formulates theories that seek to resolve gender bias. It finds solutions to the problems of women and suggests methods by which the government can empower women. 5] Clubbed with other approaches :- The feminist approach is usually adopted in conjunction with another approach such as the normative, empirical, comparative, sociological approaches eg. A study on the voting behavior of women would adopt a feminist empirical approach. Evaluation of the Feminist approach :- Critics of the approach claim that feminist theories have the following drawbacks:- 1] Critics say that the assumption of the feminist approach that it is only men who create a woman unfriendly world is incorrect. Many times women are woman‟s worst enemy e.g. In India mother in law and daughter in law relationship. 2] Critics say that tracing all women‟s problems to gender bias is a wrong way to approach issues. Some issues are common to both genders. Advantages:- 1] It is concerned about the problems of women. If not for feminists, Perhaps women‟s empowerment would not have been as great a success at it is. Feminist Political research studies and finds solutions to problems of women eg. Problems such as poverty among women, crime against women, female foeticides etc. 2] The feminist approach adds a woman‟s touch to global leadership. Peace initiatives, cultural exchanges, literacy drives and Medical aid to needy. 3] Feminism has gained growing respectability as a distinctive school of political thought. It has shed new light upon established concepts such as power, domination and equality but also introduced a new sensitivity and language into politics. 4] The domestic, professional and public roles of women, at least in developed societies have undergone a major transformation due to feminist approach and women‟s movement. Table Feminist Approach Evolution Growth of feminism Features of Feminists Evolution women‟s legal question of 1. stands for women‟s liberation suffrage equality sexuality and empowerment. movement movement 2. gender equality 3. critizes malebias 4. women‟s problems. 5. clubbed with other approaches 1 2 3 4 5 6 Liberal Marxist Social Radical Cultural Ecofeminism 2.5 QUESTIONS Discuss the main features of the normative approach to Political- Science. 1. Evaluate the empirical approach to Political-Science. 2. Explain the main features of the feminist approach to Political- Science. 3. Briefly explain different approaches to the study of Political Science 4. Define politics and examine the inadequacies of the traditional approaches to the study of politics.     3 MODULE II Unit 3 SOCIETY, STATE AND NATION STATE Unit Structure 3.0 Objectives 3.1 The State 3.2 Society 3.3 Civil Society. 3.4 Questions 3.0 OBJECTIVES To understand the basic concepts of political science i.e. State, Society Nation, Nation-State 3.1 STATE, SOCIETY, STATE, NATION AND NATION STATE In 21st Century, State is ever where. It is touching, directly or indirectly, all aspects of human existence and life. It has become omnipotent. This was not the case a few centuries age. Back then state had limited role. It was primarily concerned with (i) law and order and (ii) revenue collection. From this very small role to today‟s all pervading role, the role of state has been expanding. 3.1.1 Definitions and Nature of State :- Many scholars have defined state in various ways. Even today modern day scholars attempt to define state taking into account its modern functions. In 4th century B.C. Aristotle, who is regarded as `Father of Political Science‟ had defined state. According to him, state is a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and self sufficing life, by which we mean a happy and honorable life. According to some scholars, this definition is so comprehensive that it can hardly be improved upon. Aristotle‟s definition communicates the primary objectives of the state however we must study some more definitions of the State. Holland:- State is a Politically organized people of a definite territory. Prof Woodrow Wilson, `State is a People organized for law within a definite territory.‟ Though these two definitions are short, they are inadequate also. Hence we must look at some more definitions Dr. J.W.Garner, `As a concept of Political Science, the State is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent or nearly so, of external control and possessing an organized government to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.” Prof. Harold Laski, `The State is a territorial society divided into government and subjects claiming within its allotted physical area, a supremacy over all other institutions. If we analyse the two definitions, we can identify four elements which are essential to make a State. These are (i) Population (ii) territory (iii) government (iv) Sovereignty. Today we live in them of globalization and an age of international politics. Hence we must consider definition given by Philimore which takes into account the perspective of international law. According to him, `State is a people permanently occupying a fixed territory, bound together by common laws, habits and customs into one body politics exerting through the medium of an organized government, independent sovereignty and control over people and things within its boundaries, capable of making war and peace and of entering into all international relations with the countries of the world.” This definition extends the scope of state. The earlier Scholars focused on four elements. This definition adds the fifth dimension to international relations, war and peace etc. 3.1.2 (b) Elements of the State :- As noted State has four constituent elements (i) Population (ii) Territory (iii) Government (iv) Sovereignty Each of these element needs to be studied properly. (i) Population – We cannot imagine a State without population. How much population is an issue that can be debated. For example, India is over populated State whereas Austria is under populated State. This issue has engaged the attention of scholars from time immemorial. Aristotle was talking of optimum population small enough to be well governed and big enough to be self sufficient. But there is no denying the fact that without population, there is no State.  (ii) Territory – Like without population, we cannot think of a State without territory. A State can exercise its authority over well defined territory. Fixed Territory is necessary for legal purpose. For emotional purpose, people need to have a fixed territory which they call mother - land or father - land. Territory is so important that normally there are disputes over borders between two states. For example, India and Pakistan have dispute about Kashmir. India and China has dispute about Arunachal Pradesh. Fixed, well defined territory is also necessary for legal purpose. A State has control over land, water, mineral wealth and air space. However, there are some exceptions to the importance of territory as a constituent element of state. Some nomadic tribes wander from region to region. They have no fixed territory. Similarly the Jewish people had no territory of their own till 1948. These are exceptions, not the rule. (iii) Government – government is that agency which steers the ship of the State. Without government, state will be directionless. Here the form of government does not matter. It could be Presidential System, one party rule or even dictatorship, there has to be a government. In other words, government is nothing but the implementing arm of state. Government is that system through which state expresses its will. The government makes law, punishes law breakers, promotes welfare of people. (iv) Sovereignty – scholars believe that sovereignty is the soul of state. Before 15th august 1947, India had territory, population and government. But it did not have sovereignty. It shows the importance of sovereignty. It has two aspect (i) internal and (ii) external. In internal sovereignty, the state has ultimate, unlimited power within its territory. It enjoy final control over all people, associations and other things. Under external sovereignty, it means a state is free from external control. It can enter into international treaties. Some scholars believe that after UNO was formed in 1945 and more specifically after the age of globalization began in 1991, the scope of external sovereignty has shrunk considerably. We have discussed in detail the four constituent elements of state. 3.1.3 State and Government Quite often even well read intelligent people tend to use state and government as if they are synonymous words. In today‟s political Science, they carry vastly different meaning. Hence it is necessary to understand their meanings. Government:- By now it is clear that government is one of the four ingredients of the state, However it has been specifically defined by various scholars. Prof Gettel defined it “It consists of all those people who are engaged in implementing the will of the state.” In other worlds it is the implementing are of the State which covers civil services, armed forces and police forces. For implementing the will of the state, the government is given all powers, resources, men and material. It must get obedience of its subjects. It must also have the necessary power to enter into international treaties etc. J.W.Garner has summed it well. He says `Government must be organized and it must possess the powers and necessary resources so that it can enforce its authority, command respect and obedience. It should be able to maintain peace, order and perform international obligation under the international law. Distinction between State and Government State Government 1] State has Four Constituent 1] It is an agency of the State Elements 2] State enjoys original and 2] Powers of the government are unlimited Power limited and delegated 3] State is an abstract idea 3] Government is a solid reality 4] Territory is an essential 4] There can be government element Of state without territory 5] State is permanent 5] Government is temporary 6] State is a universal 6] Form of government can Phenomenon with fixed change - Dictator- ship, one Elements party rule 7] State covers all citizens 7] Government is made up of Including those who are part only those who work for of Government government. 8] A person cannot have rights 8] A Person can have rights Against the state against government Check Your Progress 1. What do you mean by State? 2. What are the elements of the State? 3. What is Government? 3.2 SOCIETY Today Scholars believe that this concept can be used while discussing non human living creatures. But it is in the case of human because, as was observed by Aristotle „man is a social animal.‟ Society is nothing but „a web of social relationships‟. Hence it is observed that by nature as well as by necessity man is a social animal. Hence the relationships between man and man have multi dimensions. These relationships cover not only political relationships but social, religious relationships also. Nature of Society :- Society is a much broader concept compared to State and government. However a bunch of people does not become society. Similarly a crowd is also not a society. In fact, „Today society is a big complex of all types of associations and communities.‟ It has become essential to human existence as through society only, a man can fulfill his needs and dreams. Similarly in a society there are rules, regulations, initiations which regulate the relationships between people. Association :- It has been defined as an organization of people operating with some fixed rules and has been formed for some specific purpose. These rules are normally written but in rare cases, they could be unwritten. If we compare an `association‟ with a mob it will become clear that `mob‟ has no common specific purpose and has no organization. The comparison between mob and `association‟ bring forth four elements of an association 1] A group of people 2] Definite rules and regulations 3] Specific purpose. 4] Co-operation among the members. In today‟s society one can find all kinds of associations such as social, economic, cultural, sports, political. All these associations are created by people and for the people etc. But we must keep in mind that `State‟ is the supreme association, which can be called association of associations. While other associations are man made, State is regarded as the natural outcome of man‟s nature. Community :- Community covers a whole area of social life. It could be a village, city, Province or a country. Hence the focus is on discussion of common life being lived by people. Hence people relate to each other freely. This common way of life exhibit common social characteristics. This discussion brings to surface two essential elements of community – 1] Locality area – Community covers a specified territory. e. g., village, town state. Normally a good community would be settled on a particular piece of land. This habitation on land creates strong emotional bonds towards the land. 2] Common Social Characteristics :- Whether it is a village community or town community, one can identify some common social characteristics. Like social customs, religious festivals, etc. These create a sense of belonging, oneship among the members. Quite often we see `community‟ is being used to communicate a group of people of a particular faith. For example, Sikh Community, Jewish Community. But Such use is regarded as `unscientific‟. Institution – It is nothing but well established and recognised forms of relationship between social beings. In the case of `institutions‟, what is important is recognised form of relationship. But in case of association and communities they deal with body of people. In other word, society is a huge complex of many kinds of associations, groups, communities and institutions. Historically, we find that for thinkers like plato, Aristotle, there was no distinction between state and society. Since the city states of Greek era, were small in size and number, there was no distinction between state and society. Similarly we can also quote Hegel, a German Philosopher who had projected the idea of `State-society‟. In modern times however, we believe that state and society are two different bodies. This distinction can be understood through their comprehensive definitions `State is a community of people, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent or nearly independent of external control, having an organized government which is obeyed by maximum people‟. As discussed earlier, analysis of this definition brings four element 1] Population 2] Territory 3] Government 4] Sovereignty. Similarly we must also discuss definition of `Society‟. It is the whole community of mankind, just as much as a small social group or a village‟. There is always a web of relationship covering not only political relationships but also social, relations, economic relationships etc. While discussing State and Society it is essential to understand which come first? Society or State? Scholars believe that society come first. Much before state became a reality, there existed some kind of social organizations. In the earliest phase of humanity, there were hunters, fishermen, fruit gatherers who had some social groups. There was no State then. State evolved over a period of time. Even today, we have Eskimos who have no semblance of State. In other words, out of Society comes State. It is not just the issue of who come first state or society, it is also the issue of scope of the two. It is clear that the scope of society is much larger than the State. In case of State it is just a system created for enforcing discipline, law and order, tax collection, ensuring internal and external security. But society covers lot of ground. In a society various kinds of associations exists. These care social, cultural, economic, religious, sports and entertainment associations. We can sum up by saying State is single - purpose body whereas society is multi - purpose body. Also in terms of structure, society encompasses state. Similarly we should also understand one more aspect about state and society. State is allowed to use coercion, force to implement its orders, programmers, schemes, etc. But society cannot use force. It uses persuasion, forces of tradition. In rare case, it can use `social boycott‟. But more often than not, it believes in persuasion. In addition to above differences, one must conclude by highlighting one more difference. It is about territory. A State must have well defined territory, where as society can be borderless. For example, the Red cross society have branches all over the world. While discussing the difference between state and society, one must also take into account the agency of government. As noted before, `government‟ is a constituent element of state, whereas `government‟ has no role in the formation and functioning of the society. Historically society came first and then came `government‟. Check Your Progress 1 What is Society? 2 What is Association? 3 Explain the purpose of Society. 3.3 CIVIL SOCIETY Civil Society is the arena outside of the family, the state and the market where people associate to advance common interests. According to the Dictionary meaning, Civil Society as the aggregate of non-goverment organizations and institutions that manifest interests and will of citizens. Civil Society are vital for democracy. It faciliates better awareness and a more informed citizenry, who make better voting choices, participate in politics and hold government more accountable. 3.4 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the term „state‟ 2. Discuss essential elements of the state. 3. Define „Society‟ and discuss its importance in modern political systems. 4. Discuss the interrelationship between State and Society. 5. Write short notes on Civil Society.                    4 MODULE II Unit 4 NATIONALISM AND NATION-STATE Unit Structure 4.1 Objectives 4.2 Meaning of Nation, Nationality and Nationlism. 4.3 Important Features of Nationalism. 4.4 Elements of Nation 4.5 Factors Promoting Nationalism 4.6 Challenges to Nationalism 4.7 Distinction between Nation and state 4.8 Summary 4.9 Questions 4.1 OBJECTIVES (i) To understand the concepts of the nation nationality and nationalism (ii) To learn about the elements of nation. (iii) To understand the factors that contribute to the emergence of nationalism\ (iv) To understand the distinction between the state and the nation. 4.2 MEANING OF NATION, NATIONALITY AND NATIONALISM The term 'nation' is derived from the latin word 'Natio'. 'Natio' means birth or blood relationship and, by implication, 'nation' means common origin or the people who have common ancestors. Common race becomes an important element of nation. However, over a long period of time the people belonging different races have lost racial purity and today the people belong to mixed racial lot. However, Burges has stressed blood relationship and defined nation as population of an ethnic unity inhabiting definite a territory or geographical area." According to Barker, "a nation is a body of persons inhabiting a definite territory and thus united together by the primary fact of living together on a command land." Ramsay Muir says that, "a nation is a body of people who feel themselves to be nationally linked together by certain affinities and cannot tolerate subjection to others." R. N. Gilchrist has observed that "Nation is very near in meaning to state; the former has a broader signification. It is the state p!us something else; the state looked at from a certain point of view, viz. that of the unity of the people organised in one state." 4.2.1 Meaning of Nationality Nationality and nationalism are the terms related with nations. Nationality is a group of people, sharing common cultural background and racial characteristics, who desire to live together as a community. It is a shared psychological sentiment among the people with common features. Nation is a political arganisation, whereas nationality does not refer to any political unity. However, the goal of a nationality is to established a nation. It can exist even undep a foreign rule. e.g. Indian nationality existed undep British Rule. Jewish Nationality, was spread all over the world even before formation of Isrl. Nationality becomes a nation when it acquires sovereignty. 4.2.3 Meaning of Nationalism Nationalism is the spirit of a nationality. It is a kind of political cosciousness of belonging to a group. Very often you will find that the term 'patriotism' is related to nationalism. It is a force holding together a community in a defined territory, maintaining their rights against aggression from outside. According, to Alfred De Grazia, nationalism combines both love of one's country and suspiciousness of foreigners. One loves one's country because of shared values with others who live in it and foreigners are suspected because they do not share the same values. Modem Nationalism is characterised by movement of a nationality aiming at achieving independence and to form a state organization of its choice. Nationalism is a psycho-political concept. It is mystical cord uncling a nation. Psychologically.it is love and pride in the cultural heritage, customs, traditions, institutions and all other aspects of one's society and politically, nationalism centres round nation state, loyalty to the state by each and every person. Nationalism has been a powerful political force in modern times leading to the emergence of many new nation states in Asia and Africa. Nationalism in simple words means a feeling of oneness. Check Your Progress 1. What is Nationality? 2. Explain the meaning of Nationalism. 3. Give meaning of Nation. 4.3 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF NATIONALISM 1. It is a feeling :- Nationalism is only a feeling of love and oneness among the people. It inspire people to form one‟s nation. e.g. Before independence it was the feeling of nationlism of the Indian Masses; Who participated in the struggle against the British. 2. Nationalism translates into patriotic action :- Community that possesses a strong sense of belonging to one‟s nation leads to display such affection by outward action such as joining the military services etc. 3. Nationalism leads to self – determination – 4. Nationalism usually stems from homogeneity - In the political sense, homogeneity refers to sameness of population. It may be observed that the strongest nations are those in which the majority population is homogenous. Hence Japan is known to be a strong because nearly alll citizens belong to the same race, language etc. 5. Nationalism can override heterogeneity – Nationalism cna exist even in the absense of homogeneity. In India there is Unity in diversity. 6. Nationalism implies burring love for one‟s own country – Bond of Nationalism not only holds people together but also makes them serve, suffer and even sacrifice their lives for the sake of the nation. 4.4 ELEMENTS OF NATION A number of factors such as race, religion, language, common history and culture, po.litical consciousness and economic interests together contribute to making of a nation. The role of each of these elements (factors) which contribute to the making of a nation are as follows :- 1. Common Race Belonging to a Common race contributes to the making of a nation. A common race, creates the spirit of oneness among the people. But in what part of the civilized world, today, does a pure race exist? There is no nation with people belonging to a pure race. The U.S.A., Switzerland, India are examples of multi-racial nations. Hence judging nationalism only on the basis of race would be wrong. Its applicability should be treated only in limited sense. 2. Common Religion Religion plays a very important role in creating and sustaining national spirit. Religion was the basis for the creation of Pakistan. Among the Jews and the Japanese, religion has been the mainspring of their national life. However, most modern nation states are secular and tolerate all religions. It binds people together. A common religion can not prevent disintegration of Pakistan in 1971. Thus in modern times religion is not as strong force as it used to be earlier. But it is double edged sword because it divides the people also. 3. Common Language Language plays a vital role in uniting the people and creating a common consciousness among them. Rose and Joseph have attached tremendous significance to language as a cohesive force. According to Joseph, a common language enables the people to project common ideas, ideals, sentiments and feelings, set up common standards of morality, manners and justice, conserve historical traditions, and generate a Common psychology. Language is not mere words. Every word is charged with associations that touch feeling and evoke thought." It is the language that has led to the birth of Bangla Desh. However, there are multi-lingual nations like Switzerland, India and the U.S.A. In India diversity of language has been an obstacle to national unity. The issue of making Hindi the official language has divided the Hindi and the non-Hindi speaking population. However, a tolerant ' attitude can unite the people-speaking different languages. 4. Common Culture – It implies that people share common customs and tradtions, literature, epics and art. The unity of ideas and ideals constitute a very important element of nation-hood. Unity of culture, embraces common customs and traditions, common folklore, literature and art. It also stands for "a certain dominant view of life with its common standard, duties and prohibitions". Unity of ideas and ideals unite people emotionally. National literature creates, and sustains the sentiment of pride and reverence among the people. National education creates common vision of life and value system, described as political culture. 5. Geographical Factor Defined territory, creates national feelings among the people inhabiting a common land, described as "motherland", or "fatherland". In the absence of a "homeland", it is difficult to develop national feelings among the people. The common geographical factors develop common physical, mental and psychological traits among the people. When people live together on a common land they develop attachment to that common land. 6. Common History Common historical background makes people feel proud of the past glory and keeps them united. It contributes to the making of a nation. According to Ramsay Muir," A memory of sufferings endured and victories won... the dear names of the great national heroes... heroic achievements, agonies heroically endured... that make the soul of a nation." The sentiment of national pride is generated among the people by such common history. Thus the memories of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj or Maha Rana Pratap or the war of Independence of 1857 or the sacrifices made by the revolutionaries or the freedom struggle led by Mahatme Gandhi unite the people of India and contribute to the making of the Indian nation. 7. Economic Factors Common economic interests unite the people as was witnessed in thirteen British colonies in the North America. When these people realized that they were exploited by England, the mother country, they raised the banner of revolt which led to the American War of Independence in 1775. However, economic interests alone cannot foster national spirit. Thus Ashirvatham observes that, "If economic interests alone were enough to constitute a nation, we should expect a nationality of labourers... and of capitalists." Common economic factor is thus a contributory factor in the making of a nation. 8. Political Factors Subjugation to a foreign rule generates nationalist sentiment among the people as was the case with the countries of Asia and Africa. The foreign rule meant common sufferings and humiliation suffered by the entire people. The British rule fostered Indian nationalism and led to struggle for freedom. It united people of India belonging to different regions, speaking different languages and professing different religions. Freedom from foreign rule means political sovereignty. The Constituent Assembly enacted a constitution for India, created common political institutions and conferred common Fundamental Rights on the people of India. Thus the political sovereignty fostered sense of unity among the people of India. In a nutshell, common subjugation to foreign political authority and common political institutions contribute substantially to making of a nation. 9. Will to be a Nation The most potent among anelements of nations is the will to be a nation. Even if all other factors are present and the will to be a nation is absent, that people cannot be a nation. The disintegration of Pakistan (1971) and of the U.S.S.R. (1991) proves that when unwilling people are forced to live together, they cannot make a nation. 4.5 FACTORS PROMOTING NATIONALISM The factors which integrate a people and contribute the emergence of nationalism,- are as follows: 1) Ethnic factor : The ethnic or racial factor, that is, blood relationship, common ancestory, has played important role to keep people united. The birth of Israel, in 1948, was based on the principle of ethnicity. The Jews succeeded in establishing the state for their race. However, this does not mean that nations cannot exist without common racial origin." Nations like Switzerland, America, Russia, etc., have citizens from different races. Nevertheless, it cannot be denied that racial unity may promote a feeling of oneness. 2) Language : It is another factor which promotes nationalism. A common medium of communication is necessary for the people to understand the feelings, passions and problems of one another. Before the British came to India there was no common language and hence India was divided. English langage, which the British taught the Indians for their imperialist interests, actually turned out to be a language of communication among people speaking different languages. Thus, languages played a highly significant role in knitting the people into a homogeneous nation. 3) Religion : Another force which instils nationalism in the members of a group is religion. People following the same religion have a great sense of unity. This has been a very old bond of union. The birth of Pakistan as a nation was mainly due to the religious factor. Today, if Pakistan is able to keep itself intact despite so much regional tension there, it is because of the religious unity Islam provides to its people. However, there are nations like India, Switzerland and many others which have great religious diversity and yet their people have common national sentiments. But it cannot be denied that religion continues to be very great source of nationalism. 4) Geographical Factors : It is natural that people living in' a geographically continuous territory develop a feeling of oneness. They have common interest and there is free communication among them. This helps to create in them a feeling of homogeneity and brotherhood which infuses in them the spirit of nationalism. If the territory is separated by some other country, or sea or huge mountains due to which communication between the two sides is difficult, it is possible that sentiments of togetherness may be weak. The example in this context is that of East and West Pakistan which got divided into two states of Bangladesh and Pakistan mainly because the two were separated geographically, and there were serious problems of effective communication between each other. However, geographical continuity is not a very essential factor if the states are well-knit nations. For example, Indonesia is a nation of many small islands but its national integrity has not been challenged by inhabitants of any island. In the case of India also, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshdweep are situated away from the mainland, yet we do not face any problem from the inhabitants of these Indian islands. 5) A Common historical background : History also unites the people on the basis of past glories and sufferings, rich tradition and culture that they inherit. Indians, sharing a common political heritage of national movement, developed a sentiment of unity which finds expression through national feelings. 6) Common Economical Interest : The common economic interest and problems also bring the people closer so that they can jointly find solutions for the betterment of the whole community. The rise of strong middle class gave political stability to European states and strengthened the cause of nationalism. 7) Common Political Aspirations : With all these common factors, the most ^powerful and essential factor that binds a nationality is common political aspirations, 'the desire to be an independent state. A nationality is not a political state until it has an independent political setup of its own. Hence only with this political desire the people, with all other common factor things, can be called a Nation. An important factor, that has helped people forget all their ethnic, religious, linguistic or territorial differences, and acquire sentiment of nationalism, is the desire for political freedom from foreign rule. Thus, colonial rule has acted as a force in promoting and strengthening nationalism in case of India. The educated native elite helps to induce the spirit of nationalism in the masses. In most of the Asian and African countries under imperial powers, the elite has played a decisive role in bringing the people together under one banner. 4.6 CHALLENGES TO NATIONALISM Disssimilarities in language, culture, religion, region, pace, political loyalities are the challenges to nationalism in any state. For instance in spite of a number of unifying forces preserving the national unity of our country, there are several divisive forces, which are threatening to destpoy the fabric of national unity in India. Communalism, Regionalism, linguism, economic inequalities all are the divisive forces in Indian nationalism. 4.7 DlSTINCTION BETWEEN NATION AND STATE Normally, the terms 'nation' and 'state' are used interchangeably. But as students of political science, you must know that there is clear difference between the two. The idea of a 'nation' is different from that of a 'state'. The nation is generally a product of emotions. whereas the state is a political, administrative body. Moreover, state suggests the interest of rulers, whereas the nation emphasizes the needs of the ruled. (1) Nation is subjective and State is objective. Nation is an emotional concept. This means that people are bound together because they share certain common things; 'common origin, common customs, common interests in social, economic and political spheres. Due to these factors, people develop a feeling of brotherhood and oneness for one another. Nation is based on subjective sentiments. This means that the intensity of people's feelings towards the nation differs from person to person and from society to society. However, it is difficult to measure the intensity of an individual's feeling. It is a condition of the mind. Nationalism is a way of feeling, thinking and living. It gives a sense of possession. Spirit of Nationalism holds Nation together. On the other hand, the state is a legal rather than an emotional concept. Power holds State together. The state regulates and controls the conduct of the people who permanently live on a given territory and is legally sovereign. The state is a condition of law. There is an element of obligation as regards the state. The state is objective. This means that the concept of 'state' is understood by all in the same way. All states consist of four essential elements, that is population, territory, government and sovereignty. If any of these is missing, the state cannot exist. While the nation is a psychological concept, the state is a political entity. (2) It has been noticed that there are many nationalities in one state. This is to say that people from different ethnic groups, with varying customs, traditions, languages, etc. live permanently in one state. Modern states are confronted with the problems of minorities. One solution put forward for resolving this issue is the policy of mono- national states, that is, 'one nation, one state'. On this principle, the Jews were able to form a state for themselves, which they call Israel. Perhaps a few misguided Sikhs, wrongly claiming to be a separate race, are demanding a state separate from India on the basis of the principle of one nation, one state. In modern times we have two types of National States; viz. Mono-National states; and Multi-National states. The mono-nation states are based on the principle of "one nationality on nation." Several mono-national States have come into existence in the twentieth century as every nationality desires to have its own nation state. Thus in India, the Muslim constituted two nationalities and a homeland for the India Muslims was carved out by the partition of India, Pakistan consisting of the Muslim- majority areas. However, on the other hand, we have multinational states like the U.S.A. Switzerland, India etc. wherein the people belong to more than one nationality. However, such multinational state face the problem of national integration. In the United States, over a period of two hundred years, distinct "American" identity has emerged and thereby racial, linguistic and religious deferences have become secondary. Zimmern has well brought out the distinction between the state and nation as under : 1. "Nationality like religion is subjective-statehood is objective". 2. "Nationality is psychological, statehood is political". 3. "Nationality is a condition of mind, statehood is a condition in law". 4. "Nationality is a spiritual possession, statehood is a enforceable obligation". 5. "Nationality is, a way of feeling, thinking and living, statehood is a condition inseparable from all civilised ways of living". 6. Origin of the State is ancient. Nation has emerged as a modern concept. Check Your Progress 1. Explian elements of Nation. 2. Write on important features of Nationalism. 4.8 TO SUM UP A nation It means State plus a feeling of unity, oneness. It is an organised group of people having common ancestor/, common home land, common language, common culture and ethos and who are politically conscious. A nationality is a nation in making a politically sovereign nation can be properly described as a "nation State". However a state could be multinational. Nationalism is an intense feeling of oneness, pride in onels own culture, language and historical past, Nationalism is a psychological cord that unites and binds a people and rouses them to make sacrifice for the cause of nation. 4.9 QUESTIONS 1. Explain the term 'nation' and elaborate its constituent elements. 2. What is nationalism? Give an account of the factors that promote nationalism. 3. Distinction between : (1) Nationality, Nationalism and Nation. (2) State and Nation    5 MODULE III UNIT 5 MEANING AND TYPES OF : POWER, AUTHORITY, LEGITIMACY Unit Structure 5.1 Objectives 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Power 5.4 Authority 5.5 Legitimacy 5.6 Questions 5.1 OBJECTIVES To understand the political phenomenon like power, Authority, Legitimacy in applied sense. 5.2 INTRODUCTION Students of politics often argue the correct meaning and scope of the study of politics. Two board view points of normative and empirical investigation reflect in such arguments. Normative approach advocate idealism of what „should be‟ and empirical approach supports what „is‟. Twentieth century study of politics stressed to look at the political phenomenon from realistic angle and hence emphasized more on the methods of science to rely upon to understand the actual nature of politics. Hence study of „politics‟ becomes „political Science‟. Such realism eventually leads to understand the political phenomenon in applied sense. Thus study of themes like „power‟, „authority‟, „legitimacy‟ took over the field of political studies from the traditional idealism, institutionalism etc. In present chapter we will attempt to understand three concepts- power, authority, and legitimacy and its relevance and implications regarding the role of government in society and its relations with subjects i.e. people. 5.3 POWER Concepts of power occupied a respectable position in the modern discussion of politics since the beginning of 20th century. It becomes so inevitable now a day that it is applied not only to describe the international relations but also the social unit like family. The concept altered the meaning of politics in dramatic way and made it appear like „contest for power‟. From Hobbes‟s description of the warring state of nature to the Betty Freidan‟s Feminine Mystique applied power as analytical tool to describe the human relation at macro as well as micro level. Meaning:- What is Power? The notion of power has multiple meanings. It is an „essentially contested‟ concept. No settled or agreed definition can ever be developed. In natural sciences, power is understood as „force‟ or „energy‟. In social sciences it appears with diverse interpretations like; the ability to achieve a desired outcome, and an exercise of control by one over another. Power is a psycho political phenomenon. In simple sense it is the capacity of the person/group/institution to affect /change/modify the behaviour of other person/group/institution. In this sense it is the capacity to influence the behaviour of others. Further this influence is not voluntary and not readily accepted by those over whom it is applied. Hence Power is the capacity of one to impose its will over others irrespective of the will of others. When one succeeds in making other person do, which otherwise he would not do or restricting other persons from doing things which otherwise that person want to do, then it is said that the will of first person is imposed on the other and hence power is applied. What make power different from other concepts like Force, Influence, and Authority? Force is the instrument of power. Influence is the outcome of the power and authority is the legitimized power. But force, influence and authority in itself are not power. Force is more physical and power is psychological. Relation between power and force is delicate one and the difference is often blurred. Perceived threat of force can result in change in the behavior of a person. But if such fear is not present then it is said that power extinguishes and what remain is only brute force which can defeat the person physically but its mind will be non- defeated. Power is visible through influence. It can be seen in change in the behavior of the person on Whom power is exercised. Thus, influence is the yardstick of power. Regarding relationship between authority and power it is sufficient to say that when power is accepted by the people over whom it is applied it transforms into authority. Absence of power makes authority a puppet and presence of power makes a common uncommon. What are the types of power? As we have seen earlier power is the capacity of the person to impose its will on others. Problem of identifying the location of power lies in judgment of the capacity of such person. Such capacity depends upon two things. Firstly, presence of potential elements such as money, military, social status, numerical strength, territory, natural resources, quality of human resource etc., provide necessary inputs Which form the base of power. Secondly, the capability of the actor to use such resources i.e. leadership, decision making, Negotiation, propaganda and diplomacy. Thus crucial thing to locate power is to quantify the potential resources and to qualify the capability to use these resources effectively to its optimum utilization. Both of these categories help us to describe the types of power. TYPES OF POWER BASED ON RESOURCES Money: From ancient times money i.e. finance is considered as effective determinant of power. Plato advocated separation of finance from governance and thus underlined the importance of it. It is said that in modern days it is financial strength that make persons, political parties, and nations powerful. Money excelled over other resources in the capitalist system and thus is an important source of power. Military: Machiavelli advocated strengthening military capacity to make State powerful. Kingdoms in past and Nation-states in modern days maintain big armies and advanced weapons in their arsenals to frighten adversaries and to secure their territory. Destructive capacity of nations determines the power in such cases. Social Status: Higher social status on the parameters of gender, class, caste, clan, and race enable the person to impose his will on others. Thus higher social status in the social hierarchy is desired by persons and groups to enjoy the privileges of power holders. Numerical Strength: In democratic polity the number of the followers or members of particular group determine the power of the party, leader, organization. Elections are won and governments are run on the support of the people. Decisions are made and influenced on the basis of the support enjoyed from the people. Quality of Human Resource: Educated, committed, and loyal human resource is considered as strength of the great nations. Uneducated and corrupt human resources are liability over the national resources. Thus quality to human resource adds to the strength of the nations as well as community. Types of power based on the capacity to use resources: What makes power is the capacity to utilize available resources cleverly and not only presence of it. Thus a tiny Britain ruled over the vast territory for almost 150 years due to its skillful use of available resources. Same British rule was overthrown by the Indian leadership during freedom struggle with optimum use of unarmed satyagrahis and manipulation of the international political entrapment of Britishers. In such manner power can be categorized in following manner. Leadership, Strong and resourceful leader can turn the course of the situation in its favour any time with his leadership qualities. A Leader guides, motivates, channalise the organization. Winston Churchill during Second World War; Lincon during American Civil War are the examples of the leadership who successfully pulled out their countries from the adverse situations. Decision making, right decisions at right time save resources and energy and give victory to the nations/organization. One wrong decision of Hitler to invade Russia costs Germany a defeat during the Second World War. Negotiation, It is some time that wars are fought on the ground but are won or defeated on the negotiation table. Thus skilful negotiation can change the course of history at any moment. Propaganda, it helps to mould the mind of the people or adversaries and to create the favourable environment before the actual negotiation, war begins. Thus propaganda through mass media is majoritary applied in modern contests be it war or elections. Thus control over media is a key to hold power in modern days. Check Your Progress 1. What is Power? 2. How is it different from Force? 3. Explain types of Power. 5.4 AUTHORITY Meaning: The word authority is derived from the Latin words; auctor‟ and „auctoritas‟. An auctor is an Originator of promoter of some order, pronouncement or whatever. When an action has been authorized there is some person or set of persons from whom the authority to do it derives. According to Carl Friedrich, an authority is the embodiment of reason and depends on the capacity of reasoned elaboration. Authority regulates behaviour mainly by speech and words, not force. The term essentially indicates the people who are considered to have the right to make announcements or announce decisions. Authority implies not only that someone with the capacity to reasoned elaboration has the right to issue regulations and make final pronouncements. It also implies that someone has the right to receive obedience. McIver defines authority as the power to command obedience. Simon interprets it as the Power to make decision which guides the action of others. Authority is legitimate exercise of power. Characteristics of Authority:- Legitimacy: Legitimacy determines the effectiveness and acceptance of authority. Dominance: Authority is the capacity of the individual to command others. An individual or group which possesses authority, exercises dominance over others. Authority is command of seniors to their juniors which is accepted by them. Accountability: The individual or the group which possesses authority is also answerable to some higher authority. In a democracy, responsibility or accountability is an important characteristic of authority. Types of Authority:- Authority can be classified into many ways depends upon its sources and location. Traditional, Charismatic, and Legal- Rational Authority Max Weber describes three types of political authority as per their sources: traditional, charismatic and legal-rational. When the power to issue commands emerges from the source of customs and traditions such authority he named traditional authority. The right to rule which is based on the leadership qualities of the ruler is called as charismatic authority. When such rule is legitimized by the legal-constitutional framework Weber called it legal rational authority. De Jure and De Facto Authority R. S. peters distinguish between two senses of authority‟. Person may possess an authority as a right to do so or he may have it without that also. In first sense it is called the „de jure’ authority and in second sense it is called as ‘de facto’ authority. In ’de jure’ sense legal or traditional rules make it possible for auctor to exercise his right to pass commands or orders or directions, i.e. to be „in authority‟. De jure authority pre-supposes a system of rules which determine who shall be the auctor, that is who shall be those who with reasoned elaboration, shall take decisions, make pronouncements, issue commands and perform certain acts. In certain cases authority can be exercised by persons without backing for legal or traditional rules. And in such cases even person who are legally entitled to pass orders can be overruled by the person who is legally not authorized to do so. But still people or followers accept such commands and defer the commands of legally entitled person. In such sense authority is „de facto’ which derives from personal characteristics of the auctor. Thus the right to give orders is distinct from the ability to secure obedience to them. A person exercises de facto authority with others in virtue of certain personal qualities. He does not need to resort to force, threats, bribes or the like. He does not need to justify saying that a particular course of action, should be adopted in the way a man who lacked his authority might have to. He can secure in those with whom he has authority the conviction that something ought to be done by giving it his personal support and does not need to argue a case in detail. People takes orders from him even though, he has no right to their obedience. They do so because they recognize certain qualities in him and not because he has a gun, is in a position of command , or whatever. As Peters puts it, „there is something about him which people recognize in virtue of which they do what he says simply because he says it‟. Such account of de facto authority resembles the Weber‟s account of charismatic authority. It seems to be based on some mysterious element of personal qualities which is very difficult to prove and recognize. But it defers from Weber on the point that Weber was too preoccupied with highly special figures like Jesus and Napoleon to explain the Charisma and Peter‟s account of de facto authority even recognizes the influence of quite ordinary people like doctors, solicitors and even teachers in class room as masters in their own specialized fields whatever limited they are. Check Your Progress 1. Explain meaning of Authority. 2. What are the characteristics of Authority? 3. Write on types of Authority. 5.5 LEGITIMACY Meaning: Legitimacy in simple sense is derivative of legitimate which means allowed by the law or rules or something which is able to be defended with reasoning. In political sense it is the property that a regime‟s procedures for making and enforcing laws are acceptable to its subjects. Legitimacy is an important ingredient of authority along with power. Legitimacy of a rule or decision implies that the members of society treat that rule or decision as beneficial to society as well as to themselves. So they willingly tend to abide by it. Use of force or coercion or sanctions may be resorted to only when legitimacy fails to work. Legitimacy is based on respect and willing compliance. Political science is indebted to Max Weber for application of the term in the manner that Legitimacy constituted the basis of very real differences in the way power was exercised. Liberal thinking requires justification of power. It does not take authority granted or something invincible. In Weberian description there are three broad grounds for exercising authority, based on: tradition, charisma, and rational legal authority. All three depends on certain belief in the legality of enacted rules and right of those in positions of authority to issue commands. Weber advocated that in modern democratic societies with prevalence of rule of law obedience is owed not to a traditionally sanctioned person or a charismatically qualified leader, but to the legally established impersonal order. It extends to the persons occupying a public office by virtue of the legality of their commands. He demonstrated limitations over such authority when he stated that such authority is confined to the scope of the office and cannot be used in capricious of self- interested way. S. M. Lipset raises the concept to different height when he discussed the capacity of the political system to engender and maintain the belief that the existing political institutions are the most appropriate ones for the society. He underlined the acceptance of the political system by the plural fabric of the society. He argues that Western nations have had to face three difficult and potentially destabilizing issue: the place of the church of various religions within the nations; the admission of the working class to full economic and political rights; the continuing struggle over the distribution of the national income. In this sense presently globalization poses further challenges to the legitimacy of the political system in general. Those groups who claim certain specific identities do not accept the legitimacy of the territorial boundaries of the nation-states. Quebecs in Canada, dissolution of Yugoslavia, and dissent in Northern Ireland are few of many examples that markedly emphasise this phenomena. In other way the issue of legitimacy also arises in relation to new types of political formation such as European Union which is struggling to meet the legitimacy criteria on political front among the population of its member nations. The importance of Legitimacy can be emphasized in the words that the ability to issue commands which are seen as binding because they are legitimate is one of the central pillars of a stable political order. Types of Legitimacy David Easton refers to three types of legitimacy; ideological legitimacy, structural legitimacy , and personal legitimacy. Ideological legitimacy is based on the moral convictions