Fungal Rhinosinusitis PDF

CHAPTER 29 Fungal Rhinosinusitis Eng Cern Gan, Amin R Javer Snapshot  Saprophytic Fungal Infection  Acute (Fulminant) Invasive FRS  Fungal Ball...

CHAPTER 29 Fungal Rhinosinusitis Eng Cern Gan, Amin R Javer Snapshot  Saprophytic Fungal Infection  Acute (Fulminant) Invasive FRS  Fungal Ball  Granulomatous Invasive FRS  Fungus-Related Eosinophilic FRS  Chronic Invasive FRS Including Allergic Fungal Rhinosinusitis INTRODUCTION (3) fungus-related eosinophilic FRS, including allergic fun- gal rhinosinusitis (AFRS) or eosinphilic fungal rhinosinusitis Fungal rhinosinusitis (FRS) can be categorized into two (EFRS). Invasive FRS include (1) acute invasive (fulminant) broad groups: (1) noninvasive and (2) invasive.1 This is FRS, (2) granulomatous invasive FRS and (3) chronic inva- based on the absence or presence of fungus in the tissue sive FRS.3 The clinical manifestations may overlap between (mucosa, blood vessel or bone) respectively.2 To avoid the different types of FRS and the disease may even progress confusion and to optimize management, the International from a noninvasive form to an invasive form with the change Society for Human and Animal Mycology group convened of immunologic status in a patient.4 Because fungus-related a panel of experts and published a consensus document in eosinophilic FRS forms the bulk of patients with FRS and 2009 on the categorization of FRS.3 Noninvasive conditions is laden with controversies in the pathogenesis, diagnosis include (1) saprophytic fungal infection, (2) fungal ball and and management, it will be the main focus of this chapter. NONINVASIVE FUNGAL RHINOSINUSITIS SAPROPHYTIC FUNGAL INFECTION Saprophytic fungal infection refers to visible fungal coloni- zation of mucus crusts seen within the nose and paranasal sinuses on nasoendoscopy3,4 (Fig. 1). These patients are usually asymptomatic or may present with a foul smelling odor.2 They are likely to have had previous sinus surgery. The proposed mechanism is dysfunction in mucociliary transportation from surgery leading to crust formation. The crust then acts as a platform for growth of fungal spores.4 It has been suggested that saprophytic fungal infections may be precursors to fungal balls if left untreated.4 Endoscopic cleaning of the infected crust is usually the only treatment required. However, if the infection recurs, self-irrigation of the paranasal sinuses with normal saline solutions and Fig. 1: Saprophytic fungal infection where visible fungus is seen regular endoscopic toileting may be required.4 growing on mucosal crust. 2 Endoscopic Sinus Surgery A B Figs. 2A and B: (A) Computed tomography (CT) scan of a patient with a partially opacified right maxillary sinus with areas of hyperat- tenuation; (B) Nasoendoscopic picture of the same patient with a fungal ball in the right maxillary sinus. FUNGAL BALL The management involves a wide opening of the involved sinus and complete removal of the fungal debris. A fungal ball is a dense accumulation of extramucosal fun- Examination of the involved sinuses with angled scopes is gal hyphae, usually within one sinus, most commonly the crucial to ensure complete surgical extirpation. For fungal maxillary sinus.2 The terms mycetoma, aspergillosis and balls in the maxillary sinus, a total uncinectomy with a aspergilloma have been previously used to describe fungal middle meatus antrostomy is usually sufficient. The size of balls in the paranasal sinuses.2 These terms are misnomers the antrostomy is debatable and some authors will include and should be avoided. Mycetoma refers to a local chronic an inferior meatus antrostomy to facilitate total removal of invasive infection of the subcutaneous tissue with potential the fungus.2,7 Subsequent regular surveillance in the clinic spread to the surrounding fascia or bone.2,5 This condition is is necessary. Oral or topical antifungals are not necessary. usually seen in the hand and feet.5 Aspergillosis and asper- gilloma are terms that have been used to describe various FUNGUS-RELATED EOSINOPHILIC entities of FRS caused by Aspergillus, including fungal balls, FRS INCLUDING ALLERGIC allergic fungal sinusitis and chronic and granulomatous FUNGAL RHINOSINUSITIS invasive sinusitis.2 Although the most common organism in a fungal ball is Aspergillus, the cultures are often negative Historical Background and other fungal species have also been identified.2 Hence, Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis was first recognized as an fungal ball is the most appropriate term for this disease upper airway manifestation of allergic bronchopulmonary entity. aspergillosis (ABPA) in the 1970s.8,9 In 1983, the term aller- Fungal balls are seen more commonly in immunocom- gic aspergillus sinusitis was proposed by Katzenstein et al. petent, middle aged and elderly females, often with a history because of its histologic similarity to ABPA. They described of previous dental procedure, especially dental fillings.2,6 The the thick, inspissated mucoid material containing fungal diagnosis of fungal ball is based on the following features: hyphae in both the sinuses and the bronchi as “allergic radiological findings of sinus opacification often with areas mucin”. This is characterized by “aggregates of necrotic of hyperattenuation (Fig. 2A), cheesy or clay-like debris eosinophils, nuclear debris, free eosinophil granules, within the sinus (Fig. 2B), accumulation of fungal hyphae sloughed respiratory tract epithelial cells, and Charcot- without evidence of tissue fungal invasion seen microscopi- Leyden crystals within an amorphous, pale eosinophilic or cally, nonspecific chronic inflammation of the sinus and the basophilic mucinous background”.10 Although no fungi were absence of eosinophil predominance, granuloma or allergic formally cultured from the first few case series of patients mucin.1 with allergic aspergillus sinusitis, the presumed pathogen  Endoscopic Management of Juvenile Angiofibromas 3 was Aspergillus due to clinical and histologic similarities to by Steward and Hunsaker showed that AFRS or AFRS-like ABPA.10-12 Subsequent case series with culture results found patients had significantly higher levels of serum fungal- that Aspergillus was a less common cause of this disease specific IgE and IgG levels compared to non-AFRS polyp than other dematiaceous fungi such as Bipolaris, Curvularis patients.29 The importance of IgE in the pathogenesis of and Alternaria.13 Consequently, the disease has become AFRS is further demonstrated by the finding that changes known as AFRS. AFRS is simply defined as a noninvasive in serum IgE over time reflect the patients’ clinical status.30,31 fungal sinusitis resulting from an allergic and immunologic More recently, antigen-specific fungal and non-fungal IgE in response to the presence of fungal hyphae in the sinuses. sinus mucosa of AFRS patients have been shown to be more prevalent compared with controls.32 The local IgE appears Epidemiology to be upregulated throughout the sinonasal cavity, without predilection for polyp-forming tissues.33 The prevalence of FRS amongst chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) While the immunologic theory proposed by Mannings patients who undergo surgery is between 12% and 47%.14,15 et al. is supported in the literature, many questions remain Of this, AFRS is the most common form, accounting for unanswered. As highlighted by Marple, the immunologic between 56% and 72% of patients with FRS.14,15 In the United theory fails to explain the unilateral or asymmetric nature States, one study showed a geographical variation in AFRS of AFRS, the persistence of a raised IgE level after prolonged with the highest percentage of cases occurring in the south fungal immunotherapy (when it is expected to drop) and and along the Mississippi basin.16 The varied incidence may the failure of a rise in specific IgG levels resulting from be due to a warm and humid environment that promotes the formation of IgG-blocking antibodies following fungal fungal growth and exposure although no relationship to immunotherapy.34 An alternative theory was later proposed mould counts have been established.16,17 One of the largest by Panikou et al.35 Their landmark, but non-peer-reviewed, histological series of surgical specimens was reported in paper stated that fungi was present in the nasal secretions India with an incidence of 24% in patients with CRS.15 of 96% (202 patients) of consecutive CRS patients and 100% The typical AFRS patients are young immunocompetent (14 patients) of healthy volunteers with no sinus disease. adults.18 The mean age at presentation is between 21 and Of the 210 consecutive patients with CRS, 101 underwent 35 years old.13,19-28 There is a higher male to female ratio surgery with AFRS diagnosed in 93% (94 patients) of patients of between 1.5 and 2.6 to 1.13,19-23,26,27 Wise et al. found that based on histologic findings and culture results. Elevated AFRS patients also have a lower socioeconomic status and a total and specific IgE levels were not prevalent amongst higher African-American ratio compared to CRS patients.28 the AFRS patients and not significantly different to that of In addition, young African-American male AFRS patients the control group. Based on these findings and their work tend to present with advanced disease and have a higher risk of developing bone erosion of their paranasal sinuses using scanning electron microscopy, they rejected the role at presentation.21 of an IgE-mediated reaction in the pathogenesis of AFRS. They believed that eosinophilic chemotaxis in response to extramucosal fungi was the hallmark of the inflammatory Pathophysiology reaction in AFRS. Hence they proposed the term EFRS Although it has been over 30 years since AFRS was first instead. Similarly, the term eosinophilic mucin was sug- described, the underlying pathophysiology remains gested as replacement for allergic mucin to emphasize the unknown and controversial. A number of popular theories importance of eosinophils in the pathophysiology of AFRS. have evolved. Manning et al. proposed a mechanism derived Like the immunologic theory, the eosinophilic theory by from the ABPA model.23 In a series of 17 Bipolaris positive Panikou et al. raised several important questions. If fungus AFRS patients, 82% of patients had serum Bipolaris-specific is ubiquitous in sinonasal mucosa, then what triggers the IgE antibodies by radioallergosorbent test (RAST) inhibition migration of eosinophils into the mucous in AFRS patients? and 94% of patients had serum Bipolaris-specific IgG anti- Does fungi play any role in the mechanism of AFRS or CRS? bodies by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).20 Are the “AFRS” patients in Panikou’s group a different entity Hence, it is believed that an atopic host exposed to fungi altogether or is CRS an early form of AFRS?34 In 2000, Fergu- resulted in antigenic stimulation by a combination of Gel son performed a literature review and concluded that there and Coomb type I and type III hypersensitivity, leading to may be two different disease processes in play—allergic and an intense inflammatory response.20,23 Subsequent study non-AFRS.36 The term eosinophilic mucin rhinosinusitis 4 Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Table 1: Bent and Kuhn diagnostic criteria for allergic fungal Table 2: St Paul’s Sinus Centre diagnositc criteria for allergic rhinosinusitis (AFRS). fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS). Major criteria Minor criteria Major criteria 1. Evidence of type I 1. Asthma 1. Immunocompetent patient IgE-mediated hypersensitivity 2. Unilateral predominance 2. Presence of nasal polyposis 2. Nasal polyposis 3. Radiographic bone erosion 3. Characteristic CT findings 3. Characteristic CT findings 4. Fungal culture 4. Presence of allergic mucin 4. Eosinophilic mucus 5. Charcot-Leyden crystals 5. Positive fungal cultures or the presence of fungal hyphae on 5. Positive fungal smear 6. Serum eosinophilia fungal staining. (EMRS) was used to describe nonallergic fungal sinusitis. the remaining 6 features as minor criteria. All 5 major criteria These patients were felt to have histological features similar were necessary to define AFRS while the minor criteria were to AFRS but without the presence of fungus. The underlying considered supporting features (Table 1). mechanism was believed to be a systemic dysregulation of The Bent and Kuhn criteria have set the benchmark immunologic controls resulting in upper and lower airway for the diagnosis of AFRS for many years with some minor eosinophilia. As EMRS was a systemic disease, bilateral variations proposed over the years.25 In 2004, a standard- disease would be the norm. On the other hand, AFRS result- ized definitions for clinical research and patient care for ing from a localized IgE-mediated type I hypersensitivity rhinosinusitis was published by a panel of international to germinated fungus can have unilateral (50% of the time) experts.37 Amongst the consensus definition put forth was or bilateral disease, depending on the antigenic stimula- classic AFRS. AFRS was recognized as a distinct subset of tion. Ferguson observed that EMRS patients had a higher patients with CRS based on classic clinical, radiographic, incidence of asthma, ASA sensitivity and IgG1 deficiency pathologic and immunologic features as suggested by Bent and a lower incidence of allergic rhinitis compared to AFRS and Kuhn. The five main clinical characteristics were: “(1) patients. EMRS patients were also significantly older (48 gross production of eosinophilic mucin containing nonin- vasive fungal hyphae, (2) nasal polyposis, (3) characteristic years old) compared to AFRS patients (30.1 years old). Both radiographic findings, (4) immunocompetence, and (5) EMRS and AFRS patients had a slight male predominance, allergy to fungi”. universal presence of nasal polyposis and demonstrated There exists a subgroup of patients who do not meet serum eosinophilia and eosinophilic nasal disease. By all five major criteria but behave like AFRS patients and recognizing EMRS and AFRS as two separate entities with respond to AFRS treatment strategies (previously known a similar phenotypic endpoint, the treatment strategies as atypical AFRS). We have therefore adopted the Bent and for these patients can be formulated according to their Kuhn criteria with minor modifications to be more inclu- pathogenesis. Systemic steroid, a potent and indiscrimi- sive. An elevated IgE level is not always present in all AFRS nant anti-inflammatory agent should be beneficial in both patients and may fluctuate within the normal range as the groups of patients. However, antifungal agents and fungal disease stage changes.18,30 We currently utilize the following immunotherapy should theoretically benefit only AFRS five major criteria to diagnose patients with AFRS (Table 2). and not EMRS patients.36 The triggering event leading to an inflammatory eosinophilic cascade in EMRS patients is Clinical Presentation likely to be multifactorial and remains a mystery. It is likely that the physiology is even more complex and that there Although there are no pathognomonic symptoms for AFRS, is more than one genotypic process resulting in a similar clinical suspicion should be high when one encounters a phenotypic disease process. young patient with uni- or bi-lateral nasal polyposis with thick, sticky yellow/green mucus, characteristic double density sign on CT and who responds to oral steroids. Often, Diagnostic Criteria the symptoms are subtle and similar to that of chronic In 1994, Bent and Kuhn described a diagnostic criteria for sinusitis with nasal polyposis. Patients may present with a AFRS based on 15 consecutive AFRS patients.19 They found long-standing history of gradual nasal obstruction associ- 11 important clinical features, 5 of which were present in all ated with thick or crusty nasal discharge for months to year.38 15 patients. These 5 features were termed major criteria and They may not seek treatment until complete obstruction,  Endoscopic Management of Juvenile Angiofibromas 5 A B C D Figs. 3A to D: Clinical appearance of AFRS. (A) Nasoendoscopic picture of the left nasal cavity of an AFRS patient with fungal debris covering a nasal polyp; (B) Allergic mucin is being suctioned out from the left sphenoid sinus; (C) Allergic mucin is being suctioned out from the right maxillary sinus; (D) Gross appearance of allergic mucin. severe headaches or facial pain, anosmia, visual disturbance Because of the wide range of total serum IgE level in AFRS or facial distortion occurs.17 patient it is not useful as a screening tool.39 However, total On nasoendoscopy, nasal polyposis is universal and can serum IgE level may be useful in monitoring clinical activity be unilateral or bilateral. In bilateral cases, the bulk of the in the management of AFRS. IgE levels seems to parallel disease is usually asymmetric.17 Inspisatted thick yellow or patient mucosal stage and is usually elevated just prior to brown peanut-butter like mucus may be seen among the worsening of the clinical stage.30 polyps (Figs. 3A to D). As the diagnosis of AFRS requires demonstration of a fungus specific IgE, this can be achieved by an in-vivo test Investigation (skin prick test) or in-vitro (RAST) test. Studies have shown good concordance between the two tests for fungal and Immunologic Test nonfungal antigens in patients with AFRS.40,41 Patients with AFRS have an elevated IgE level. In a long-term follow-up of AFRS patients by Marple et al., the total IgE Radiologic Test levels were found to be between 50 and greater than 1,000 Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonant imag- IU/ml. The average total IgE level was about 550 IU/mL. ing (MRI) scans: Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis patients have 6 Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Table 3: Characteristic findings of allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS) on CT and MRI scans of the paranasal sinuses. CT features MRI features Heterogenous signal intensities within the paranasal sinuses T1-weighted images—central areas of hypointensity with filled with allergic mucin (Double density sign) peripheral enhancement Expansion of the paranasal sinuses/nasal cavity T2-weighted images—central areas of hypointensity or signal Unilateral or asymmetric disease load void with peripheral enhancement Bony erosion A B C D Figs. 4A to D: CT images of a patient with AFRS with extensive disease. (A) Coronal cut showing complete opacification and expansion of the maxillary and frontal sinuses with erosion of the bilateral skull base and lamina papyracea; (B) axial and (C) sagittal cuts of the frontal sinuses with expansion and erosion of the posterior table of the frontal sinuses by fungal disease; (D) Axial image of the maxillary sinuses showing complete sinus opacification with heterogeneity (double density sign). typical features seen on an unenhanced CT paranasal sinus debri of the fungus and allergic mucin.43 This results in a and an enhanced MRI paranasal sinus (Table 3).26,42 “double density” or rail-track sign (Figs. 4A to D). The double CT of the paranasal sinus without contrast is the imag- density sign is best appreciated by viewing the CT on soft ing of choice in patients with suspected AFRS. The focal or tissue windows. The optimum setting in the bone protocol diffuse areas of hyperintensity seen on CT paranasal sinus to accentuate this sign is a window width of ~2000 House are due to calcium and manganese deposits in the necrotic Unit (HU) and centered at ~ –250/–200.44 The consistency  Endoscopic Management of Juvenile Angiofibromas 7 A B Figs. 5A and B: Radiographic imaging of a patient with a fungal ball in the sphenoid sinus. (A) Coronal cut of a CT scan showing near complete opacification of the sphenoid sinus; (B) Coronal cut of a T2-weighted MRI of the same patient showing a signal void in the sphenoid sinus. Table 4: Lund-MacKay CT staging system for chronic rhinosi- concentration of iron and manganese as well as calcium nusitis (CRS). deposits within the fungal concretions.42 Sinus Right Left Anterior ethmoid sinus /2 /2 Radiologic Staging Posterior ethmoid sinus /2 /2 The Lund-MacKay system49 is a simple, well-studied and Sphenoid sinus /2 /2 validated radiographic staging system developed to assess Frontal sinus /2 /2 the severity of CRS on CT scan. This staging system is recom- Osteomeatal complex /2 /2 mended by the Task Force for Rhinosinusitis for outcome Total score /12 /12 research. It is a 24-point system in which each sinus and the osteomeatal complexes are assessed individually (Table 4). For sinuses, 0 = no opacification, 1 = partial opacification, 2 = complete opacification. For osteomeatal complex, 0 = not obstructed, 2 = The Lund-MacKay system has also been used by oto- obstructed. laryngologists to assess the severity of sinus opacification on CT scan of AFRS patients. However, it does not assess of the sinus secretions determines the signal level on CT bony erosion and expansion within the affected sinuses scan. In a watery sinus secretion, the CT attenuation is less seen in advanced AFRS patients. Hence, in 2009, Wise et than fat. In contrast, thick sinus secretion can result in a CT al. proposed a 24-point radiologic staging system to assess attenuation higher than that of muscle.45,46 bony remodeling (defined as bony erosion or expansion). MRI of the paranasal sinus with intravenous gadolinium Each sinus wall that bounded obvious opacification is given contrast can be considered when the diagnosis of AFRS is a score of 1 if there is evidence of bony erosion or expansion. uncertain or if there are concerns with rare intracranial or Each sinus is assessed separately and the maximum score intraorbital complications. The protein content and visco- per sinus is allocated. For simplicity, even though there are sity of the secretion will determine the signal intensity seen more than three possible locations of remodeling for the on MRI. In watery secretions (less than 5% protein), there is maxillary and sphenoid sinuses, the authors decided to cap low T1 signal and high T2 signal. In thick secretions (5–25% the maximum score of 3 for these sinuses (Table 5). In their protein), T1 signal increases while T2 signal remains high. series of AFRS patients, Wise et al. found that males and In mycetoma/sludge (25–40% protein), there is low T1 African American AFRS patients had the highest scores. As signal and low signal intensity to void on T2.47 In fungal this is a relatively new staging system for AFRS, studies to infections, the consistency of the secretion usually results determine the inter- and intraobserver variability and the in a low intensity on T1 and a much lower intensity to signal usefulness of this staging system in predicting long-term void on T2 (Figs. 5A and B).26,42,45,46,48 This is due to higher outcomes will be required.50 8 Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Table 5: Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS) radiologic staging. Table 6: Radiologic difference between invasive fungal sinusi- Sinus involved Maximum score Area of bony tis and allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS). per sinus remodeling Characteristic IFRS AFRS (expansion or erosion) CT opacification Homogenous Heterogenous Frontal sinus Right—3 points Anterior table MRI opacification Intermediate signal Both T1 and T2 Left—3 points Posterior table on T1 have low signal Orbital roof Low to very low intensity to signal Frontal intersinus signal on T2 voids septum Contrast Intense and Sinus mucosa (not Maxillary sinus Right—3 points Orbital floor enhancement homogenous mucus/fungal debri) Left—3 points Inferior wall Anterior wall Laterality Slight prevalence Slight prevalence Posterior wall for unilateral for bilateral disease Medial wall disease Lateral wall Sinus involvement Limited sinus Multiple sinuses Ethmoid sinus Right—2 points Ethmoid roof disease (≤ 2 involved Left—2 points Lamina papyracea sinuses involved) Sphenoid sinus Right—3 points Sphenoid roof Intraorbital or More disease Extension of dis- Left—3 points Anterior face intracranial exten- outside sinuses ease due to sinus Floor sion than within expansion into orbit Posterior or lateral or cranial cavity wall Expansion of Not present Always present Sphenoid inter- Right—1 point Any remodeling sinuses sinus septum Left—1 point Bone erosion Localized Widespread Frontal intersinus Right—1 point Any remodeling septum sinus Left—1 point Maximum score 24 points grease” are commonly used to describe the characteristic appearance of the mucus. Histologically, allergic mucin consists of an eosinophilic mucin with necrotic eosinophils, Differentiation from inflammatory cells, Charcot-Leyden crystals (the byproduct invasive Fungal Rhinosinusitis of eosinophil) and fungal hyphae (Fig. 6A).37 Fungal hyphae As advanced AFRS can present with features suggestive of are usually not stained by haemotoxylin and eosin (H&E) fungal invasion, it is important to note the radiologic dif- but can be deduced from their negative image on a stained ferences between AFRS and invasive fungal rhinosinusitis background. As fungal hyphae are infrequent and scattered (IFRS). Reddy et al. performed one of the largest prospec- within allergic mucin, their detection is difficult unless spe- tive studies comparing the CT and MRI findings of chronic cific stain with a silver stain such as Grocott’s or Gomori’s IFRS versus that of AFRS. The more prevalent features are methamine silver (GMS) stain are performed38 (Fig. 6B). summarized as follows (Table 6).42 The presence of bone erosion is not pathognomonic Fungal Culture for fungal invasion.26,42,48 In AFRS, the mechanism of bone A positive fungal culture provides supporting evidence erosion is similar to that of a mucocele.42 The constant high in the diagnosis of AFRS. However, its absence does not pressure from expansion of the sinuses in an inflamed exclude the diagnosis of AFRS. The presence of a posi- environment probably accounts for thinning and erosion tive fungal culture in AFRS patients ranged from 49% and of bone. 100%, depending on the culture method used.20,35,52,53 In our institution, positive fungal cultures were obtained in Histology 64% of AFRS patients using a modified Mayo Clinic fungal The hallmark of AFRS is the presence of allergic mucin. culture technique. Therefore, AFRS with a negative fungal Grossly, it is thick, tenacious and highly viscous in consis- culture is possible. Likewise, a positive fungal culture also tency. The color can range from yellow to brown or dark does not confirm the diagnosis of AFRS but merely confirms green.38,51 Hence, the terms “peanut butter” and “axle- the presence of saprophytic fungal growth. The histological  Endoscopic Management of Juvenile Angiofibromas 9 A B Figs. 6A and B: Histology of allergic mucin and fungal hyphae. (A) H&E stain of allergic mucin showing eosinophils (black arrows) within mucin (asterisk) and Charcot-Leyden crystals (white arrows); (B) Fungal hyphae (white arrows) are seen with GSM stain. Slides are courtesy of Dr Ken Berean, Department of Pathology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. identification of allergic mucin is still the most reliable bital complications.17 Therefore, in our center, functional marker for the diagnosis of AFRS.38 endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) for AFRS patients is rou- tinely carried out with image-guided system. Image guid- MANAGEMENT ance also aids in complete removal of eosinophilic mucin and opening of drainage pathways, especially in revision Although the management of AFRS has advanced tremen- cases when postoperative scarring, osteoneogenesis and dously with better understanding of the underlying patho- loss of anatomical landmark can make surgery extremely genesis, the optimal treatment strategy is still far from clear. Once a diagnosis of AFRS has been established, patients are difficult and challenging. Incomplete surgical resection enrolled into a committed long-term management program with remnant cells filled with allergic mucin can be a risk with regular and long-term follow-up considered critical to factor for early disease recurrence.56 To prevent postopera- the success of the treatment. A combination of surgery with tive scarring, osteoneogenesis and restenosis of the sinuses, a comprehensive postoperative medical regimen to keep the mucosal preservation during surgery is key. disease under control is almost always required. Surgery not only drains, re-establishes ventilation and removes the antigenic stimulation for AFRS patients, but Surgical Treatment also provides wide access for surveillance, clinical debride- ment and application of topical medication. It is only the Unlike the management of classical CRS, surgery is usually first critical step in a long-term treatment contract with the the first line treatment in the management of AFRS. External patient and often a combination of medical treatments will approaches with mucosal stripping54,55 have largely been be required for the patient to remain disease free. abandoned and meticulous and complete endoscopic sinus surgery are now the gold standard in the surgical extirpa- Endoscopic Staging of tion of polypoid disease and allergic mucin in an attempt to restore ventilation and drainage of the sinuses.18 Removal Mucosal Disease Postsurgery of allergic mucin and fungal debris eliminates the antigenic Regular follow-up and accurate documentation of the factor that incites the disease in an atopic host. sinonasal mucosa of AFRS patients after surgery is critical to In advanced disease, expansion of the sinuses by inspis- monitor disease status and response to adjunctive medical sated mucus, polypoid disease and mucoceles often facili- treatments. Therefore, Kupferberg et al. devised a four-stage tates surgery.17 However, the extensive disease with resulting system for endoscopic follow-up in these patients postsur- mucocele and bony erosion will also distort normal sinus gery (Table 7).57 However, the Kupferberg staging system anatomy and increase the risks of intracranial and intraor- lacks sensitivity, often resulting in patients remaining in 10 Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Table 7: Kupferberg postoperative endoscopic staging system Tables 8A and B: Philpott-Javer endoscopic staging system for allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS). for allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS). Stage Endoscopic finding Table 8A I Normal mucosa Sinus cavity Right Mucin Left Mucin II Mucosal edema/allergic mucin Frontal 0–9 1 0–9 1 III Polypoid edema/allergic mucin Ethmoid 0–9 1 0–9 1 IV Sinus polyps and fungal debris Maxillary 0–9 1 0–9 1 Sphenoid 0–9 1 0–9 1 Olfactory cleft 0–9 1 0–9 1 the same endoscopic stage even when they have improved Total 50 50 symptomatically and endoscopically.58 Hence in 2010, Bilateral total 100 Philpott et al. introduced a new endoscopic staging system Table 8B for AFRS. The Philpott-Javer system58 is a validated system Grading State of mucosa that was derived from modifications made to the Kupferberg 0 No edema system. Each sinus cavity is scored independently on a scale 1–3 Mucosal edema (mild/moderate/severe) from 0 to 9 based on the degree of mucosal inflammation. 4–6 Polypoid edema (mild/moderate/severe) 7–9 Frank polyps (mild/moderate/severe) An additional 1-point is allocated for each sinus if allergic mucin is noted grossly. This allows for a maximum score of 10 points per sinus cavity, 40 points for each side of the nose and 80 points for the total maximum bilateral score. More recently, we have added the olfactory cleft on each side as an independent site thereby rounding out the total maximum bilateral score to 100 (50 on each side). Such a system is much more sensitive and allows for much better tracking of disease control postoperatively (Tables 8A and B, Fig. 7). Medical Treatment Systemic Medications Corticosteroids: Oral steroids are useful in the perioperative period of patients with AFRS. In the preoperative period, a short course of coritcosteroids have been shown to reduce intraoperative bleeding and size of the polyps.34 In the postoperative period, the corticosteroids regimen was initially derived from the protocol used in treatment of ABPA.11 In a four-year follow-up study of 11 AFRS patients by Kuhn and Javer, a reduction in IgE and mucosal disease postoperatively were seen in patients who were on steroids. They found that in order to prevent recurrence, a minimum of 6 months of normal sinus mucosa while on steroids is necessary before steroids can be slowly discontinued.30 The longest time to recurrence was noted to be up to 34 months, hence the need for long-term follow-up of at least 3 years, even after the patient is steroid-free.57 A postoperative corticosteroid regimen proposed by Kuhn and Javer was as follows: 40 mg daily for 4 days followed with 30 mg daily for 4 days, followed with 20 mg daily for 1 month after surgery, Fig. 7: A clinic poster for the Philpott-Javer endoscopic staging followed by 0.2 mg/kg daily for 4 months while maintaining system for AFRS.  Endoscopic Management of Juvenile Angiofibromas 11 endoscopic stage 0 and finally 0.1 mg/kg daily for 2 months, for repeated surgical debridement. Subsequent retro- including the use of intranasal corticosteroids.57 spective studies63,67 with lower dosage of oral antifungals Despite the widespread use of steroids in patients with (200–300 mg daily) showed potential benefits as a steroid CRS with nasal polyposis, a Cochrane Review in 201159 sparing alternative and in prolonging time to disease recur- found only three randomized controlled trials that met their rence. In our small series of recalcitrant AFRS patients at stringent criteria in assessing the efficacy of nasal steroids the St Paul’s Sinus Centre treated with oral itraconazole in patients with nasal polyposis. Out of 166 patients in these (300 mg/day for 1 month followed by 200 mg/day for three trials, only 96 patients (58%) showed improvement in 2 months), 56% of patients reported subjective improvement nasal symptoms score, quality of life and nasal polyp size in symptoms score and 38% of patients showed endoscopic after 2–4 weeks course of steroids compared to no steroid improvement.67 treatment.60-62 Oral itraconazole is associated with risk of elevated liver Systemic steroids, although beneficial in the peri- enzymes, congestive heart failure, nausea, rash, headache, operative period, are not without adverse side effects. malaise, fatigue, and edema (Janseen Pharmaceutica, Among some of the early side effects include psychosis, Beerse, Belgium). The prevalence of transamintis in AFRS insomnia, poorer control of blood glucose level (in diabetic patients on oral itraconazole has been reported to be patients) and blood pressure (in hypertensive patients) between 4% and 19%.63,67 Asymptomatic transaminitis is not and gastric upset from peptic ulcer disease. The long-term uncommon and cessation of treatment is usually sufficient adverse effects include accelerated osteoporosis, glaucoma, for the elevated liver enzymes to revert back to normal. cataract formation and avascular necrosis of the hip.18 Hepatotoxicity including liver failure and death is rare but Although long-term oral corticosteroid may be necessary a serious complication of itraconazole. Hence, the role of in some patients, its use should be judicious and limited to antifungals in the management of AFRS patients has to be short courses in the perioperative period and in acute exacer- more clearly defined. It seems that a subset of AFRS patients bations of AFRS to suppress growth of recurrent polyps.17 seems to respond to antifungals and future randomized con- trolled trials will be required to identify the ideal candidate Antifungals: Oral antifungals are considered as a treatment and to assess the efficacy, safety and optimal dosage and option in patients with recalcitrant chronic fungal sinusitis. regimen for oral antifungals in the treatment of AFRS. It is also used as a steroid-sparing medication, allowing some patients to be weaned off from long-term oral corti- costeroid therapy.63 Oral itraconazole, when used in steroid- Topical Medication dependant ABPA patients, was found to reduce the dosage of Corticosteroid: Topical corticosteroids are used as the steroids required, improve pulmonary function and exercise standard treatment of patients with AFRS. They are most tolerance, and decrease IgE levels.64 The presumed mecha- effective in the postoperative period, when the open sinus nism involved is a decrease in fungal load with subsequent cavities and middle meatus provide access to the drug. The reduction in antigenic stimulation for chronic inflamma- benefit of topical over systemic steroid lies in the ability of tion.63 As such, AFRS, a disease considered similar to ABPA topical steroid to achieve the highest drug concentration in is thought to respond similarly to antifungals. the target tissue (sinonasal mucosa) without the unwanted There are no randomized controlled trials on the effec- systemic side effects.68 Although studies on the effectiveness tiveness of oral antifungals in AFRS patients. Early reports of intranasal steroids in AFRS patients are lacking, their by Bent and Kuhn showed mixed to poor results.65 However, benefits have been well established in CRS patients with in a large retrospective study of 137 AFRS patients treated nasal polyposis.69,70 In the treatment of nasal polyp disease, with high dose oral itraconazole by Rains et al., recurrence recent meta-analyses showed that topical corticosteroids occurred in 69 patients (50.3%) at about 10.8 months post- reduced polyp size and improved symptoms compared surgery and revision surgery was required in 17 patients to control.69,70 For AFRS patients, Kuhn and Javer recom- (20.5%). 66 In their regimen, itraconazole was given at mended using a dosage three times that used for allergic 400 mg/day for 1 month, followed by 300 mg/day for rhinitis in weaning patients off oral corticosteroid.30 1 month, followed by 200 mg/day for 1 month or until clear Recently, the use of budesonide administered as drops, by endoscopy. As the revision surgery rates have been atomized sprays or through low volume saline rinses have reported to be between 48% and 56%,36,52 Rains et al. con- gained popularity in the treatment of AFRS patients.17 cluded that high dose antifungals reduced the requirement Inhaled budesonide have been shown to be an effective and 12 Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Fig. 8: Pulmicort nebule and the MAD syringe. Fig. 9: Application of Pulmicort through the MAD in the Mygind position. safe treatment for asthma.71,72 The systemic bioavailability At our center, AFRS patients are instructed to use bude- of aqueous intranasal budesonide is 34% when absorbed sonide rinses (2 ml of 0.5 mg/mL Pulmicort Respules in by nasal mucosa and its oral bioavailability is only 10% due 500 mL of normal saline) in the immediate postoperative to extensive first past metabolism.73 In asthmatic children, period. After 3 weeks postoperatively, the budesonide is the total bioavailability of nebulized budesonide has been delivered through a MAD. Patients are taught to apply the reported to be approximately 6%.73 In addition, long-term spray in a Mygind position (Fig. 9). Specifically, patients 400 μg/day budesonide via turbuhaler in asthmatic chil- are asked to insert the MAD in the nose and aim laterally dren and adults have not been shown to have any clinically (towards the ipsilateral medial canthus). 1 mL (0.5 mg/mL) significant effect on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal is then sprayed into each nasal nostril. Patients are advised (HPA) axis.71,74 In postsurgical CRS patients, Sachanan- to remain in the Mygind position for 2–3 minutes after dani et al. demonstrated that budesonide nasal irrigation instilling the spray. We favor the Mygind position as it is (2.5 mg of budesonide diluted in 5 mL of normal saline in supported by our recently completed (unpublished) study on post-FESS cadaveric heads. Our study showed superior each nasal cavity) for 30 days improved clinical symptoms distribution of fluorescein within the ethmoid and frontal of CRS without HPA suppression.75 sinuses and the frontal recess when the head was placed In the treatment of postoperative refractory CRS patients, in the lateral-head-back (LHB) position compared to the topical budesonide (Pulmicort Respules) via the Mucosal vertex-to-floor (VTF) position. Atomization Device (MAD; Wolfe-Tory Medical, Salt Lake Antifungals: As discussed above, systemic antifungal can City, UT) resulted in improvements in both physician and have significant adverse effects. Therefore, the use of topical patient global assessments and also reduction in the use of antifungals has been explored extensively. Unfortunately, oral prednisolone (Fig. 8). A prospective study is currently evidence on the effectiveness of topical antifungals (spray being conducted in our center to determine if application or lavage) in AFRS patients has been scarce. On the other of high dose budesonide (up to 0.5 mg/mL of Pulmicort hand, there are numerous studies in the literature on the Respules per nostril three times a day) via the MAD causes use of topical antifungals in CRS patients. A recent meta- HPA suppression and results in an increase in plasma cor- analysis of topical amphotericin B for the treatment of tisol and detection of plasma budesonide. The preliminary CRS found no significant difference between computed data of the first 10 patients neither showed any evidence of tomography, nasal endoscopy and symptom scores between HPA suppression nor any elevation of plasma cortisol or the amphotericin B treated group compared to the control presence of plasma budesonide. Hence, the use of topical arm.76 A Cochrane review completed in 2011 of randomized budesonide delivered via the MAD looks promising as an placebo-controlled trials for both topical and oral antifun- effective and safe adjunct in the treatment of AFRS. gals in the management of CRS patients did not show any  Endoscopic Management of Juvenile Angiofibromas 13 benefit in the treatment group over the control group. In patients were conducted by Mabry and colleagues.39,84-89 In fact, the symptom scores favored the placebo group and their experience, fungal IT proves to be safe and effective in adverse events were significantly more prevalent in the anti- the majority of postsurgical AFRS patients. In their review fungal group. Therefore it was concluded that antifungals, of eight AFRS patients who received fungal IT for at least 3 whether topical or oral should not be used in the treatment years (range of 36–52 months, average 40 months), none of CRS.77 In view of the lack of effect of antifungals on CRS had recurrence of nasal polyps or allergic mucin or fungal patients, the role of fungus in the pathogenesis of CRS has debris after discontinuation if IT for 7–17 months (average largely been rejected.78 However, the role of fungus in the 13 months).89 A literature review by Hall and deShazo in 2012 pathophysiology of AFRS is more established, though still revealed 10 studies on fungal IT in AFRS patients (Table 9).82 controversial. As topical antifungals have fewer side effects In all studies, there were no major systemic reactions, nor than their oral counterparts, future randomized controlled evidence of worsening of disease in patients treated with trials on their effectiveness on true AFRS patients should be fungal IT. The only side effects reported were minor local conducted. reaction. Although the results of fungal IT appeared promis- ing, the lack of randomized controlled trial warrants better Immunotherapy well-designed research to establish the efficacy and safety of fungal IT in the treatment of AFRS. Specific immunotherapy (IT), also known as allergen IT, refers to a process of repetitive administration of an antigen (either subcutaneously or sublingually) in increasing dosage Adjunctive Treatments to reduce patient sensitivity to that allergen.79 The mecha- Manuka honey nism of action is believed to be a decrease in production of allergen-specific IgE and the production of IgG4 blocking Honey has been used since ancient times for the treatment antibodies that interfere with the IgE antigen reaction.80 of infected wounds.90 It has been proven to be effective in In ABPA, IT has been avoided due to the possibility of an the management of chronic wounds such as diabetic ulcers immune complex-mediated reaction developing from the and wounds infected by antibiotic-resistant bacteria that IgG produced by IT.81,82 As AFRS is considered pathophysio- have failed conventional therapies.91 The antimicrobial logically similar to ABPA, allergen IT in AFRS was not well activity in honey is due to its high glucose content (80%), studied until recently.82 As opposed to ABPA, the fungal anti- acidic nature (pH 3.2 to 4.5), and the production of hydrogen genic stimulus can be removed surgically in AFRS patients. peroxide when diluted with water.92,93 The glucose in honey Surgical removal of fungal debri and allerigic mucin in AFRS fuels vital cells like phagocytes that are in need of energy patients has also been shown to decrease allergen specific production in an environment that is often deficient in IgE levels for fungal antigen.23 Hence, it can be argued that oxygen supply.94 The acidic environment inhibits bacterial fungal IT after surgery may potentially provide benefit rather growth while hydrogen peroxide is an anti-infammatory than harm in the management of AFRS.82 and bacteriocidal agent.93 Antifungal IT in AFRS patients was first presented by Amongst the various types of honey available, Manuka Ferguson in 1993 at the American Academy of Otolaryngo- (Leptospernum scoparium) Honey from New Zealand is logy Allergy Meeting. In her retrospective review of 7 AFRS the most therapeutically potent honey, with antibacte- patients receiving fungal IT, 5 patients who did not have rial and anti-inflammatory effects.95 It has been shown to surgery did not improve or appeared to have worsen after be active against a broad spectrum of gram-positive and IT. The other 2 patients who received IT after surgery did gram-negative bacteria.96 The principal active ingredient improve clinically.80 Subsequently, in 1995, Quinn et al. responsible for the antibacterial property in Manuka Honey published the first case report on successful IT in an AFRS is Methylglyoxal (MGO).97 MGO is present at a concentration patient with Bipolaris. The patient had surgery and was of up to 100-fold that of conventional honey.97 In a recent refractory to multiple polypectomies, nasal and oral ster- in-vitro study by Alandejani et al., Manuka Honey at a con- oids and antibiotics. However, after 18 months of Bipolaris centration of 33% v/v was shown to be effective in eradica- IT, the patient had resolution of symptoms and polyposis ting Methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus Aureus (MSSA), as well as significant improvement on a repeat CT scan. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) and The patient’s total IgE, Bipolaris-specific IgE and IgG and Pseudomonas Aeruginosa (PA) biofilms. In fact, conditions eosinophilic counts did not change significantly.83 Fol- that rapidly induced antibiotic resistance did not cause lowing this, the majority of studies on fungal IT in AFRS bacterial resistance to honey.93 14 Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Table 9: Studies on fungal immunotherapy (IT) in allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS) patients. Study/year Study design No. of patients Average dura- Main findings Adverse event treated with IT tion of treatment Ferguson80/1993 Retrospective 7 Unknown 5 patients did not improve Not reported (presurgery), 2 patients im- proved symptomatically (IT given postsurgery) Quinn et al.83/1995 Case report 1 18 months Resolution of symptoms and None nasal polyposis Mabry et al.84/1997* Prospective 9 8.6 months Decreased need for oral and None topical corticosteroids Mabry and Ma- Prospective 10 20 months 7 patients symptoms free, Infrequent bry85/1997* 2 patients required revision minor surgery, 1 patient was on reactions at nasal irrigation injection site Mabry et al.86/1998* Prospective 11 28 months No revision surgery, 3 patients None on topical nasal steroids Folker et al.87/1998* Prospective case 11 33 months Improvement in endoscopic and Not reported control symptom scores and reduction in oral and topical nasal cortico- steroid use compared to control Mabry et al.89/2000* Prospective 8 40 No recurrence of disease after Not reported 7–17 months cessation of IT Bassichis et al.88/2001* Retrospective 36 Unknown Decreased rate of revision Not reported surgery (11% in IT group vs 33% in non-IT group), reduced postoperative office visits requir- ing medical therapy (3.17 in IT group vs 4.79 in non-IT group) Marple et al.39/2002* Retrospective 10 Unknown No significant impact on number Not reported (follow-up of operations, endoscopic and period of quality of life scores but overall 46–138 months) well Greenhaw et al.121/2011 Retrospective 14 21.8 months No difference in adverse reac- Minor local tions between patients receiving reactions high dose fungal IT in AFRS patients vs high-dose fungal IT in CRS patients. *Study from the Department of Otorhinolaryngology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center. Fig. 10: Manuoka honey preparation and the power rinse bottle for sinus irrigation.  Endoscopic Management of Juvenile Angiofibromas 15 As biofilms are increasingly recognized as key players local sinonasal IgE levels and often serum IgE levels are in perpetuating chronic inflammation and infection in increased.102,103 Although the pathogenesis of nasal polyposis patients with recalcitrant CRS,98 the use of honey irrigation in CRS is unknown, like in AFRS, allergy has been implicated as an adjunct in the treatment of AFRS patients postsur- as one of the potential etiologic factor.29-31,102 Hence, the use gery should be considered. At St Paul’s Sinus Centre, our of omalizumab in patients with CRS with nasal polyposis early experience with Manuka honey irrigation (Fig. 10) in and asthma has been explored. AFRS patients refractory to surgery and postoperative oral In a small pilot study by Penn and Mikula amongst and intranasal steroids showed clinical improvement.99 post-FESS atopic asthma patients with nasal polyposis However, a subsequent prospective randomized controlled treated with omalizumab, there was a significant reduction trial of 34 postsurgical AFRS patients treated with Manuka in the size of the polyps in the anti-IgE group compared to honey in one nostril did not show any significant difference control.104 In addition, they found that the severity of nasal in sinonasal mucosal score compared to the untreated polyposis correlated with total serum IgE levels in atopic nostril.94 In this study, the patients acted as their own con- asthmatics. In their study, omalizumab was administered trol. In the treated nostril, patients were instructed to use by subcutaneous injection in 2- or 4-week intervals with a the MAD to administer 2 mL of 50/50 mixture of Manuka dose range of 150–375 mg (depending on patients’ weight honey saline solution every night for 30 days. Only 7 out of and pretreatment IgE levels) for an average of 5.5 months 34 patients showed mucosal improvement after treatment (range 3–8 months). Apart from reduction in polyp size, with Manuka honey irrigation in one nostril. It appears that omalizumab treatment in post-FESS CRS with nasal poly- there is a subgroup of AFRS patients who do respond well posis patients with asthma has also been shown to reduce to Manuka honey irrigation. We therefore embarked on a dependence on intranasal steroids and avoid revision study to identify the cytokine profiles in this population of surgery.103 In the only randomized double-blind placebo- patients. In our recently completed randomized controlled controlled trial on omalizumab therapy on nasal polyps and study (unpublished) comparing post-FESS patients treated asthma patients, Gevaert et al. demonstrated that there was with either Manuka honey or saline solution for 3 months, significant improvement in total nasal endoscopic polyp we found a cytokine signature of upregulated interleukin scores, CT findings, airway symptoms and quality of life (IL)-1b, IL-4, IL-6 and IL-12 in the sinonasal mucosa of sores after 16 weeks of omalizumab treatment.105 These patients who responded to Manuka honey treatment. This preliminary result looks promising and larger studies to improvements were seen irrespective of the presence of confirm the result of this study will be warranted. As Manuka allergy. honey has been proven effective against biofilms and have Given the pathophysiological similarity between ABPA anti-inflammatory properties, further research should aim and AFRS, recent case reports 106-110 and case series 111 to determine the optimal concentration and regimen for demonstrating improvement in the clinical outcome of irrigation of the sinuses in postsurgical AFRS patients. omalizumab in ABPA patients provide additional support for its use in AFRS patients. Although there are currently no Future Treatment Strategies published data on the effects of anti-IgE therapy on AFRS patients, a study of this nature is currently ongoing in our Anti-Immunoglobulin E (IgE) therapy institution. We have administered subcutaneous omali- Omalizumab (Xolair) is a humanized monoclonal anti-IgE zumab in a small number of AFRS patients with raised IgE antibody that has been used as an adjuvant treatment in levels and the early results seem to be favorable. We are severe atopic asthma.100 It has also been shown to clini- excited about the final outcome of this study which we hope cally improve patients with allergic rhinitis.101 In indivi- will pave the way for a double blind randomized controlled duals with CRS with nasal polyposis and allergic rhinitis, trial to prove the efficacy of this drug. INVASIVE FUNGAL RHINOSINUSITIS ACUTE (FULMINANT) INVASIVE FRS impaired neutrophilic response. These patients include Acute or fulminant invasive FRS is a life-threatening disease those with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, acquired present usually in immunocompromised patients with immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), aplastic anemia, 16 Endoscopic Sinus Surgery hemochromatosis, aplastic anemia, iatrogenic immunosup- risk patients with suggestive clinical and radiological find- pression, organ transplantation and hematological malig- ings.114 The aims of surgery are to halt or slow progression nancies.112 This condition is characterized by the presence of of the disease (allowing time for bone marrow recovery), hyphal invasion of sinus tissue and a time course of less than to reduce fungal load and to provide a tissue culture.114 In 4 weeks.3,4 Histological features include mycotic infiltration neutropenic patients, the ability to respond to granulocyte of blood vessels, vasculitis with thrombosis, tissue infarction, colony stimulating factor (GCSF) can be used as a marker hemorrhage and acute neutrophilic infiltrate.1 Aspergillus for disease survivor. In these patients, GCSF responders species and the fungi in the order of mucorale (e.g. Rhizopus, are more likely to be disease survivors compared to non- Rhizomucor and Mucor) are the most commonly impli- GCSF responders.115 The presence of a better bone marrow cated species.1 reserve and the increased in total white cell count in GCSF The inability to mount a host response to invasive fungal responders may account for the hosts’ ability to overcome disease in immunocompromised patients can make the the disease.115 diagnosis of this disease entity difficult, especially in the Prior to definitive identification of the causative fungi, early stages.113 Although common reported clinical symp- empirical treatment with intravenous amphotericin B, a toms include fever, cough, crusting of the nasal mucosa, broad-spectrum antifungal agent, has been recommended. epistaxis and headaches,1 a high index of suspicion of this Recommended dosage ranged from 0.25 mg/kg/day to disease entity should be present in any immunosuppressed 1 mg/kg/day.118 A maximum of 1.2 mg/kg/day in adults and patients with localizing sinonasal symptoms. Often, fever 1.5 mg/kg/day in children is reserved for severe invasive of unknown origin that has failed to respond to 48 hours of mycosis.118 The use of amphotericin B is limited by its side broad-spectrum intravenous antibioitcs may be the initial effects such as electrolyte imbalance, renal toxicity, bone presenting symptom.114 marrow suppression and infusion related reactions. 118 In the early stages, nasoendoscopic findings may be as Liposomal form of amphotericin B has better efficacy and subtle as the presenting symptoms. Alteration in mucosal side effect profile compared to standard amphotericin B appearance such as a discoloration, granulation and ulcera- deoxycholate.1 However, it is considerably more expensive tion are the most consistent physical findings.115 Mucosal (up to 30 times more) than standard amphotericin B. Hence, discoloration seen include gray, green, white and black. A liposomal amphotericin B is generally reserved for patients white mucosal discoloration suggests tissue ischemia while with renal impairment or those who have failed standard a black mucosal discoloration indicates tissue necrosis seen amphotericin B.114 Once a causative fungal species has been in late disease. In a case series by Gillepsie and O’Malley, identified, the use of the triazoles (fluconazole, itraconazole the mucosal changes were most commonly seen on the and variconazole) can be considered.113,118 The triazoles middle turbinate (67% of patients) followed by the septum are effective in the treatment of invasive FRS without the (24%), palate (17%) and inferior turbinate (10%).115 A middle associated nephrotoxicity seen in standard amphotericin turbinate biopsy in the confirmation of acute invasive FRS B.118 However, the triazoles lack effectiveness against the has been shown to have a sensitivity of 86% and a specificity Mucorales species and their presence should be ruled out of 100%.114 On radiology, there are no pathognomonic fea- before its use is considered.1,113 tures for invasive FRS and a CT scan is the initial radiologic investigation of choice (Figs. 11A and B). The main radio- GRANULOMATOUS INVASIVE FRS logic features suggestive of invasive FRS are summarized in This disease entity is defined by invasive fungal infection Table 6. lasting more than 12 weeks.3 It is usually of gradual onset Without early treatment, rapid progression of disease and is seen more commonly in Sudan, India, Pakistan and with 50%–80% mortality rates from intraorbital and intracra- Saudi Arabia.1 The causative agent is almost exclusively nial complications have been reported.114-117 Improvement of Aspergillus flavus.1 Patients are typically immunocompetent the host immune response is paramount for survival. Once and the predominant clinical features include proptosis a diagnosis is confirmed, early and aggressive endoscopic with an enlarging mass in the cheek, nose, paranasal sinus surgical debridement till “bleeding margins” are seen is and orbit.1,113 CT findings are not different to that of chronic necessary.114 Even if middle turbinate biopsy in the clinical invasive FRS although they have a tendency for multiple setting is negative, a low threshold for intraoperative biopsy sinus involvement. 119 The distinguishing feature from and surgical debridement should be considered in high chronic invasive FRS is histological findings of fungal tissue  Endoscopic Management of Juvenile Angiofibromas 17 A B Figs. 11A and B: Intraoperative IGS images of the sphenoid sinus of a patient with invasive FRS. (A) Extensive fungal disease is seen eroding through the superior, inferior, lateral and posterior walls of the right sphenoid sinus; (B) The right optic canal has also been eroded by fungal disease. 18 Endoscopic Sinus Surgery invasion and a granulomatous reaction with considerable logic rather than an infectious process as the underlying fibrosis. This is evident from the presence of noncaseating mechanism in AFRS. Surgery is still the mainstay treatment granulomas with foreign body or Langerhans-type giant although most agree that radical and destructive approaches cells, occasional vasculitis and sparse hyphae.1,3,113 Treat- are not necessary, and a more conservative yet complete ment includes complete surgical removal and antifungal approach with mucosal preservation is the key to achiev- agents. For Aspergillus species, voriconazole is the drug of ing the desired outcome. The main challenge is preventing choice although itraconazole and pasoconazole are viable disease recurrence. This can be achieved with a combina- alternatives.113 For non-Aspergillus species, amphotericin tion of regular and long-term clinical follow-ups coupled B is the treatment of choice while awaiting the results of with office-based endoscopic debridement and adjuvant susceptibility testing. Consultation with an infectious medical treatments. While emerging new therapies such disease physician should be made as long-term antifungal as Manuka honey irrigation and anti-IgE therapy appears treatment for more than 1 year may be required to prevent promising, a complete cure continues to remain elusive at disease recurrence.120 present. CHRONIC INVASIVE FRS REFERENCES Chronic invasive FRS is a slowly destructive disease with a 1. deShazo RD, Chapin K, Swain RE. Fungal sinusitis. N Engl J time course of more than 12 weeks duration. Patients are Med. 1997;337:254-9. 2. Grosjean P, Weber R. Fungus balls of the paranasal sinuses: usually immunocompetent or have subtle abnormalities a review. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;264:461-70. in the immune system from diabetes mellitus, chronic low 3. Chakrabarti A, Denning DW, Ferguson BJ, et al. Fungal dose corticosteroid use and AIDS.3,113 The most common rhinosinusitis: a categorization and definitional schema fungi implicated is Aspergillus Fumigatus.3 The clinical addressing current controversies. Laryngoscope. 2009;119: picture of chronic invasive FRS is similar to that of granulo- 1809-18. 4. Ferguson BJ. Definitions of fungal rhinosinusitis. Otolaryngol matous invasive FRS with both conditions presenting with Clin North Am. 2000;33:227-35. frequent orbital involvement. The ethmoid and sphenoid 5. Jimenez AL, Salvo NL. Mycetoma or synovial sarcoma? A sinuses are most commonly involved. 3 On histology, case report with review of the literature. J Foot Ankle Surg. chronic invasive FRS demonstrates invasion of fungi into 2011;50:569-76. the sinonasal mucosa with a dense accumulation of fun- 6. Barry B, Topeza M, Gehanno P. Aspergillosis of the parana- sal sinus and environmental factors. Ann Otolaryngol Chir gal hyphae, occasional vascular invasion, and chronic or Cervicofac. 2002;119:170-3. sparse inflammatory reaction.1,3 There is no difference in the 7. Klossek JM, Serrano E, Peloquin L, et al. Functional endo- prognosis or the management of both chronic invasive and scopic sinus surgery and 109 mycetomas of the paranasal granulomatous invasive FRS.3 For the occasional patients sinuses. Laryngoscope. 1997;107:112-7. with invasive FRS with a time line between 4 and 12 weeks, 8. McCarthy DS, Pepys J. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergi- llosis. Clin Allergy. 1971;1:261-86. the term subacute invasive FRS has been recommended.3 9. Safirstein BH. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis with obstruction of the upper respiratory tract. Chest. 1976;70: CONCLUSION 788-90. 10. Katzenstein AA, Sale SR, Greenberger PA. Allergic aspergillus In summary, FRS is an uncommon but important part of the sinusitis: a newly recognized form of sinusitis. J Allergy Clin disease spectrum of CRS. Although there are certain clues Immunol. 1983;72:89-93. from clinical and radiological findings, histology is key in 11. Waxman JE, Spector JG, Sale SR, et al. Allergic aspergillus distinguishing the different subtypes of FRS. Obtaining the sinusitis: concepts in diagnosis and treatment of a new clini- cal entity. Laryngoscope. 1987;97:261-6. correct diagnosis is crucial as each disease entity differs in 12. Manning SC, Vuitch F, Weinberg AG, et al. Aspergillus the optimal management strategy. Antifungal agents are sinusitis: a newly recognized form of sinusitis in the pediatric usually not required in the management of noninvasive population. Laryngoscope. 1989;99:681-5. FRS but are part of the first line treatment in invasive FRS. 13. Manning SC, Schaefer SD, Close LG, et al. Culture-positive Fungus-related eosinophilic FRS is the most common allergic fungal sinusitis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1991;117:174-8. subtype of FRS and continues to be a fascinating but difficult 14. Granville L, Chirala M, Cernoch P, et al. Fungal sinusitis: disease to understand and manage. Although controversy histological spectrum and correlation with culture. Hum still exists, recent evidence has supported an immuno- Pathol. 2004;35:474-81.  Endoscopic Management of Juvenile Angiofibromas 19 15. Das A, Bal A, Chakrabarti A, et al. Spectrum of fungal rhi- 35. Panikou JU, Sherris DA, Kern EB, et al. The diagnosis and nosinusitis; histopathologist’s perspective. Histopathology. incidence of allergic fungal sinusitis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;54:854-9. 1999;74:877-84. 16. Ferguson BJ, Barnes L, Bernstein JM, et al. Geographic varia- 36. Ferguson BJ. Eosinophilic mucin rhinosinusitis: a distinct tion in allergic fungal rhinosinusitis. Otolaryngol Clin North clinicopathological entity. Laryngoscope. 2000;110:799-813. Am. 2000;33:441-9. 37. Meltzer EO, Hamilos DL, Hadley JA, et al. Rhinosinusitis: 17. Ryan MW. Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis. Otolaryngol Clin establishing definitions for clinical research and patient care. North Am. 2011;44:697-710. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004;131:S1-62. 18. Kuhn FA, Javer AR. Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis: periop- 38. Marple BF. Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis: a review of clinical erative management, prevention of recurrence, and role of manifestation and current treatment strategies. Med Mycol. steroids and antifungal agents. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2006;44:S277-84. 2000;33:419-33. 39. Marple B, Newcomer M, Schwade N, et al. Natural history 19. Bent JP, Kuhn FA. Diagnosis of allergic fungal sinusitis. Oto- of allergic fungal rhinosinusitis: a 4- to 10-year follow-up. laryngol Head Neck Surg. 1994;111:580-8. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2002;127:361-6. 20. Manning SC, Holman M. Further evidence for allergic 40. Mabry RL, Manning S. Radioallergosorbent microscreen pathophysiology in allergic fungal sinusitis. Laryngoscope. and total immunoglobulin E in allergic fungal sinusitis. Oto- 1998;108:1485-96. laryngol Head Neck Surg. 1995;113:721-3. 21. Wise SK, Venkatraman G, Wise JC, et al. Ethnic and gender 41. Mabry RL, Marple BF, Mabry CS. Mold testing by RAST and differences in bone erosion in allergic fungal sinusitis. Am J skin test methods in patients with allergic fungal sinusitis. Rhinol. 2004;18:397-404. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1999;121:252-4. 22. Ghegan MD, Wise SK, Gorham E, et al. Socioeconomic fac- 42. Reddy CE, Gupta AK, Singh P, et al. Imaging of granuloma- tors in allergic fungal rhinosinusitis with bone erosion. Am tous and chronic invasive fungal sinusitis: comparison J Rhinol. 2007;21:560-3. with allergic fungal sinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 23. Manning SC, Mabry RL, Schaefer SD, et al. Evidence of 2010;143:294-300. IgE-mediated hypersensitivity in allergic fungal sinusitis. 43. Kopp W, Fotter R, Steiner H, et al. Aspergillosis of the para- Laryngoscope. 1993;103:717-21. nasal sinuses. Radiology. 1985;156:715-6. 24. Dhiwakar M, Thakar A, Bahadur S, et al. Preoperative diag- 44. Lund VJ, Lloyd G, Savy L, et al. Fungal rhinosinusitis. J Lar- nosis of allergic fungal sinusitis. Laryngoscope. 2003;113: yngol Otol. 2000;114:76-80. 688-94. 45. Yousem DM. Imaging of sinonasal inflammatory disease. 25. deShazo RD, Swain RE. Diagnostic criteria for allergic fungal Radiology. 1993;188:303-14. sinusitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1995;96:24-35. 46. Som PM, Curtin HD. Chronic inflammatory-sinonasal dis- 26. Manning SC, Merkel M, Kriesel K, et al. Computed tomog- ease including fungal infections: the role of imaging. Radiol raphy and magnetic resonance diagnosis of allergic fungal Clin North Am. 1993;31:33-44. sinusitis. Laryngoscope. 1997;107:170-6. 47. Som PM, Dillon WP, Fullerton GD, et al. Chronically 27. Ghegan MD, Lee FS, Schlosser RJ. Incidence of skull base and obstructed sinonasal secretions: observations on T1 and T2 orbital erosion in allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS) and shortening. Radiology. 1989;172:515-20. non-AFRS. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2006;134:592-5. 48. Zinreich SJ, Kennedy DW, Malat J, et al. Fungal sinusitis: dia- 28. Wise SK, Ghegan MD, Gorham E, et al. Socioeconomic factors gnosis with CT and MR imaging. Radiology. 1988;169:439-44. in the diagnosis of allergic fungal rhinosinusitis. Otolaryngol 49. Lund VJ, Mackay IS. Staging in rhinosinusitis. Rhinology. Head Neck Surg. 2008;138:38-42. 1993;107:183-4. 29. Steward AE, Hunsaker DH. Fungus-specific IgG and IgE in 50. Wise SK, Rogers GA, Ghegan MD, et al. Radiologic staging allergic fungal rhinosinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. system for allergic fungal rhinosinusitis (AFRS). Otolaryngol 2002;127:324-32. Head Neck Surg. 2009;140:735-40. 30. Kuhn FA, Javer AR. Allergic fungal sinusitis: a four-year 51. Corey JP. Allergic fungal sinusitis. Otolaryngol Clin North follow-up. Am J Rhinol. 2000;14:149-56. Am. 1992;25:225-30. 31. Schubert MS, Goetz DW. Evaluation and treatment of allergic 52. Cody DT, Neel HB, Ferreiro JA, et al. Allergic fungal sinusitis: fungal sinusitis. II. Treatment and follow-up. J Allergy Clin the Mayo Clinic experience. Laryngoscope. 1994;104:1074-9. Immunol. 1998;102:395-402. 53. Javer AR, Genoway KA, Gervais M, et al. Fungal cultures 32. Wise SK, Ahn CN, Lathers DM, et al. Antigen-specific IgE in in patients with allergic fungal rhinosinusitis: improving sinus mucosa of allergic fungal rhinosinusitis patients. Am J the recovery of potential fungal pathogens in the canadian Rhinol. 2008;22:451-6. laboratory. J Otolaryngol. 2007;36:1-5. 33. Ahn CN, Wise SK, Lathers DM, et al. Local production of 54. Killingsworth SM, Wetmore SJ. Culvularia/Drechslera sinusi- antigen-specific IgE in different anatomic subsites of allergic tis. Laryngoscope. 1990;100:932-7. fungal rhinosinusitis patients. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 55. Zieske LA, Kopke RD, Hamil R. Dermatiaceous fungal sinu- 2009;141:97-103. sitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1991;105:567-77. 34. Marple BF. Allergic fungal rhinosinusitis: current theories and 56. Marple BF, Mabry RL. Allergic fungal sinusitis: learning from management strategies. Laryngoscope. 2001;111:1006-19. our failures. Am J Rhinol. 2000;14:223-6. 20 Endoscopic Sinus Surgery 57. Kupferburg SB, Bent JP, Kuhn FA. The prognosis of allergic Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2009;135:303-7. fungal sinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1997;117: 76. Isaac S, Fakhri S, Luong A, et al. A meta-analysis of topical 35-41”. amphotericin B for the treatment of chronic rhinosinusitis. 58. Philpott CM, Clark A, Javer AR. Allergic fungal rhinosinu- Int Forum Allergy Rhinol. 2011;1:250-4. sitis—a new staging system. Rhinology. 2011;49:318-23. 77. Sacks PL, Harvey RJ, Rimmer J, et al. Topical and sys- 59. Martinez-Devesa P, Patiar S. Oral steroids for nasal polyps. temic antifungal therapy for the symptomatic treatment Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;6:CD005232. of chronic rhinosinusitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 60. Hissaria P, Smith W, Wormald PJ, et al. Short course of sys- 2011;10:CD008263. temic corticosteroids in sinonasal polyposis: a double-blind, 78. Fokkens WJ, van Drunen C, Georgalas C, et al. Role of fungi randomized, placebo-controlled trial with evaluation of in pathogenesis of chronic rhinosinusitis: the hypothesis outcome measures. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006;118:128-33. is rejected. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2012; 61. Alobid I, Benitez P, Pujols L, et al. Severe nasal polyposis and 20:19-23. its impact on quality of life. The effect of a short course of oral 79. Frew AJ. Sublingual immunotherapy. N Eng J Med. 2008; steroids followed by long-term intranasal steroid treatment. 358:2259-64. Rhinology. 2006;44:8-13. 80. Ferguson BJ. What role do systemic corticosteroids, immuno- 62. Van Zele T, Gevaert P, Holtappels G, et al. Oral steroids and therapy, and antifungal drugs play in the therapy of allergic doxycycline: two different approaches to treat nasal polyps. fungal rhinosinusitis? Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2010;125:1069-76. 1998;14:1174-8. 63. Seiberling K, Wormald PJ. The role of itraconazole in recal- 81. Greenshaw B, deShazo RD, Arnold J, et al. Fungal immuno- citrant fungal sinusitis. Am J Rhinol Allergy. 2009;23:303-6. therapy in patients with allergic fungal sinusitis. Ann Allergy 64. Stevens DA, Schwartz HJ, Lee JY, et al. A randomized trial of Asthma Immunol. 2011;107:432-6. itraconazole in allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis. N 82. Hall AG, Deshazo RD. Immunotherapy for allergic fungal Eng J Med. 2000;342:756-62. sinusitis. Curr opin Clin Immunol. 2012;12:629-34. 65. Bent JP, Kuhn FA. Antifungal activity against allergic fungal 83. Quinn JM, Wickern GM, Whisman BA, et al. Immunotherapy sinusitis oragnisms. Laryngoscope. 1996;106:1331-4. in allergic bipolaris sinusitis: a case report. J Allergy Clin 66. Rains BM, Mineck CW. Treatment of allergic fungal sinusitis Immunol. 1995;95:201. with high-dose itraconazole Am J Rhinol. 2003;17:1-8. 84. Mabry RL, Manning SC, Mabry CS. Immunotherapy in the 67. Chan KO, Genoway KA, Javer AR. Effectiveness of itracona- treatment of allergic fungal sinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck zole in the management of refractory allergic fungal rhinosi- Surg. 1997;116:31-5. nusitis. J Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2008;37:870-4. 85. Mabry RL, Mabry CS. Immunotherapy for allergic fungal 68. Benninger MS, Ahmad N, Marple BF. The safety of intranasal sinusitis: the second year. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. steroids. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003;129:739-50. 1997;117:367-71. 69. Joe S, Thambi R, Huang J. A systemic review of the use of 86. Mabry RL, Marple BF, Folker RJ, et al. Immunotherapy for intrnasal steroids in the treatment of chronic rhinosinusitis. allergic fungal sinusitis: three year’s experience. Otolaryngol Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2008;139:340-7. Head Neck Surg. 1998;119:648-51. 70. Rudmik L, Schlosser RJ, Smith TL, et al. Impact of topical 87. Folker RJ, Marple BF, Mabry RL, et al. Treatment of allergic nasal steroid therapy on symptoms of nasal polyposis: a fungal sinusitis: a comparison trial of postoperative immuno- meta-analysis. Laryngoscope. 2012;122:1431-7. therapy with specific fungal antigens. Laryngoscope. 71. Selroos O, Edsbäcker S, Hutquist C. Once-daily inhaled 1998;108:1623-7. budesonide for the treatment of asthma: clinical evidence 88. Bassichis BA, Marple BF, Mabry RL, et al. Use of immuno- and pharmacokinetic explanation. J Asthma. 2004;41:771-90. therapy in previously treated patients with allergic fungal 72. Sheffer AL, Silverman M, Woolcock AJ, et al. Long-term safety sinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2001;125:487-90. of once-daily budesonide in patients with early-onset mild 89. Mabry RL, Marple BF, Mabry CS. Outcomes after discontinu- persistent asthma: results of the Inhaled Steroid Treatment as ing immunotherapy for allergic fungal sinusitis. Otolaryngol Regular Therapy in Easly Asthma (START) study. Ann Allergy Head Neck Surg. 2000;122:104-6. Asthma Immunol. 2005;94:48-54. 90. Molan PC. Why honey is effective as medicine. Bee World. 73. Kanowitz SJ, Batra PS, Citardi MJ. Topical budesonide 1999;80:80-92. via mucosal atomization device in refractory postopera- 91. Dunford C, Cooper R, Molan P, et al. The use of honey in tive chronic rhinosinusitis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. wound management. Nurs Stand. 2000;15:63-8. 2008;139:131-6. 92. White JW, Subers MH, Schepartz AI. The identification of 74. Bacharier LB, Raissy HH, Wilson L, et al. Long-term effect inhibine, the antibacterial factor in honey, as hydrogen of budesonide on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis func- peroxide and its origin in a honey glucose-oxidase system.