Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics PDF

This page intentionally left blank NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS New Delhi · Bangalore · Chennai · Cochin · Guwahati · Hyderabad Jalandhar · Kolkata · Lucknow · Mumbai · Ranchi PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com Copyright © 2006 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher. All inquiries should be emailed to [email protected] ISBN : 978-81-224-2418-8 PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com Preface The education system of India has covered a long distance from gurukul system to British Empire. During this period it has faced so many social problems and it has tried to save their own traditions and social system for the new generation as we are feeling now and observing their qualities to develop our country, as we want. But we should not forget that present tradition system of education has their own qualities due to these qualities and principles it has covered a long distance of his development, now it is a part of the history. Here is a question that if we have our own history of education and research than why we are carrying the British education system and research since independence? It is a very mere question and we have to facing a lot of problems almost in every walk of life to find its answer. An Indian citizen can simply answer that the field of education and research has also been pol1uted with those significant problems, which are carrying by the Indian Education System and research since 1947. India has got the British system of Education having its own structure and functions in heritage and a concerted effort has been made since, then to utilize that heritage in order to achieve comparable results by democratic means; though we pledged in 1950 on the 26th day of January. We, the people of India having solemnly resolved to constitute into a sovereign democratic republic and to secure to all citizens; justice-social, economic and political liberty of thoughts, of status and opportunity and to promote among them all, fraternity assuring dignity of the individual and the unity of Nation; in our constituent assembly do hereby adopt, exact and give to ourselves this constitution. Could we fulfill this pledge to this date? The answer is very big no. Neither we could maintain our democratic ideals nor could we achieve justice, fraternity and liberty. Even we failed to unite our nation–mentally, and physically, both. After analyzing the various factors we come to the conclusion that it is all due to our faulty system of education and their wrong objectives directed by the our old educationist. To help our county and society and also to achieve the desired goal of life, we should understand and to create awareness about the research of our social system. The goal of life is to get good and effective research based education for which we have need good and effective education system. The present volume is a humble effort to present the research problems of social sciences through their past history, as author has perceived. (vi) Almost every social research aspect of social sciences and their problems are covered in this book. The problems can be solved only if there are a large number of idealistic education and research workers devoted to the cause. The author will be highly thankful if you will send your valuable suggestion to up-grade the chapters of this book. Y.K. Singh Content Preface......................................................................................................... (v) Chapter–1: Perception of Research.................................................................................. 1 Chapter–2: Assortment of a Problem............................................................................. 20 Chapter–3: Appraise of Related Literature...................................................................... 35 Chapter–4: Foundation of Hypothesis............................................................................. 54 Chapter–5: Research Planning and Sampling................................................................. 77 Chapter–6: Survey Method............................................................................................. 99 Chapter–7: Historical Method....................................................................................... 112 Chapter–8: Philosophical Method................................................................................. 122 Chapter–9: Experimental Method.................................................................................. 134 Chapter–10: Case Study Method.................................................................................... 147 Chapter–11: Genetic Method.......................................................................................... 161 Chapter–12: Design of Experiments............................................................................... 170 Chapter–13: Tools of Research....................................................................................... 191 Chapter–14: Collection of Data....................................................................................... 212 Chapter–15: Analysis of Data.......................................................................................... 222 Chapter–16: Research Report......................................................................................... 243 Chapter–17: Action Research.......................................................................................... 261 Chapter–18: Organisation of Statistical Data.................................................................. 271 Chapter–19: Measures of Central Tendency.................................................................. 286 Chapter–20: Measures of Variability............................................................................... 296 Chapter–21: Correlation.................................................................................................. 304 Bibliography................................................................................................ 311 This page intentionally left blank Chapter 1 Perception of Research Research has moved during this century from the periphery to the centre of our social and economic life. What is the nature of this force? Why it is getting momentum? Most of us recognize that the progress which has been made in our society has been largely the result of research, we do not have an exact definition of the term. Most of us have a vague idea of what is involved but our concept of research generally is too much oriented toward experimentation as conducted in the social sciences. MEANING OF RESEARCH Research simply seeks the answer of certain questions which have not been answered so far and the answers depend upon human efforts. It may be illustrated by taking an example of the moon. Some years ago man did not know what exactly the moon is? Was this problem which had no solution? Man could only make some assumptions about it but the man now this time by his efforts, he went to the moon brought the soil of the moon and studied it. The man is now able to give concrete answer of the problem what is the moon? But the question arises, “Is the answer of the question in examination also research”? The answer is ‘no’, because the answers of these questions are available. They are available in text-books, class-notes etc. Research answers only those questions of which the answers are not available in literature i.e., in human knowledge. Thus, we can say research seeks the answer only of those questions of which the answers can be given on the basis of available facilities. Actually research is simply the process of arriving as dependable solution to a problem through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data. Research is the most important process for advancing knowledge for promoting progress and to enable man to relate more effectively to his environment to accomplish his purpose and to resolve his conflicts. Although it is not the only way, it is one of the more effective ways of solving scientific problems. From the beginning of time man has noted certain irregularities among the phenomena and events of his experiences and has attempted to devise laws and principles which express these regularities. These laws and principles are of course not without expectation, any law is valid only under the conditions under which it was derived. Even though objects tend to fall, they have been known to rise when other forces are active, but this does not deny the general principle of gravity. Research is devoted to find the conditions under which a certain phenomenon occurs and the conditions under which it does not occur in what might appear to be similar circumstances. Our culture puts such a premium on science that the terms science and scientific are frequently misused. Research is also frequently in contexts where little research in the true sense of the world is actually done. A person no longer looks up a word in dictionary or a historical fact in the encyclopaedia he researches it. Many agencies claiming to do research are engaged in nothing more than fact-findings. 2 Fundamental of Research Methodology TERM RESEARCH The term ‘Research’ consists of two words: Research = Re + Search ‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out something, the following is the process: O bserves C ollection of data Person Phenom ena C onclusions Again and again Analysis of data Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena again and again from different dimensions. For example there are many theories of learning due to the observation from different dimensions. The research is a process of which a person observes the phenomena again and again and collects the data and on the basis of data he draws some conclusions. Research is oriented towards the discovery of relationship that exists among phenomena of the world in which we live. The fundamental assumption is that invariant relationship exists between certain antecedents and certain consequents so that under a specific set of conditions a certain consequents can be expected to follow the introduction of a given antecedent. DEFINITIONS OF RESEARCH According to Rusk “Research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind. It asks questions which have hitherto not been asked, and it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite procedure. It is not a mere theorising, but rather an attempt to elicit facts and to face them once they have been assembled. Research is likewise not an attempt to bolster up pre-conceived opinions, and it implies a readiness to accept the conclusions to which an inquiry leads, no matter how unwelcome they may prove. When successful, research adds to the scientific knowledge of the subject. According to George J. Mouly He defines research as, “The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method interpreted in its broader sense, to the solution of social studiesal problems; conversely, any systematic study designed to promote the development of social studies as a science can be considered research.” According to Francis G. Cornell “To be sure the best research is that which is reliable verifiable and exhaustive, so that it provides information in which we have confidence. The main point here is that research is, literally speaking, a kind of human behaviour, an activity in which people engage. By this definition all intelligent human behaviour involves some research.” “In social studies, teachers, administrators, or others engage in ‘Research’ when they systematically and purposefully assemble information about schools, school children, the social matrix in which a school or school system is determined, the characteristic of the learner or the interaction between the school and pupil.” Perception of Research 3 According to Clifford Woody of the University of Michigan He writes that in an article in the Journal of Social Studies Research (1927), research is a carefully inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles; a diligent investigation to ascertain something, according to Webster’s New International Dictionary. This definition makes clear the fact that research is not merely a search for truth, but a prolonged, intensive, purposeful search. In the last analysis, research constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which is really a method of critical thinking. It comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypotheses. According to C.C. Crawford He writes that “Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialised tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem, collects data or facts, analysis these critically and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence. It evolves original work instead of mere exercise of personal. It evolves from a genuine desire to know rather than a desire to prove something. It is quantitative, seeking to know not only what but how much, and measurement is therefore, a central feature of it.” John W. Best thinks, “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying on the scientific methods of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of results or conclusions.” “Research is but diligent search which enjoys the high flavour or primitive hunting.” – James Harvey Robinson “Research is the manipulation of things concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the practice of an art.” – Encyclopaedia of Social Science “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.” – V. Redman and A.V.H. Mory According to C. Francies Rummel “Research is an endeavour to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years, ever changing in purpose and form and always searching for truth.” P.M. Cook has given a very comprehensive and functional definition of the term research “Research is an honest exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable and contribution to knowledge in the field studied.” He has emphasised the following characteristics of research in his definition: 1. It is an honest and exhaustive process. 2. The facts are studied with understanding. 3. The facts are discovered in the light of problem. Research is problem-centred. 4. The findings are valid and verifiable. 5. Research work should contribute new knowledge in that field. 4 Fundamental of Research Methodology According to W.S. Monroe Monroe, University of Illinois states, “Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be derived partly or wholly from facts. The facts dealt with in research may be statements of opinion, historical facts, those contained in records and reports, the results of tests, answers to questionnaires, experimental data of any sort, and so forth. The final purpose of research is to ascertain principles and develop procedures for use in the field of social studies; therefore, it should conclude by formulating principles or procedures. The mere collection and tabulation of facts is not research, though it may be preliminary to it on eve a part thereof.” According to R.M. Hutchins R.M. Hutchins, Chancellor of the University of Chicago, in “The Higher Learning in America” says, “Research in the sense of the development, elaboration, and refinement of principles, together with the collection and use of empirical materials to aid in these processes, is one of the highest activities of a university and one in which all its professors should be engaged.” J.H. McGrath and D.E. Watson have defined the term ‘Research’ more comprehensively. “Research is a process which has utility to the extent that class of inquiry employed as the research activity vehicle is capable of adding knowledge, of stimulating progress and helping society and man relate more efficiently and effectively to the problems that society and man perpetuate and create.” GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of ‘Research’ 1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources. 2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles. 3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation. 4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices. 5. It is logical and objective. 6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his hypotheses. 7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences. 8. It endeavours to organise data in quantitative terms. 9. Research is patient and unhurried activity. 10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be unpopular and bring social disapproval. 11. Research is carefully recorded and reported. 12. Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and cautiously. THE FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH The following are the main functions of research The main function of research is to improve research procedures through the refinement and extension of knowledge. Perception of Research 5 The refinement of existing knowledge or the acquisition of new knowledge is essentially an intermediate step toward the improvement of the social studiesal process. The social studiesal improvement is associated with various aspects of Social Studies: (a) The function of research is to aid to making a decision concerning the refinement or extension of knowledge in this particular area. (b) The function of research is to improve the students learning and classroom problem with which teacher is encountering with problems. The more effective techniques for teaching can be developed. (c) Another function of research is to aid social studiesal administrators to improve the Social Studiesal systems. The Researches should contribute to the theory and practice of study studies simultaneously. It should have the image of a helpful mechanism which can be used by researcher/researchsholar in one way or the other, for the improvement of the process. SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH The following are the main characteristics of research: 1. A sound philosophy of social studies as the basis of research Robert R. Rusk observes. “In the application of scientific procedure to social studies a sound philosophy- as well as a sound commonsense must be invoked to save the scientific procedure from itself.” 2. Research is based on insight and imagination The same writer feels, “Social studies by its reliance on research must never fail to realize that in addition to its practical practitioner and skilled investigators, it stands in need of men and women of imaginative insight, who look beyond, he present and behold the vision splendid. If the vision should fade into the light of common day, not only will the people perish, but research itself will become a sterile futility.” 3. Research requires an inter-disciplinary approach Research is not the mere description of elementary and isolated facts of nature. It must be related to the study of complex relationships of various facts. It requires an inter- disciplinary approach. 4. Research usually employs deductive reasoning process Eric Hylla writes in the ‘Nature and Functions of Research’, the science of mind commonly uses methods of description, explanation, interpretation, sympathetic or intuitive understanding methods which are mainly speculative and deductive in character and which rarely furnish results that can be subjected to measurement or mathematical procedures. 5. Research should come out of a desire to do things better Stephen M. Corey writes. “Better social studiesal means better development or formulation of instructional aims, better motivation of pupils, better teaching methods, better evaluation and better supervision and administration, these are ‘activities’ or ‘operations’. 6 Fundamental of Research Methodology 6. Research is not as exact as research in physical science No two human beings have ever been found to be alike. No scientific investigations of human behaviour even those of socalled “identical twins” have resulted in the findings of individuals completely similar in structure or behaviour. “In the whole world there are probably no two things exactly alike similarly no two human beings are alike, they differ physically in size, weight, height, colour of eyes and hair texture of skin and in a thousand other details as well as in thousands of details of mental, social and spiritual life,” writes H.C. McKown. This fact stands in the way of making research as an exact science. 7. Research is not the field of the specialist only W.C. Redford writes, “In sum, I believe the teachers in every country have the opportunity and the capacity to undertake some research. Such research, carried out in the day-to-day work of the school, should be concerned directly with the problems of that school. It can properly concern itself with such matters as child development, class organisation, teacher-pupil relationships, interaction with the community, curriculum matters, teaching techniques and many others.” Similarly, V.V. Kamat, in an article entitled “Can a teacher do research?” published in ‘Teaching’ making these remarks: “Any teacher with commonsense, intelligence and insight can undertake research in a problem. In the beginning such workers may require some guidance and training but this can be made easily available to them at the hands of experts.” 8. Research generally requires inexpensive material In many social studies research studies we simply need subjects, i.e., children, their social studiesal tools of daily use, paper and pencil and a few tests. 9. Research is based on the subjectivity and intangibility of social phenomena Lundberg has pointed out that the physical phenomena may be known directly through sense, whereas social phenomena are known only symbolically through words representing such phenomena as tradition, custom, attitude, values and the whole realm of so called subjective worlds. 10. Research is perhaps incapable of being dealt through empirical method According to Lundberg “Exact science tends to become increasingly quantitative in its units, measures, and terminology while most of the matter of social science is quantitative and does not admit of quantitative statement. We can talk of urbanisation, cultural assimilation etc. but we can’t measure quantitatively. We may talk of growing indiscipline, but unless we can measure it, unless we can ascertain the degree of indiscipline, we cannot find a perfect cure.” According to Mitchell, “Even in the work of the most statistically minded, qualitative analysis will have a place. Always our measurements, the pre-conceptions shape our ends, our first glimpses of new problems, our widest generalisations will remain qualitative in form.” 11. Research is based on inter dependence of causes and effect In case of a social phenomena the cause and the effect are inter dependent and one stimulates the other. It becomes, therefore, very difficult to find as to what is the cause and what is the fore effect. MacIver rightly points out, “Social science has hitherto suffered greatly from the attempt to make it conform to Perception of Research 7 method derived from the order and more abstract sciences. It has led us to look for impossible results and to be disappointed at not getting them. We enquire, for example, after the manner of physical sciences which of the two related social phenomena is cause and which the effect. It usually turns out in the social sphere, that both are cause and both are effect. 12. Research cannot be a mechanical process Symonds concludes that research is,... “not something that can be ground out as by a machine. Research can never be made a mechanical process. There is no problem worthy of study that does not include unknown elements and does not require a fresh approach and attack. Too much of the research done by students in recent years has smaked of the mechanical or merely following the methods and procedures of some predecessors without clear insight, into the problem itself or the methods to be used in attacking it. Much of the research in social studies that is being published fails to receive recognition because it lacks that spark of originality that must accompany an attack on a new problem. Research methods and techniques can be taught, but after they are mastered there is still the problem of attacking a new problem and genuine contribution to social studies cannot be made without the willingness to pioneer into new fields or to work out new procedures. Genuine research must be an exploration. Any student who wishes to undertake research in social studies must be willing to take venture into the unknown and only by doing so he will bring back the fruit of genuine discovery.” The criticism of research, Hugh B. Wood states: “Every year about a thousand young men and women go off justly neglected corners of knowledge and assemble tiny scraps of more or less useless information into a little pile of dust, which, adopted with comparative tables, correlative graphs, and other forms of academic is served up as a thesis. The reward is the little of Doctor of Philosophy, which enables its recipient to ascend the social studies as ladder and in time teach other young men and women to scrap together their own heaps of dust or doctoral dissertations.” OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH The research has the following three objectives: 1. Theoretical objective 2. Factual objective and 3. Application objective. 1. Theoretical Objective Those researches whose objectives are theoretical formulate the new theories, principles or laws. Such type of research is explanatory because it explains the relationships of certain variables. These researches contribute some basic knowledge to the human knowledge. The researches in different disciplines i.e., Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics etc. have the theoretical objective. 2. Factual Objective Those researches whose objective is factual find out new facts. This objective is by nature descriptive. These researches describe facts or events which happened previously. Such type of research is done in history. 8 Fundamental of Research Methodology 3. Application Objective The research having application objective does not contribute a new knowledge in the fund of human knowledge but suggests new applications. By application we mean improvement and modification in practice. For example if anyone gives a new application of electricity then such type of research has application objective. CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH In actual practice, research is conducted at different levels and for different immediate purposes. The level at which a person operates in the field depends on the objectives he intends to accomplish. Generally research has two levels: 1. Basic level and 2. Applied level. 1. Basic Level Trevers has defined basic level as basic research. It is designed to add an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value. 2. Applied Level Applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and the goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary. A common mistake is to assume that levels differ according to complexity and that basic research tends to be complex and applied research. Some applied research is quite complex and some basic research is rather simple. KINDS OF RESEARCH There are various bases to classify the research. A. On the Basis of Objectives of Research On the basis of objectives of research they are of two types: 1. Fundamental research and 2. Action research. B. On the Basis of Approach of Research On the basis of approach of Research they are of two types: 1. Longitudinal research: Historical research, case study, genetic comes under longitudinal approach of research. 2. Cross sectional research: Experimental research, survey are the examples of cross sectional research. C. On the Basis of Precision in Research Findings On the basis of precision (accuracy) the researches are: 1. Experimental research and Perception of Research 9 2. Non-experimental research. Experimental research is precise while non-experimental is not. D. On the Basis of Nature of Findings On the basis of findings Researches are of two types: 1. Explanatory research: Such researches explain more concerned theories. laws and principles. 2. Descriptive research: These are more concerned with facts. E. According to National Science Foundation These National Science Foundation formulated a three-fold classification of research. 1. Basic research: Those researches which embrace origin or unique investigation for the advancement of knowledge. 2. Applied research: Which may be characterized as the utilization in practice. 3. Development research: It is the use of scientific knowledge for the production of useful materials, devices, systems, methods for processes excluding design and production engineering. F. Another Classification 1. Adhoc research: Adhoc research is the class of inquiry used for a purpose alone and special. 2. Empirical research: Empirical research is that which depends upon the experience or observation of phenomena and events. 3. Explained research: Explained research is that which is based on a theory. 4. Boarder line research: Boarder line research is that which involves those main two branches or are as of science. For example study of public school finance. TYPES OF RESEARCH There are three types of objectives of research: theoretical, factual and application. The first two types of objectives of research contribute new knowledge in the form of new theory and facts in a particular field of study or discipline. The third objective does not contribute to knowledge but suggests new application for practical problems. Thus, the researches are classified broadly into two categories: 1. Fundamental or Basic research, and 2. Action research or Applied research. Meaning and Definition of Action Research The concept of action research is very old but Stephen M. Corey has applied this concept first in the field of social studies. He has defined the term action research: “The process by which practitioners attempt to study their problems scientifically in order to guide, correct and evaluate their decision and action is what a number of people have called action research.” 10 Fundamental of Research Methodology According to Corey–“Action research is a process for studying problems by practitioners scientifically to take decision for improving their current practices.” “Research concerned with school problems carried on by school personal to improve schools practice is action research.” – Sara Blackwell. According Mc. Threte –“Action research is organized, investigative activity, aimed towards to study and constructive change of given endeavour by individual or group concerned with change and improvement.” On the basis of these definitions of action research, the following characteristics may be enumerated : 1. It is a process for studying practical problems of social studies. 2. It is a scientific procedure for finding out a practical solution of current problem. 3. The practitioner can only study his problem. 4. It is a personal research for clinical research work. 5. The focus is to improve and modify the current practices. 6. The individual and group problems studied by action research. 7. It does not contribute to the fund of knowledge. Origin of Action Research The concept of action research is based on the ‘Modern Human Organization Theory.’ This organization theory is task and relationship centred. It assumes that worker of the organization has the capacity to solve the problem and take decision. He brings certain values, interest and attitudes in the organization. Therefore, the opportunities should be given to the workers of the organization to study and solve the current problems of their practices so that they can improve and modify their practices. The effectiveness of an organization depends on the abilities and skills of the workers. They have to encounter some problems and can realize the gravity of the problems. The practitioner can only study and solve the problems of the current practices. The workers’ will be efficient when they will be given freedom for improving and modifying their practices. The origin of action research is also considered from the field of psychology or social psychology. Kurt Lewin explains life space in terms of person and goal. There is a barrier in between person and goal. He was to overcome the barrier to achieve the goal. ‘It depends on the abilities of the person to achieve the goal. The person’s activities are governed by the goal. The practitioner has to face this type of situation. The concept of action research is being used in Social Studies since (1926). Backingham has mentioned this concept first in his book ‘Research for Teachers’. But Stephen M. Corey used this concept for solving the problems of Social Studies for the first time. Steps of Action Research The research work is done by reflective thinking and not by traditional thinking. The reflective thinking functions systematically. The steps of research are drawn from reflective thinking. The following are the six steps of research: 1. Selection of the problem. 2. Formulation of hypotheses. Perception of Research 11 3. Design of research. 4. Collection of data. 5. Analysis of data. 6. Formulation of conclusions. First Step The problem is selected and defined. The feasibility of the problem depends on its delimitations. Hence, the problem is also delimited in this step. Second Step Some tentative solutions are given for the problem when these solutions are based on certain rationale they are termed as hypothesis. Therefore, in this step hypotheses are formulated. Third Step These hypotheses are subjected to verification. A design of research is developed for collection of data or evidences for testing the hypotheses. It involves method, sample and techniques of research. The appropriate method and techniques are selected for this purpose. Fourth Step The observations and research tools are administered on the subjects and their responses are scored out. Thus, the obtained data are organized in tabular form. Fifth Step The appropriate statistical techniques are used to analyse the data so that some decisions may be taken about the hypotheses. The results are used to draw some conclusions. Sixth Step The results are discussed and some conclusions are drawn in the form of new information, theory, facts and solution for the practical problems. These steps are followed in both types of research: fundamental and action research, but there is significant difference between the two. The comparison of fundamental and action research has been provided in the tabular form on next pages. Objectives of Action Research The action research projects are conducted for achieving the following objectives: 1. To improve the working conditions of school plant. 2. To develop the scientific attitude among teachers and principals for studying their problems. 3. To develop the scientific attitude among students and teachers for understanding and solving their problems. 4. To bring excellence in school workers. 5. To develop the ability and understanding among administrators to improve and modify the school conditions and make it more conducive to learning. 6. To root out the traditional and mechanical environment of school. 7. To make the school system effective for generating a healthy environment for student learning. 8. To raise the level of performance and level of aspiration of the students. 12 Fundamental of Research Methodology Fields of Action Research The action research projects may be designed in the following field of Social Studies: 1. In improving and modifying the classroom teaching strategies, tactics and teaching aids. 2. In developing interests; attitudes and values of the students towards their studies. 3. In dealing the classroom problems and school problem relating to discipline and code of conduct. 4. In assigning the home work so that students should take interest in completing them. 5. In improving the spelling errors and wrong pronunciation. 6. In dealing with the problems of poor attendance in class as well as In school and coming late in school. 7. In developing the habit of completing class notes and active participation. 8. In removing the practice of copying in the examination. 9. In solving the personal problems of students relating to school situations or poor adjustment. 10. In dealing with the problems of school administration organization. Characteristics of an Investigator A good research worker should possess the following qualities: 1. He should have the full understanding about the functions and activities of his job. 2. He should have the reflective thinking about various dimensions of his job activities. 3. He should be sensitive towards his job. A sensitive person can perceive the problem. Most of the teachers are problem blind because they are not sensitive towards the job. 4. He should be creative and imaginative. These abilities are essential in formulating the action hypotheses for his problem. 5. He should have the knowledge and training of action research.. 6. He should have insightful into his area. During his teaching experience he can identify the real problem on the basis of his insight. 7. He should have the scientific attitude for studying and observing things. 8. There should be an objectivity in his thinking. 9. His behaviour should be democratic. The action research design should not intervene the activities of other teachers of school activities. 10. The most important characteristics is the patience and pursuant of the investigator. 11. He should have knowledge and skill of measuring instruments and elementary statistics. 12. He should have open mind so that he can discuss his problems with his colleagues and experts of the field to have correct picture of the problem. 13. He should have an urge to bring about excellence in job economical performance. 14. He should be economical in designing the project from time, energy and money point of view. Steps of Action Research In designing and conducting action-hyper-research project the following steps are followed : Perception of Research 13 1. Identification of Problem A teacher should be sensitive towards job activities. The problem is isolated from the broad field. The investigator must realize the seriousness of the problem. 2. Defining and Delimiting the Problem After Identifying the problem. it should be defined so that action and goal may be specified. The delimitation means to localize the problem in terms of class subject, group and period in which a teacher perceives the problem. 3. Analysing Causes of the Problem The causes of the problem are analysed with the help of some evidences. The nature of the causes is also analysed whether it is under the control or beyond the control of the investigator. This helps in formulating the action hypothesis. 4. Formulating the Action Hypotheses The basis for the formulation action-hypotheses are the causes of the problem which are under the approach of the investigator. The statement of action-hypothesis consists of the two aspects: action and goal. It indicates that the action should be taken for achieving the goal. 5. Design for Testing the Action Hypothesis A design is developed for testing the most important action-hypothesis. Some actions may be taken and their results are observed. If the hypothesis is not accepted second design is developed for testing another hypothesis. In action-research one hypothesis is tested at a time. The design of action-research is flexible and can be changed at any time according to the convenience of the researcher. 6. Conclusions of Action Research Project The accepting or rejecting the action-hypothesis leads to draw some conclusions. The statement of conclusion indicates some prescription for the practical problem of school or classroom. The conclusions are useful in modifying and improving the current practices of school and classroom teaching. The National Council of Research and Training has been taken interest in the action research projects. The extension departments of NCERT have been conducting seminars and workshops for in service teachers for imparting knowledge and skill of action research projects. It has developed Its own paradigm of action I research projects. A Paradigm of Action Research Projects The steps and sub-steps are proposed by NCERT for conducting action research projects: 1. Topic of the project. 2. Objective of the project. 3. The system of the project work. 4. Evaluation of the project. 5. Estimation of expenditure for the project. 6. Name of the institution, number of students enrolled with sections. 7. Number of teachers in different subjects. 8. The available facilities in school for the project work. (a) Background for the project work. (b) The importance of the project for the school. 14 Fundamental of Research Methodology (c) Identification of problem. (d) Defining and delimiting the problem. (e) Formulation of action hypotheses. (f) Testing the action hypotheses. (g) Conclusions of the project work. (h) Remarks by the investigator. On these lines the teacher plans an experimental project, after conducting the experiment he writes a report of his project work. Experimental Project of Action Research The experimental project is designed for solving the problem of English teaching. 1. Topic of the Project A study for improving the spelling errors in English. 2. Investigator An experienced teacher of English. 3. Background for the Project Work The English teacher has observed and experienced that students commit more errors in English spellings. He has noted several types of spelling errors in student’s home assignments compositions, translation and their written work. 4. Objectives of the Project This project is designed and conducted for achieving the following objectives: (i) To make sensitive to students for their spelling errors in English. (ii) To improve the English spellings of the students. (iii) To promote the level of achievement in English. (iv) To realize the need and importance of correct spellings in English language. This project is directly conditioned by these objectives. 5. The Importance of the Project for the School English is the second language but it is the international language. Even in our country we can exchange the ideas with the persons living in every con mer. It is only the media of communication in our country as well as abroad. It is an important language. Therefore students must learn English correctly. 6. Field of the Problem The field of project is the spelling errors in English language. 7. Specification of the Problem The problem is located in class IX A, period second at DAV Inter College Dehradun. The students of this class commit several types of spelling errors in English. 8. Analysing Causes of the Problem The causes of the problem are identified objectively so that tentative solutions may be developed for the problem. The causes are analysed with the help of following table. Perception of Research 15 Causes Evidence Nature Control 1. The students do not By observing the Fact Under the approach complete their written written work of students of the teacher work attentively and in English Language. seriously. 2. They do not give due By administering May be fact of Under the approach attention to spelling recognition or recall Conjecture of the teacher during their study. types test. 3. The teachers do not give Inquiring from the May be or Under the approach due importance to students and Conjecture of the teacher spellings during their supervising their teaching. written work. 4. The students are lacking Oral questions may be Fact May be or may not be in the pre-requisites do asked on English under the approach of not have clear grammar and previous teacher. understanding of English knowledge grammar. The analysis of the causes of the problem provides the basis for the formulation of action hypotheses. 9. Formulation of Action Hypotheses The following two action hypotheses have been developed by considering the causes which are under the approach of the English teacher. First Action Hypothesis: The modification and improvement may be done in English spelling errors by proper correction of English written work. The first part of Action Hypothesis indicates goal and later part is the action to be taken for achieving the goal. Second Action Hypothesis: The spellings of words and their meanings should be emphasized by the teacher to improve the spelling errors in English teaching. The first part of this action hypothesis refers to the action part and second part indicates the goal. The action hypotheses are tested by using separate designs of the project. 10. Design for Testing Action Hypothesis The first action hypothesis is tested by employing the following design of the project. The data are collected during the project work if the evidences indicate significant improvement in spellings of English words. There is no need to test the second hypothesis. 11. Evaluation The evaluation of the project work is done in terms of accepting and rejecting the. hypothesis. The bar diagrams are prepared for the spelling errors. The percentages of errors are calculated to analyse the 16 Fundamental of Research Methodology improvement in English spellings. Some spelling tests may be administered to examine the significance of improvement in english spellings. The conclusions may be drawn in the form of remedial measures for the problem. Initiation of Activities Technique Source Time 1. The teacher will prepare a He will discuss this Text-books and Two days list of different types of issue to other English prescribed syllabus. written work of English. teachers 2. The teacher will prepare an By considering the Programme of the Three days outline of his written work papers of English which whole session and of his whole session or has been assigned to time table. semester. him. 3. The teacher will assign The students work load By consulting the Four weeks written work I every week may be considered in teachers of other of different nature. assigning the written subjects regarding work. home work. 4. The teacher has to check the The written work may He can take help of Four weeks written work of English be checked before the good students of properly and will assign students or in their English. some grades or marks. absence. 12. Comments of the Investigator After testing the hypothesis teacher may improve the teaching techniques and instructional procedure. The teacher can minimise the English spelling errors. He can promote the level of achievement in English. Suggestions for Action Research Project In developing an action research project the following suggestions should be kept in mind: 1. The nature of the project should be decided whether it is developmental project or experimental project. 2. The investigator must be directly associated with the problem to be studied. 3. The form of problem should be real. 4. The project should be so planned that it should not intervene the functioning of other school working. Perception of Research 17 5. The project should be concerned directly with qualitative improvement and level of performance of the students. 6. The project should be evaluated objectively by employing reliable and valid tools. 7. The action hypothesis should be formulated by considering the causes of the problem which are under the approach of the investigator. 8. The design of action research project should be economical from money, time and energy of view. 9. The problem should be selected objectively and studied scientifically. 10. The causes of the problem should be isolated objectively on the basis of some evidences. Difference between Action Research and Fundamental Research The Research has two main functions: – To contribute new knowledge in Social Studies. – To improve the Social Studiesal practices. The first function is of fundamental research and second function of action research. Difference between the two has been given in the tabular form. Difference between Fundamental Research and Action Research Action Research Fundamental Research 1. Purpose Fundamental Research Contributes new The improvement in school and classroom teaching knowledge in the form of new theory, facts and process. truth. 2. Investigator The investigator should have postgraduate The person is in the job teacher, principal inspector degree in the subject. He should have speci- and administrator. alization in the field. He may or may not be related Investigator must be directly associated with the with the problem. problem. There is no pre-requisite of academic qualifications. 3. Problem The problem is broad and relates to the broad The form of the problem is very narrow. It is a local field of Social Studies. The problem may be problem. It is practical problem. The problem is selected by the researcher but it is approved by selected and finalized by the worker or investigator the external experts. himself. No external approval is required. 4. Hypothesis The hypotheses are formulated on the basis of The action hypotheses are formulated on the basis some retionale. All the hypotheses are tested by of the causes of the problem. An action hypothesis one design of research. The hypothesis is not needs one design of research. One hypothesis is essential in all types of research. tested at one time. 5. Design The design is rigid and it can not be changed. The design of action research is flexible. It can be Theoretical and practical knowledge is essential changed according to the convenience of the worker. for the researcher. It involves method, sample and It includes certain steps and measuring tools. techniques of research. 18 Fundamental of Research Methodology Action Research Fundamental Research 6. Sampling It is the basis of research and sampling is the There is not problem of sampling in action research, major problem. The knowledge and training of accidental or incidental sample is used. The students sampling techniques are essential, usually pro- of a class or school is the sample of action research. bability sampling techniques is employed. The Non-probability techniques is used. true representative sample is selected by using an appropriate technique of sampling from the population. 7. Data Collection Usually the standardized tests are used for Observation and teacher made tests are used for collecting data in basic research. If the tools of collecting data in action research. The standardized such types are not available the investigator has tool may be used if it is available. to prepare the tools and its reliability and validity are estimated. 8. Analysis of Data The parametric statistical techniques are used The data are analysed by using statistical technique for analysing the data. The knowledge and to draw some results. Simple statistics: percentages understanding are essential. The decision is taken mean mode, S.D. and graphical representation are about the hypotheses on the basis of data or employed for this purpose. The decision is taken evidences. about solution of the problem. 9. Conclusions The conclusions are in the form of generalization. Some conclusions are drawn about the solution of The generalization may be a new theory or new the problem. The conclusions are in the form of fact or new truth or new interpretation. Thus, the remedial measures for improving the current conclusions may be the new knowledge in the practices. It does not contribute to the fund of field studied. knowledge. 10. Evaluation A panel of examiners is appointed for examining The action research project is evaluated by the the report of fundamental research. It may be investigator himself and no external evaluation is approved, or revised or rejected. The degree of required. Its results are in the form of improvement Ph.D., D.Sc. or D.Phil. is awarded for the worth in the job and current practices. contribution in the field studied. 11. Finances The U.G.C. is awarding Junior research fellow and The finances for the action research are met out by senior research fellowships for fundamental the school or investigator himself. The extension research in all the, subjects. The NCERT is deptt. of NCERT are also financing such projects. financing research projects of Social Studies. The U.G.C. is also giving financial, assistance to college teachers for their research work. An investigator also bears the expenses himself. 12. Training There is a compulsory paper of Research The teachers are trained in B.Ed. and L.T. Methods and Statistics of M.Ed., M.B.A. and programmes for the knowledge and skill of action M.Phil. levels for the knowledge and under- research concept. The extension departments are standing of research methodology. During this organizing workshops for action research projects programme the students have to submit a for in-service teachers. dissertation for the practical knowledge of conducting research work. Perception of Research 19 Action Research Fundamental Research 12. Training There is a compulsory paper of Research Methods The teachers are trained in B.Ed. and L.T. pro- and Statistics of M.Ed. and M.Phil. levels for the grammes for the knowledge and skill of action knowledge and understanding of research research concept. The extension departments are methodology. During this programme the organizing workshops for action research projects students have to submit a dissertation for the for in-service teachers. practical knowledge of conducting research work. 13. Scope The field for basic research is broad. It deals with The field of action research work is very narrow. It the basic problems of Social Studies and teaching deals with the problems of classroom teaching and learning situations. school. The field is local. 14. Examples (a) Teaching skills for different subject teachers The problem of assignment, spellings, pronunciation (languages, social studies science). and poor attendance. The enrolment of school is reducing rapidly are the major problems of action (b) Behaviour patterns or effective teachers and research in the field of Social Studies. creative teachers. (c) Difference between trained and untrained teachers performances. 15. Importance The major importance is to answer the basic The major importance for solving the local problems questions and contribution to the field of of school and classroom teaching. knowledge by solving the basic problems of Social Studies. Exercises 1. Define the term ‘Research’, Enumerate the characteristics of research. Give a comprehensive definition of research. 2. Define the term ‘Research’. Describe the specific features of Research, 3. Enumerate the main objectives of research and explain them in detail. 4. Describe the various classification of research, Differentiate between fundamental research and action research. Elaborate your answer with examples. 5. Describe the steps of research. Enumerate the objectives of action research. 6. Plan an action research project and describe the various steps which are followed in completing the project. Chapter 2 Assortment of Problem Research is not only to develop the process or to find a formula as we do in the science.But in the field of social science the research work is oriented towards the solution of a problem or to seek an answer of a question. The first step of a research process is to identify a problem. The selection of a problem is governed by reflective thinking. Unthinking activity is governed too completely by tradition or by emotion. Primitive life was largely without effective reflective thought, until some intelligent individual conceived of a new solution for an old problem. Therefore. upper educational groups ever do much careful ordered thinking. The normal human mind thinking may be classified into four categories: convergent, divergent reflective and scientific thinking. In reflective thinking individual conceived for a new solution for an old problem, but scientific thinking is in terms of carefully organized reflection. REFLECTIVE THINKING The reflective thinking implies two components: mastery of the situation or content plus divergent thinking or creative thinking. The reflective thinking acts in terms of problem situation, therefore, it involves the following steps: 1. The occurrence of a felt need or difficult. 2. Definition of the problem in terms of a problem statement. 3. Occurrence of a suggested explanation or possible solution or hypothesis or tentative theory. 4. The rationale elaboration of an idea through the development of its implication by means of collection of data or evidences. 5. Collection of the ideas and formation of concluding belief through experimental verification of the hypothesis. 6. Conclusions and formulation of generalizations. It is recognized that at every level of generalization the human mind may act through these steps. The research process involves inductive-deductive mode of thinking which is known as scientific thinking. SCIENTIFIC THINKING The scientific thinking is defined as an inductive-deductive mode of thinking or reasoning in which one seeks to explain the uniformities of nature by appealing to experiences. Induction moves forward from particular to the general. Deduction is backward movement from general to particular. The scientific thinking starts with facts and continually returns to facts to test and verify its hypotheses. It is based on empirical evidences and establishes cause and effect relationship. The sources of evidences are based on the following methods: customs and traditions, authority, personal experiences, syllogistic reasoning, self-evident proposition and scientific inquiry and experimentation. These methods Assortment of Problem 21 of seeking truth have continued to the present day and form man’s current intellectual equipment for solving problem of life. Man in his quest for truth has appealed in general to five sources, of evidences. 1. Custom and Tradition The majority of man’s opinions, attitude and actions will be as they are, because he knows, desires or has time to discover nothing better. The customs of his times and traditions of his people will decide such things for him. His clothes, speech, food and mode of living are largely determined in the same manner. There is necessary human economy but the fact that a thing is, or has always been so is employed as its justification. The result may be an appealing intellectual stagnation. When man recognized his own mental inadequacies in this respect, a great step forward was taken in the development of human thinking. 2. Authority Average man with his belief in magic charms and the supernatural appealed to the tribal wise man and gods in times of crises. These practices have been superseded by secular and religious authorities in civilized nations. Aim, content, methodology of education was determined by the authority of religion or nation. With the growth of strong secular states, the balance of power passed from religion to states, and the appeal was addressed to kings parliaments and legislatures. Other sources of authority are found in nations, Scholars, philosophers and scientists. 3. Personal Experience When confronted with a difficult situation. one naturally turns first to his own experiences in similar situation for the idea of what to do. If his own experiences are inadequate, he may turn to those of friends and acquaintances. History offers the means by which the experiences of people are extended from the remote time and places to the present. It is subjected to gross inaccuracies. The following are the important sources of errors: (a) Argument from a single or limited number of instances. (b) Argument from positive instances and neglect of negative instances. (c) Avoidance of evidence contrary to one’s opinion. (d) Failure to observe important circumstances affecting to different phenomena. (e) Erroneous conclusions due to preconceived ideas and prejudices. (f) Inaccurate instruments of measurement, dependence upon subjective judgement, estimates and gross. (g) Argument from analogy. 4. Syllogistic Reasoning From apparently self-evident propositions. A great advance was made when man began to think about his own thinking. The product of early intellectual efforts was deductive logic founded by Aristotle. The Chief instrument of deduction was the syllogism, composed of a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion e.g. All sinners deserve punishment ‘A’ is a sinner 22 Fundamental of Research Methodology ∴ A also deserves punishment. The essence of such syllogistic reasoning consists chiefly in showing that a given particular case falls under general rule. This method purported to furnish good mental training. SOME DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING There are six main features of scientific thinking: 1. Scientific thinking is based upon cause-effect relationship and evidences. 2. It involves certain principles and certain assumptions. 3. Every scientific thinking employs hypotheses to verify the concepts. 4. It is free from emotional bias, personal prejudices and it is highly objective. 5. It utilizes accurate measurement and observation to contribute in situation. 6. Scientific thinking employs quantitative analysis in the treatment of data for drawing conclusions. STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING The logically related, the following steps are involved in scientific thinking: 1. The location and definition of a problem. 2. The survey of past experiences with problem of previous investigations that are already available. 3. The formulation of hypotheses representing a tentative solution of the problem. All the activities are organized for the verification of the hypotheses (collection of data statistical techniques etc.). 4. The collection of new data or evidences. 5. The analysis of the data classification and summarization by quantitative treatment. 6. The formulation of generalizations. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCHER In selecting a problem, it is very essential for an investigator to possess the following characteristics: 1. He should be sensitive in his nature. 2. He should be problem-minded. 3. He should have mastery on the area and should have specialization in the field studied. 4. He should have a scientific outlook about the area. 5. He should have deep insight into the educational process. 6. He should be able to think reflectively on the field studied. 7. He should have tolerance and patience. 8. He should be interested in the field studied. 9. He should be honest and devotee to his work. 10. He should have the curiosity to find out something new or to answer some questions which are still to be answered. Assortment of Problem 23 IDENTIFICATION OF A PROBLEM The identification and analysing a research problem is the first and most crucial step of research process. A problem can not be solved effectively unless a researcher possesses the intellect and insight to isolate and understand the specific factors giving rise to the difficulty. The present research scholars understand that identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research or statement of the problem. It is wrong to think so. A topic or statement of the problem and research problem are not the synonymous but they are inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the broader area of field studied whereas a topic or title or statement of the problem is the verbal statement of the problem. The topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or pin points the task of a researcher. It is the usual practice of the researches that they select the topic of the study from different sources especially from research abstracts. They do not identify the problem, but a problem is made on the basis of the topic. It results that the researcher has no involvement in his research activities. Whatever they do, do mechanically. Since identifying the exact nature and dimensions of a problem is of major importance in research work, it is very essential that an investigator should learn how to recognize and define a problem. He should proceed step by step in locating the research problem. The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem: Step 1 : Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the research work. Step 2 : The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the field of his specialization. Step 3 : He should review the researches conducted in area to know the recent trend and studies in the area. Step 4: On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study. Step 5: He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ his personal experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of supervisor or expertee of the field. Step 6 : He should pin-point specific aspect of the problem which is to be investigated. For example a researcher wants to work in the field of teacher-education which is the field of his interest. He has the deep insight and mastery over the area. On the basis of review and his personal experience, the researcher perceives a problem in the field of teacher-education programme that training institutions and colleges of education are not able to produce effective teachers although large number of such institutions have been opened after independence. This problem has the several dimensions but these can be studied simultaneously. The researcher further visualizes that the potential candidates are not admitted in this programme. A question arises: Are the potential candidates admitted in our teacher- education problem? Thus, the procedure of identification of a problem can be shown with the help of a paradigm. The following are the major tasks to be performed in analysing a problematic situation as given below: 1. Accumulating the facts that might be related to the problem. 2. Setting by observations whether the facts are relevant. 3. Tracing any relationship between facts that might reveal the key to the difficulty. 4. Proposing various explanations for the cause or the difficulty. 24 Fundamental of Research Methodology 5. Ascertaining through observations and analysis whether these explanations are relevant to the problem. 6. Tracing relationship between explanations that may give an insight into the problem solution. 7. Tracing relationship between facts and explanations. 8. Questioning assumptions underlying the analysis of the problem. 9. Tracing the irrelevant facts which are not concerned with the problem. 10. Locating the irrelevant explanations which are not related to the problem. After going through these processes, the researcher will be able to define or state the problem. SOURCES OF PROBLEMS The selection of a suitable problem is not an easy task. It is a serious responsibility to commit oneself to a problem that will inevitably require much time and energy and which is so academically significant. The following are the main sources to which one may proceed for a suitable research problem: 1. Personal experiences of the investigator in the field of education are the main source for identifying suitable problem. Many of the problems confronted in the classroom, the school or the community lend themselves to investigation and they are perhaps more appropriate for the beginning researcher than are problems more remote from his own teaching experiences. 2. The other source of problem which is most frequently used by the investigator as suggested by the supervisors, is the extensive study of available literature-research abstracts, journals, hand-books of research international abstracts etc. He can draw an analogy for selecting a research problem or can think parallel problem in the field studied. 3. In the choice of a suitable problem, the researcher has to decide his field of investigation. He should study the field intensively in the specific area, this may enable him to identify a problem from the specific field. 4. The new innovations, technological changes and curricular developments are constantly bringing new problems and new-opportunities for Social Studies Research. 5. The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field and most experienced person of the field. They may suggest most significant problem of the area. He can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem. 6. It is a general practice that researchers suggest some problems in their research reports. The researcher can pick up a suitable problem for his own study. CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM The factors are to be considered in the selection of a research problem both the criteria external and personal. External criteria have to do with such matters as novelty and importance for the field availability of data and method, and institutional or administrative cooperation. Personal criteria involved such considerations as interest, training, cost and time, etc. Thus criteria for the selection of the problem suggested by Good and Scates are as follows: 1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplications. 2. Importance for the field represented and implementation. Assortment of Problem 25 3. Interest, intellectual curiosity, and drive. 4. Training and personal qualifications. 5. Availability of data and method. 6. Special equipment and working conditions. 7. Approachability of the sample. 8. Sponsorship and administrative cooperation. 9. Hazards, penalties and handicaps. 10. Cost and returns. 11. Time factor. 1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication The question of novelty or newness is not merely one of duplication of earlier investigations. It involves the regency of the data summarized especially in the case of survey studies made during a period of great Economic, Educational and Social change. 2. Importance for the field represented and implementation This criterion of importance in choice of a problem involves such matters as significance for the field involved, timelines and practical value in term of application and implementation of the results. Scientific research in Education, psychology and social sciences in general have an especially urgent obligation to play a social role rendering service to society and humanity. 3. Interest, intellectual curiosity and drive One of the personal motives of research most frequently mentioned by scientists themselves is pure curiosity, accompanied by genuine interest and a drived satisfaction and enjoyment. 4. Availability of data and method The data under consideration must meet certain standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability. 5. Special equipment and working conditions The major purpose of equipment is to define the process of observation-to provide control of conditions and accuracy or permanence of recording. 6. Sponsorship and administrative cooperation It is a common practice for the thesis to be sponsored by a faculty adviser in whose area of specialization the problem lies. 7. Costs and returns The candidate must consider carefully his own financial resources in the light of such facilities and assistance as can be provided by the institution. 8. Time factor As a general rule the minimum amount of graduate work for the Master’s degree is one year, and for the Doctor’s degree three years. 26 Fundamental of Research Methodology Historical, experimental case and longitudinal genetic studies frequently require more time than the several types of normative survey work. Hildreth Hoke McAshan has proposed an objective guide for judging the merits of a problem. The following questions may be raised for this purpose. 1. Is the problem really important? 2. Is the problem interesting to others? 3. Is the chosen problem a real problem? 4. Does the problem display originality and creativeness? 5. Am I really concerned with finding the solution? 6. Am I able to state hypotheses from the problem in a testable form? 7. Will I learn something new from this problem? 8. Do I understand the relationship of this specific problem to the broader problem area? 9. Will be able to select a sample from which I can generalize to some population? 10. Will some other intelligent person be able to replicate the study? 11. Will my proposed data-gathering instruments actually give the Information which I want? 12. Is the study, including the application of its results, practical? The number of affirmative answers should be required for a suitable problem. DEFINING A PROBLEM Defining a problem means “To pin-point the problem or defining a problem to reach the core of the problem i.e. threadbare analysis.” (a) Need of defining a problem The definition of a problem serves the following purposes: 1. The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study. 2. The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the study. 3. The definition helps the researcher to control subjectivity or biases of the researcher. 4. The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables to be taken up into the investigation through a problem involved into so many variables. 5. The-definition makes the research work practicable. (b) Precautions are to be taken in identifying the problem The following precautions should be taken into consideration for identifying problem. 1. The words used for defining a problem should have a single meaning. 2. The statement of the problem must be brief but comprehensive. 3. The assumptions are to be recognised for the study. 4. The problem should have practical importance in the field of Education. 5. The definition or the statement of the problem should have certain rationale. (c) Steps in defining a problem The following steps are to be followed in defining a problem: Assortment of Problem 27 1. Researcher should have to develop a conceptual framework of the problem. The conceptual framework should be such that it can be stated into verbal form. 2. Delimiting the elements of the problem. 3. Classifying the elements in the homogeneous group. 4. Locating the key-points in the conceptual framework. 5. Evaluating the theoretical security of the problem. 6. The final form of the statement can be given into verbal form to a conceptual framework of the problem. 7. Deciding the practical difficulty in conducting the study. 1. Analysis of the Problem into its Elements The major problem is subdivided into subordinate questions or problems. The definition of the problem is really the planning of the investigation with an indication of the data and techniques needed to answer. The questions raised. The Schematic Analysis of a problem has been shown in Fig. 1. Schematic Analysis of a Problem Fig. 1. 2. Orientation and Related Literature Avoidance of unnecessary duplication in the selection of the problems suggest library procedures that should provide the setting for the investigation under consideration and an over view of the related studies. Detailed information concerning use of the appropriate library guides and illustrative review of 28 Fundamental of Research Methodology the literature in Mrticular area given in fourth chapter. Even though it may rot be feasible in Some report of research to devote a section or chapter of earlier investigations in the same field: The worker himself is obligated to make critical examination of such related studies. Literature may come hypotheses, suggestive methods of research and comparative data useful in the interpretation of results. Source of Data and Methods For adequate definition of the problem sources of data and methods for securing evidences must be carefully selected and clearly outlined in the introductory section of the report. Therefore as a matter of intellectual honesty and for accuracy of interpretation and reporting any limitation in sources and procedure must be pointed out frankly but no apologetically. Terminology Technical terms and words or phrases with special meaning should be defined. Initial Assumptions Research like geometry begins with certain basic assumptions or postulates. Assumptions underlie each step of research. They should be stated not only in the definition of the problem and procedure, but also with the conclusions of which they are an integral part. (d ) Ways to Define the Problem The following are various ways of defining a problem: 1. Analyse the major problems or problems in terms of subordinate problems. 2. Statement delimits the scope of the study. 3. Orientation of the problem in an unique direction: (a) A historical account, remote or recent. (b) A survey of previous study or related studies. (c) An analysis of previous studies or related subjects. (d) Preliminary survey. 4. Description of the general nature of the problem. (a) Type. (b) Source. (c) procedure. 5. Statement of limitations of the technique employed. 6. Recognitions of assumptions and Implications. 7. Importance-value or significance of the study of education. 8. Definition of terms. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM After selecting a problem, it should be stated carefully the researchers to delimit his task and isolate a specific problem before he can proceed with active planning of the study. This type of decision is culminated in the problem statement. Kerlinger has identified three criteria of good Problem Statements. 1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more variables. 2. It should be stated “clearly and unambiguously in question form.” Assortment of Problem 29 3. It should be amenable to empirical testing. Meeting these criteria in his problem statement will result, on the researcher’s part, in a clear and concise idea of what he wants to do, this sets the stage for further planning. CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROBLEM Although selecting a research problem is one of the most difficult step for a student in a research process, it is unfortunately one for which the least guidance can be given. A problem statement must have the following characteristics: 1. It should ask about a relationship between two or more variables. 2. It should be stated clearly and unambiguously, usually in question form. 3. It should be possible to collect data or answer the questions asked. 4. It should not represent a moral or ethical position. 1. Relationship between Variables In this kind of problem the researcher manipulates a minimum of one variable to determine its effects on other variables, as opposed to a purely descriptive study in which the researcher observes, counts or in some way measure the frequency of appearance of a particular variable in a particular setting. For example how many students in school have I.Q.’s in excess of 120. Since no attempts need be made to deal with a relationship between variables, this problem requires only a “book-keeping” procedure, if however, the problem were worded; Are boys more likely than girls to have 1.0.’s in excess of 120 then it would involve the relationship between variables? 2. The Problem is Stated in Question Form The problem should be in question form as: 1. What is the relationship between 1.0. and achievement? 2. Do students learn more from a directive teacher or a non directive teacher? 3. Is there a relationship between racial background and dropout rate? 4. Do more students continue in training programmes offering stipends or in programmes not offering stipends? 5. What is the relationship between role learning ability and socio-economic status? 3. Empirical Testability A problem should be testable by empirical methods, that is, through the collection of data. Moreover, for a student’s purposes, it should lend itself to study by a single researcher, on a limited budget, within a year. The nature of the variables included in the problem is a good clue to its testability. An example of the kind of problem that is wise to avoid it: Does an extended experience in communal living improve a person’s outlook on life? In addition to the magnitude and probable duration of studying such a problem, the variable themselves would be difficult to manipulate or measure. 4. Avoidance of Moral or Ethical Judgements Questions about ideals or values are often more difficult to study than questions about aptitudes or performance, as, that would be difficult to test are: Should men define their feelings? The ethical consideration should also be taken into consideration in defining or stating a problem. 30 Fundamental of Research Methodology CLARIFYING AND STATING A PROBLEM It is essential for a researcher before he proceeds with his study that he converts his tentative topic into a precise researchable problem. Since a problem is broad infinite therefore it is wise for the researcher to delimit or to narrow the range of the problem in terms of his interests and skill. The problem mentioned in this chapter can be stated in the following way: Problem: “Analysing the potentials of teacher-effectiveness.” This statement is still vague and does not provide any direction to the researcher. It may be restated to clarify the study. Restatement: “A study of relationship between predictors and criteria of teacher-effectiveness.” This statement indicates the specific task to be performed by the researcher that he has to study the relationship between predictors as independent variables and criteria ‘as the dependent variables. Problem: “The relation of socio-economic status to creativity.” It is also vague statement of a problem. It can be clarified and restated in the following way: Restatement: “A comparative study of the performance of student of different socio-economic status on the items of the Baquer Mehdl creativity test. Areas of the Research: Educational philosophy, Sociology, Educational Curriculum development, Institutional material, Learning process, Teaching methods, Teacher-education, Teachers behaviour, Educational administration and supervision, Educational technology, etc. DELIMITING A PROBLEM Delimiting a problem is very important. A study should be delimited by the following aspects: 1. A study should be delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in the problem. 2. The study is delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level, college or university level. 3. Again study is delimited to size of sample. Considering the time, energy and money, but it should be a representative. 4. Method of Research: A Problem or study may be conducted by different methods but it is not possible. Therefore, the best method should be used so that the study should be delimited to the method only. 5. Measuring Instrument: In behavioural science number of instruments are available but all tools can not be used to measure Thus the best available tool will be used for measuring the variable. 6. Techniques of Research: A number of techniques can be used for analysing data but most appropriate techniques should be used. 7. The other limitation should vary from problem to problem as every problem has its own delimitations. These delimitations may help the researcher for conducting the study and the findings of studies also confine to these delimitations. ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT THE PROBLEM A good statement of a problem is based on some assumptions. An assumption is the supposition that it is taken for granted to better establish the scope, frame of reference and conditions under which the study will be conducted. The following are the major purposes of assumptions: Assortment of Problem 31 1. It makes the research work feasible. 2. It delimits the scope of the problem. 3. It establishes the proper frame of reference. 4. It sets forth certain conditions of the study. 5. It aids in the development of testable hypotheses. 6. It helps in establishing the population and extent of generalization. 7. It also determines the statistical limits for accepting and rejecting of hypotheses. The assumptions are essential features in the building of scientific model which helps in critical analysis: EVALUATING THE PROBLEM 1. Before the proposed research problem can be considered appropriate, several searching questions should be rasied. Only when those questions are answered in the affirmative can the problem that can be effectively solved through the process of research. Do the data exist upon which a solution may be based ? 2. Is the problem significant? Is an important principle involved ? Would the solution make any difference as far as educational hero and practice are concerned? If not, there are undoubtedly more significant problems waiting to be investigated. 3. Is the problem a new one? Is the answer already available? Ignorance of prior studies may lead a student to need spend less time on a problem already investigated by some other worker. While novelty or originality is an important consideration, the fact that a problem has been investigated in the past does not mean that it is no longer worthy for study. Previous investigations might be using newer and better devices and procedures, but there is also a need for the testing of former findings under changed cultural conditions. 4. Is the problem feasible? After a researcher’s project has been evaluated, there remains the problem of suitability for a particular researcher. While the problem may be a good one, as may be a good problem for me. The question arises, will I be able to carry it through to a successful conclusion? Some of the questions that should be raised are: (a) Do I have the necessary competence to plan and carry out a study of this type? Do I know enough about this field to understand its significant aspects and to interpret my findings? Am I skilful enough to develop administer, and interpret the necessary data- gathering devices’ and procedures? Am I well grounded in the necessary knowledge of statistical techniques? (b) Are pertinent data accessible? Are valid and reliable data gathering devices and procedures available ? Will school authorities permit me to contact the students to conduct necessary experiments or administer necessary tests, interview teachers or have access to important cumulative records? Will I be able to get the sponsorship necessary to open doors that otherwise would be closed to me ? (c) Will I have the necessary financial resources to carry on this study? What will be the expense involved in data-gathering equipment, printing, test, materials, travel and clerical help? If the project is an expensive one, what is the possibility of getting a grant from a philanthropic foundations or agency? 32 Fundamental of Research Methodology (d) Will I have enough time to complete the project? Will there be time to devise the procedures, select the data gathering devices, gather and analyse the data, and complete the research report? Since most academic programmes impose time limitations, certain worthwhile projects of a longitudinal type are precluded. (e) Will I have the courage and determination to pursue the study inspite of the difficulties and social hazards that may be involved ? Will I be willing to work aggressively when data are difficult to gather and when others are reluctant to co-operate? Will I be willing to risk the criticism, suspicion, or even opposition that a delicate or controversial study may raise? Sex education, racial integration, communism, and other controversial problems are almost certain to stir up emotional reactions in certain quarters. THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL OR SYNOPSIS A research proposal or research synopsis or an outline of proposed works required by many universities and institutions, serves as a useful basis for the evaluation of a project as well as a guide line for the researcher. The synopsis contains a clear and concise statement of the problem, the hypothesis involved, a recognition of the significance of the problem, definitions of the important terms, assumptions and limitations, a resume of related literature, an analysis of proposed research producers, and a time sched

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