Sociology Past Paper PDF

**sociology:** The systematic study of society and social interaction. **structural functionalism: **A theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society. **symbolic interactionism:** A theoretical perspective that focuses on the relationship of individuals within society by studying their communication (language, gestures and symbols). Mead's Theory of Self-Development Sense of self through interacting with other people and emerges as we grow The \"I\" and the \"Me" (the self is made up of two parts) \"I\": The spontaneous, impulsive part of ourselves. \"Me\": The socialized part of ourselves. This is the part that considers how others see us and follows social rules. Together, the \"I\" and \"Me\" help us balance being ourselves while fitting into society. The generalized other refers to the expectations and attitudes of society as a whole. Freud's Psychosexual Development & Erikson's Psychosocial Stages Freud - Focuses on early childhood stages (5) and how unresolved issues affect personality. - Family and caregivers play a big role in socialization Erikson - Focus on social and emotional development and challenges throughout the lifespan. - 8 stages of development centered on conflicts that must be resolved for healthy development. Sociological Imagination Coined by C. Wright Mills "The vivid awareness of the relationship between experience and wider society" The Sociological Imagination is the ability to connect individual experiences to a wider social context Whatever happens in our own lives = unique and private, or "private troubles" Public issues are those where the source lies in social structures, culture and society How can we apply the sociological imagination to some of the trends we see in contemporary Canadian families and households? Example - Durkheim's study of suicide Durkheim's theory of suicide suggests that the more strongly anchored an individual is to society, the less likely they are to die by suicide. Durkheim asserted that suicide rates are related to the level of social solidarity within a group. This referred to the frequency of interaction and level of shared beliefs within a social group. According to Durkheim, if solidarity is very low or very high, suicide will increase Can be applied to explain why suicide is higher among: men, unmarried people, Indigenous youth **anomie:** A social condition or normlessness in which a lack of clear norms fails to give direction and purpose to individual actions. **social facts:** The external laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and cultural rules that govern social life. **social function: **The role a social phenomenon performs in satisfying a social or biological need and ensuring the continuity of society **social reform:** An approach to social change that advocates slow, incremental improvements in social institutions rather than rapid, revolutionary change of society as a whole. **case study:** In-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual. **casual observation: **Knowledge based on observations without any systematic process for observing or assessing the accuracy of observations **content analysis: **A quantitative approach to textual research that selects an item of textual content that can be reliably and consistently observed and coded, and surveys the prevalence of that item in a sample of textual output. **ethnography: **The extended observation of the cultural practices, perspectives, beliefs and values of an entire social setting. **Hawthorne effect:** When study subjects behave in a certain manner due to their awareness of being observed by a researcher. **hypothesis:** An educated guess that predicts outcomes with respect to the relationship between two or more variables. **inductive approach: **Methodologies that derive a general statement from a series of empirical observations. **\ interview: **A one-on-one conversation between a researcher and a subject. **literature review: **A scholarly research step that entails identifying and studying all existing studies on a topic to create a basis for new research **case study:** In-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual. **casual observation: **Knowledge based on observations without any systematic process for observing or assessing the accuracy of observations. **content analysis: **A quantitative approach to textual research that selects an item of textual content that can be reliably and consistently observed and coded, and surveys the prevalence of that item in a sample of textual output. **validity: **The degree to which a sociological measure accurately reflects the topic of study. **participant observation: **Immersion by a researcher in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an "insider" perspective. **counterculture:** A group that rejects and opposes society's widely accepted cultural patterns. **cultural relativism:** The practice of assessing beliefs or practices within a culture by its own standards. **Resocialization** happens when adapting to new environments (e.g., jobs or countries) and when adults need to unlearn old behaviors and adopt new ones to fit into a new environment. **Total Institutions:** Highly controlled environments such as prisons and live-in rehab centers where new identities are enforced (Goffman) **Cultural Lag** - Non-material culture lags behind material innovations. **Social Roles**: cultural practices serves a role or purpose that contributes to the overall stability of society Ethical considerations for research include informed consent, deception, and confidentiality, and are intended to protect participants\' rights and ensure the integrity of the research: - **Informed consent** Participants must be fully informed of the research\'s purpose, methods, risks, and benefits. They must also be able to understand the information and ask questions.Consent must be voluntary and free of coercion. - **Deception** Deception is the act of misleading participants or withholding information that could affect their decision to participate. It can be controversial because it limits informed consent, but it can sometimes provide valuable knowledge. Deception is only acceptable in minimal risk research, and only when it\'s necessary to answer the research questions. - **Confidentiality** Participants\' identities should be kept confidential, and their data should be anonymized so it can\'t be linked to other data. - **Reliability** The consistency of a measure, or how well it can be reproduced under the same conditions. Reliability is also known as reproducibility or repeatability. - **Generalizability** The extent to which a study\'s findings can be applied to other settings. Generalizability is also known as external validity. Factors that affect generalizability include sample representativeness, sample size, measurement validity, and study level validity. **Primary socialization** This stage occurs during a child\'s early development, usually from infancy through early adolescence. It\'s primarily influenced by the child\'s immediate family, including parents, siblings, grandparents, and family friends. During this stage, children learn the basic values, norms, and behaviors that are expected of them in society. They also form their self-image and self-awareness **Secondary socialization** This stage occurs later in a child\'s life and continues throughout their life. It\'s influenced by external agents, such as teachers, friends, the media, schools, the workplace, and religious institutions. During this stage, children encounter new groups and take on new roles to participate in society. They learn to behave appropriately and put into action the behavioral patterns created during primary socialization. Secondary socialization can enhance or replace the concepts learned during primary socialization. Agents of socialization are the people, groups, and institutions that influence a person\'s development and how they function in society. They teach people what society expects of them, and help them learn the beliefs, values, and norms of their culture **Capitalism** is an economic system where private individuals or organizations own the means of production, and the market determines prices, products, and distribution. It\'s based on the concepts of private property, profit motive, and market competition **Anticipatory Socialization:** The process of preparing for future roles and statuses by learning and adopting new behaviours, norms, skills, and values **Ethnocentrism** is the belief that one\'s own culture is superior to others, while **cultural relativism** is the belief that all cultures are equally valid and should be understood on their own terms **Cultural diffusion** is the spread of cultural ideas, practices, and items from one culture to another, or within a single culture. It can happen when cultures interact through trade, migration, or geographical proximity **cultural universals:** Patterns or traits that are common to all societies. **globalization**: The process by which a global dimension of social relations emerges and spreads. **social facts:** The external laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, rituals, and cultural rules that govern social life **rationalization:** The general tendency in modern society for all institutions and most areas of life to be transformed by the application of rationality and efficiency **agency:** The ability to choose and act independently of external constraints. In sociology, the main difference between **sex and gender** is that sex is biological, while gender is socially constructed **I and me**: The two components or phases of the self-reflective self. **COOLEY looking glass self:** The self or self-image that arises as the reaction to the judgement of others. **play stage:** A time when children begin to episodically imitate and take on roles that another person might have. **preparatory stage:** A time when children are only capable of imitation and have no ability to imagine how others see things. **symbolic interactionism: **A theoretical perspective that focuses on the relationship of individuals within society by studying their communication (language, gestures, and symbols). **total institution:** An institution in which members are required to live in isolation from the rest of society. **nature: **The influence of genetic makeup on self development. **nurture:** The role that social environment plays in self development **resocialization:** The process by which old behaviours are removed and new behaviours are learned in their place. **rationalism:** The philosophical tradition that seeks to determine the underlying laws that govern the truth of reason and ideas. **structural functionalism: **A theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social needs of individuals that make up that society. *Structural* *Functionalism* Attempts to explain why society functions the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the various social institutions that make up society Dynamic equilibrium: A stable state in which all parts of a functioning society are working together properly (Parsons) Interdependence is a central theme; it refers to the parts of society sharing a common set of principles. Key theorists -- Spencer, Durkheim, Parsons, Merton A key basis of the sociological perspective is the concept that the individual and society are inseparable. *Objectivity* *-An example of an objective statement is that apples* *are fruits* *Subjectivity- An example of a subjective statement is that apples are* *Tasty. This is not an objective statement because it relies on* *the thoughts and feelings of an individual to be* *established as \'true\' or \'false'* *Positivism* Auguste Comte (1798-1857) -- positivism is the scientific study of social patterns -- believe could be used to address problems such as education and poverty Positivism is the perspective that the only way to obtain information about the world is through systematic, scientific methods Knowledge is most valuable when it is observable and presented as statistics The underlying premise of positivism is that we should learn about the world in the same way that the natural sciences do so Examples of preferred research methods include: -- social surveys and questionnaires -- structured Interviews -- the use of statistics *Critical* *"ruthless critique of* *everything existing"* *(Marx, 1843)* Marxist-inspired movement in social and political philosophy originally associated with the work of the Frankfurt School Endeavors to understand and critique the structures of power and oppression in society Believing that science, like other forms of knowledge, has been used as an instrument of oppression, cautions against a blind faith in scientific progress, arguing that scientific knowledge must not be pursued as an end in itself without reference to the goal of human emancipation positivist Structural Functionalism (Spencer, Durkheim, Parsons, Merton) Interpretivism Symbolic Interactionism (Mead, Blumer) Social Constructionism Critical Historical Materialism Conflict Theory (Marx, Weber) Feminist (Martineau, Smith, Collins) *Structural* *Functionalism* Attempts to explain why society functions the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the various social institutions that make up society Dynamic equilibrium: A stable state in which all parts of a functioning society are working together properly (Parsons) Interdependence is a central theme; it refers to the parts of society sharing a common set of principles. Key theorists -- Spencer, Durkheim, Parsons, Merton Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903) - similarities between society and the human body and argued that as various organs of the body work together, various parts of society work together to keep society functioning These parts of society are social institutions that include patterns of belief and behaviors focused on meeting social needs Émile Durkheim applied Spencer's theory to explain how societies change and survive over time Durkheim believed that society is a complex system of interrelated and interdependent parts working together to maintain stability s*tructural* *Durkheim* French sociologist (1858-1917) Considered a founding father of sociology Suicide: A Study in Sociology (1897) Developed a theory of suicide in his book where he argued suicide is not a purely individual act, but instead is influenced by social factors Suicide is determined by group's level of social solidarity: -- the frequency with which its members interact & -- the degree to which they share beliefs, values and morals *Social* *Constructionism* The categories, facts, world views that make up knowledge are dependent on their social, cultural and historical context How we act is influenced by culture, socialization and society Many things we take for granted and believe are in reality are socially constructed, and are able to change as society changes Social constructionists believe that things that are generally viewed as natural or normal in society (e.g., understandings of gender, race, class) are socially constructed *Social* *Constructionism* Individuals are active participants in the creation of their own knowledge - human beings do not find or discover knowledge so much as construct or make it Symbolic interactionists focus on micro-level inter- personal interactions of individuals in particular social settings, SC is interested in large-scale social processes E.G., the formation of religious or moral categories, the representations in the media, and the interventions of social movements Challenge the ideas that typically underpin what we think of as "common sense Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources Focused on the idea that society is characterized by inequality and conflict, which are the driving forces behind social change and development This is a macro-level approach most identified with Karl Marx who saw society as a capitalist system that creates class divisions and exploitation, with the bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) oppressing the proletariat (working class). The resolution of these conflicts requires the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of a classless society. *Conflict* *Theory* False consciousness: the proletariats' inability to see their position in the class system Class consciousness: structural constraints that prevent workers from joining together create a common group identity of exploited proletariats Max Weber - in addition to economic inequalities, there were inequalities of political power and social structure that caused conflict Different groups are affected differently based on education, race, and gender "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" Did a lot for the establishing the discipline of sociology and the broader interpretive sociology *Conflict* *Theory* Many others have drawn on conflict theory to develop other types of theory within the social sciences, including feminist theory, critical race theory, postmodern and postcolonial theory, queer theory, post-structural theory, and theories of globalization and world systems. Initially conflict theory described class conflicts specifically - it has lent itself to studies of how other kinds of conflicts -- premised on race, gender, sexuality, religion, culture, and nationality, etc. are a part of contemporary social structures, and how they affect our lives *Feminist* *Theory* Feminist theory was developed to fill a void that examined class, but not gender as a distinct category. Feminist theory within conflict theories examines the intersection of gender, power, and inequality Highlights how patriarchal structures and norms perpetuate gender inequalities and oppress women Feminist theorists advocate for gender equality and challenge the existing power dynamics within society Idea that women have been systematically oppressed, and that men have been historically dominant - system of seemingly "natural" male control is referred to as patriarchy. *Feminist* *Theory* 4 Common Characteristics across feminist movements -- Gender differences are the central focus or subject matter. -- Gender relations are viewed as a social problem: the site of social inequalities, strains, and contradictions. -- Gender relations are not unchangable: they are sociological and historical in nature, subject to change and progress. -- Feminism is about an emancipatory commitment to change: the conditions of life that are oppressive for women need to be transformed.*Feminist* *Theory* Harriet Martineau (1802-1876), feminist sociology has focused on the power relationships and inequalities between women and men Often cited as the first female sociologist Thorough societal analysis was necessary to understand the status of women Martineau introduced feminist sociological perspectives in her writing - addressed overlooked issues such as marriage, children, domestic life, religious life, and race relations *Feminist* *Theory* Dorothy Smith's development of standpoint theory was a key innovation in sociology that enabled these issues to be seen and addressed in a systematic way Notion of standpoint emphasizes that what one knows is affected by where one stands (one's subject position) in society Argument is not that we cannot look at the world in any way other than our given standpoint. Rather, her point is that: \(1) no one can have complete, objective knowledge; \(2) no two people have exactly the same standpoint; and \(3) we must not take the standpoint from which we speak for granted. Explicitly reformulate sociological theory by fully accounting for the standpoint of gender and its effects on our experience of reality *Feminist* *Theory* Early feminist theory has been criticized for its early focus on the lived experiences of white, educated women---which represent just a small subset There is no concrete \"women\'s experience\" from which to construct knowledge. In other words, the lives of women across space and time are so diverse it is impossible to generalize about their experiences Oversimplification of gender roles and potential exclusion of intersectional experiences Sociologists like Patricia Hill Collins who champion Black feminist theory have taken this work further to critique the hierarchies of race, gender, and class Casual observation - informal, everyday observations without any systematic method or critical analysis Quantitative Approaches (numerical data)  Determining significant relationships between variables  Generalizable  Comparative Qualitative Approaches (non-numerical data)  Smaller sample sizes  Interviewing and observation  Often some interpretation and can be used to contextualize data or trends **Inductive logic**  Move from data to theory  Gather information about a topic before developing theories about how to explain particular aspects  Most often use a qualitative approach **Deductive logic**  Move from theory to data  Develop a theory or set of theories to explain or predict a pattern and then test the theory  Most often use quantitative approach A **Hypothesis** is a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables. **Independent Variables** are variables that cause changes in dependent variables. **Dependent Variables** are variables changed by other variables. Independent variable causes an effect on the dependent variable. Example: *How long you sleep (independent variable) affects* *your test score (dependent variable)* **Participant Observation** is when a researcher immerses themselves in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an "insider" perspective. They must avoid influencing their subjects' behaviour (reactivity or the Hawthorne effect). For example, a person studying the way that restaurant diners treat waiters may become a waiter for the study. Ethnography involves the in-depth study of people and cultures in their natural environments. It focuses on understanding social practices, behaviours, and meanings from the perspective of the participants. \- Form of field research \- Typically requires researchers to immerse themselves in the community or group they are studying. \- This may involve living among the people, participating in their daily activities, and observing their interactions over an extended period. -Culture includes shared beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics **Material**: Physical objects (cars, smartphones) **Non-Material**: Ideas and beliefs (freedom, religion) "Cultural universals" refer to patterns shared across all cultures. **ETHNOCENTRISM** Judging other cultures using your own cultural standards (Sumner 1906). **Example**: A tourist from North America being surprised by communal eating in Ethiopian culture. **CULTURAL** **RELATIVISM** Understanding a culture by its own standards. **Example**: Understanding why certain cultures celebrate death with festivals (like Día de los Muertos in Mexico). **Values:** shared beliefs about what is good (e.g., freedom). **Beliefs**: Things people hold as true (e.g., belief in karma). **NORMS** Rules of appropriate behaviour. **Example**: Handshakes when you meeting people for the first time. **Folkways**: Casual norms (e.g., dress codes; saying please and thank you). **Mores**: Serious norms tied to morals (e.g., telling the truth, respect for elders). **TABOOS** Strong prohibitions against actions that society finds deeply offensive. **Example**: In many societies, incest is considered taboo. Taboos can change over time with shifts in societal beliefs and norms. **SANCTIONS** Reactions to enforcing norms, either rewards or punishments. **Example**: A speeding ticket as a negative sanction for breaking traffic laws. **SUBCULTURES** Groups with distinct identity but still part of the larger society. **Example**: Skateboarders have their own fashion, language, and music but still participate in wider societal norms. **COUNTERCULTURES** Groups rejecting dominant culture. **Example**: The hippie movement of the 1960s opposed mainstream values such as capitalism and war. **CULTURAL CHANGE** Driven by innovation, diffusion, and globalization. **Example**: The introduction of smartphones drastically changed global communication and social norms. Cultural Lag - Non-material culture lags behind material innovations. **GLOBALIZATION** **& CULTURE** Globalization -- to the increasing interconnectedness of societies worldwide, leading to the exchange of cultural, economic, political, and social practices across borders. Globalization fosters cultural exchange but also creates tension. **CONFLICT THEORY** Views culture as a tool that reinforces inequality and power imbalances within society. Culture is not neutral; it reflects the interests of dominant social groups. **SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM** Culture is not a natural, fixed entity but is instead constructed through social interactions. **Meaning and Reality**: cultural meanings are not inherent in objects or practices but are created and maintained by people through social interactions. **Language and Symbols**: the way we talk about and represent cultural phenomena (through language, symbols, and media) constructs and reinforces the meanings we attach to them.. **FEMINIST THEORY** Critiques culture from the perspective of gender inequality, focusing on how cultural norms, practices, and institutions maintain patriarchy and perpetuate gender-based oppression. **Patriarchal Structures**: much of culture is created and maintained in ways that prioritize men and masculinity. **Resisting and Reclaiming Culture**: emphasizes how women and marginalized groups resist cultural norms through activism, art, and alternative media; how individuals and communities reclaim culture to reshape narratives about identity, body, and empowerment. Although the scale of sociological studies and the methods of carrying them out are different, the sociologists involved in them all have something in common. Each of them looks at society using what pioneer sociologist C. Wright Mills (1916-1962) called the **sociological imagination**, sometimes also referred to as the "sociological lens" or "sociological perspective." In a sense, this was Mills' way of addressing the dilemmas of the macro/micro divide in sociology. Mills (1959) defined sociological imagination as how individuals understand their own and others' lives in relation to history and social structure. It is the capacity to see an individual's private troubles in the context of the broader social processes that structure them. This enables the sociologist to examine what Mills called "personal troubles of milieu" as "public issues of social structure," and vice versa Karl Marx (1818--1883) was a German philosopher and economist. In 1848, he and Friedrich Engels (1820--1895) co-authored the *Communist Manifesto*. This book is one of the most influential political manuscripts in history. It also presents in a highly condensed form Marx's theory of society, which differed from what Comte proposed. Whereas Comte viewed the goal of sociology as recreating a unified, post-feudal *spiritual*order that would help to institutionalize a new era of political and social stability, Marx developed a critical analysis of capitalism that saw the *material *or *economic* basis of inequality and power relations as the cause of social instability and conflict. The focus of sociology, or what Marx called **historical materialism **(the "materialist conception of history"), should be the "ruthless critique of everything existing," as he said in a letter to his friend Arnold Ruge (1802-1880). In this way the goal of sociology would not simply be to scientifically analyze or objectively describe society, but to use a rigorous scientific analysis as a basis to change it. This framework became the foundation of contemporary **critical sociology**. Harriet Martineau (1802--1876) was one of the first women sociologists in the 19th century. There are a number of other women who might compete with her for the title of the* first *woman sociologist, such as Catherine Macaulay, Mary Wollstonecraft, Flora Tristan, and Beatrice Webb, but Martineau's specifically sociological credentials are strong. She was for a long time known principally for her English translation of Comte's *Course in Positive Philosophy. *Through this popular translation, she introduced the concept of sociology as a methodologically rigorous discipline to an English-speaking audience. But she also created a body of her own work in the tradition of the great **social reform** movements of the 19th century, and introduced a sorely missing woman's perspective into the discourse on society. Émile Durkheim (1858--1917) helped establish sociology as a formal academic discipline by establishing the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895, and by publishing his *Rules of the Sociological Method* in 1895. He was born to a Jewish family in the Lorraine province of France (one of the two provinces, along with Alsace, that were lost to the Germans in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870--1871). With the German occupation of Lorraine, the Jewish community suddenly became subject to sporadic anti-Semitic violence, with the Jews often being blamed for the French defeat and the economic/political instability that followed. Durkheim attributed this strange experience of anti-Semitism and scapegoating to the lack of moral purpose in modern society. Prominent sociologist Max Weber (1864--1920) established a sociology department in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich in 1919. He wrote on many topics related to sociology including political change in Russia, the condition of German farm workers, and the history of world religions. He was also a prominent public figure, playing an important role in the German peace delegation in Versailles and in drafting the ill-fated German (Weimar) constitution following the defeat of Germany in World War I. His central concept however was his analysis of **rationalization **(see [Chapter 4. Society and Modern Life](https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology3rdedition/part/chapter-4-society-and-modern-life/)), which referred to the general tendency for modern society for all institutions and most areas of life to be transformed by the application of technical rationality. He argued that the global power and domination of Western societies had its source in the application of methodical, calculative reason and efficiency to the solution of problems and the organization of life. Two chief consequences of rationalization for the social life of modern societies were the **disenchantment of the world** (mentioned above) and the Protestant work ethic. **quantitative sociology** fits within this paradigm of positivism. Quantitative sociology** **uses statistical methods such as surveys with large numbers of participants to quantify relationships between social variables. In line with the "unity of the scientific method" rule, quantitative sociologists argue that the elements of human life can be measured and quantified --- described in numerical terms --- in essentially the same way that natural scientists measure and quantify the natural world in physics, biology, or chemistry. Researchers analyze this data using statistical techniques to see if they can uncover patterns or "laws" of human behaviour that predict future outcomes. **Structural Functionalism** also falls within the positivist tradition in sociology due to Durkheim's early efforts to describe the subject matter of sociology in terms of objective **social facts **--- "social facts must be studied as things, that is, as realities external to the individual" (Durkheim, 1895/1997) --- and to explain them in terms of their social functions, *independently* of the subjective understandings that individual members of society might have. Following Durkheim's insight, **structural functionalism** therefore sees society as composed of different **socialstructures** that perform specific **social** **functions** to maintain the operation of society as a whole. *Structures* are simply regular, observable patterns of behaviour or organized social arrangements that persist through time. Institutional arrangements that define roles and interactions in the family, workplace, or church, etc. are structures, for example. *Functions* refer to how the various social and biological needs of a society are satisfied. **Manifest functions** are purposes or goals that are consciously sought or anticipated in a social process or institution **latent functions** are the unsought consequences or purposes of a social process or institution. **Social constructionism** is a theory of knowledge that holds that the categories, facts, world views and cosmologies that make up knowledge are dependent on their social, cultural and historical context. For example, characteristics typically thought to be immutable or solely biological --- such as gender, race, class, physical ability, and sexuality --- are products of human definition and interpretation shaped by specific cultural and historical factors (Subramaniam, 2010). As such, social constructionism highlights the ways in which cultural categories --- like "men," "women," "black," "white"--- are not "things" *per se*, but concepts created, changed, and reproduced through historical processes within institutions and culture. Another major school of critical sociology is feminism. From the early work of women sociologists like Harriet Martineau, feminist sociology has focused on the power relationships and inequalities between women and men. How can the conditions of inequality faced by women be addressed? As Harriet Martineau put it in *Society in America* (1837): All women should inform themselves of the condition of their sex, and of their own position. It must necessarily follow that the noblest of them will, sooner or later, put forth a moral power which shall prostrate cant \[hypocrisy\], and burst asunder the bonds (silken to some but cold iron to others) of feudal prejudice and usages. In the meantime is it to be understood that the principles of the Declaration of Independence bear no relation to half of the human race? If so, what is the ground of this limitation? Feminist sociology focuses on analyzing the grounds of the limitations faced by women when they claim the right to equality with men. Inequality between the genders is a phenomenon that goes back at least 4,000 years (Lerner, 1986). Although the forms and ways in which it has been practiced differ between cultures and change significantly through history, its persistence has led to the formulation of the concept of patriarchy. **Patriarchy** refers to a set of institutional structures (like property rights, access to positions of power, relationship to sources of income) that are based on the belief that men and women are dichotomous and unequal categories. Key to patriarchy is what might be called the **dominant gender ideology** toward sexual differences: the assumption that physiological sex differences between males and females are related to differences in their character, behaviour, and ability (i.e., their gender). These differences are used to justify a gendered division of social roles and unequal access to rewards, positions of power, and privilege. The question that feminists ask therefore is: How does this distinction between male and female, and the attribution of different qualities to each, serve to organize institutions and to perpetuate inequality between the sexes? How is the family, the law, the occupational structure, the religious institutions, and the division between public and private spheres of life organized on the basis of inequality between the genders? Typically surveys will include a figure that gives the margin of error of the survey results. This is a measure of **reliability.** Based on probabilities, this will give a range of values within which the true value of the population characteristic will be. There is also a question of what exactly is being measured by the survey. This is a question of **validity**. Does asking whether a voter would choose the Conservatives, Liberals, NDP, or Greens if an election was held today accurately measure their actual voting behaviour on election day? **Symbolic interactionism** is one of the main paradigms of interpretive sociology. It provides a theoretical perspective that helps scholars examine how relationships between individuals in society are conducted on the basis of shared understandings and where these understandings come from. This perspective is centered on the notion that communication --- or the exchange of meaning through language, gestures and symbols --- is how people make sense of their social worlds. As pointed out by Herman and Reynolds (1994), this viewpoint also sees people as active in shaping their world, rather than as entities who are acted upon by society. This approach looks at society and people from a micro-level perspective where the processes of communication and meaning generation occur on an ongoing basis. **structural functionalism** therefore sees society as composed of different **socialstructures** that perform specific **social** **functions** to maintain the operation of society as a whole. *Structures* are simply regular, observable patterns of behaviour or organized social arrangements that persist through time. Institutional arrangements that define roles and interactions in the family, workplace, or church, etc. are structures, for example. *Functions* refer to how the various social and biological needs of a society are satisfied. **Symbolic interactionism** is one of the main paradigms of interpretive sociology. It provides a theoretical perspective that helps scholars examine how relationships between individuals in society are conducted on the basis of shared understandings and where these understandings come from. This perspective is centered on the notion that communication --- or the exchange of meaning through language, gestures and symbols --- is how people make sense of their social worlds. As pointed out by Herman and Reynolds (1994), this viewpoint also sees people as active in shaping their world, rather than as entities who are acted upon by society. This approach looks at society and people from a micro-level perspective where the processes of communication and meaning generation occur on an ongoing basis. A survey targets a specific **population**, people who are the focus of a study, such as Canadian citizens, university athletes, international students, or teenagers living with type 1 (juvenile-onset) diabetes. a small sector of the population, or a **sample**: That is, a manageable number of subjects who represent a larger population. The success of a study depends on how well a population is represented by the sample. In a **random sample**, every person in a population has the same chance of being chosen for the study An **interview** is a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject, and is another way of conducting surveys on a topic. Interviews are similar to the short answer questions on surveys in that the researcher asks subjects a series of questions. They can be quantitative if the questions are standardized and have numerically quantifiable answers: Are you employed? (Yes=0, No=1); On a scale of 1 to 5 One way sociological researchers test social theories is by conducting an **experiment**, meaning they test a hypothesis by introducing a variable to a control group and an experimental group under controlled circumstances and compare the outcomes --- a scientific approach. Wacquant had conducted a form of study called **participant observation**, in which researchers join people and participate in a group's routine activities to observe them within that context. This method lets researchers study a naturally occurring social activity without imposing artificial or intrusive research devices, like fixed questionnaire questions, onto the situation. **paradigms:** Philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the experiments performed in support of them. **patriarchy: **Institutions of male power in society. **rationalism:** The philosophical tradition that seeks to determine the underlying laws that govern the truth of reason and ideas. **anomie:** A social condition or normlessness in which a lack of clear norms fails to give direction and purpose to individual actions. **agency: **The capacity of individuals to act and make decisions independently. **Ethnography** is the extended observation of the social perspective and cultural values of an entire social setting. Researchers seek to immerse themselves in the life of a bounded group by living and working among them. Often ethnography involves participant observation --- Loïc Wacquant's research mentioned above is an ethnography --- but the focus is the systematic observation of an entire community. One methodology that sociologists employ with secondary data is** content analysis**.** **The quantitative approach to content analysis is a form of textual research that selects an item of textual content (i.e., a variable) that can be reliably and consistently observed and coded, and surveys the prevalence of that item in a sample of textual output. For example, Gilens (1996) wanted to find out why survey research shows that the American public substantially exaggerates the percentage of African Americans among the poor. He examined whether media representations influence public perceptions, and did a content analysis of photographs of poor people in American news magazines. Most members of the society adhere to norms because their violation invokes some degree of sanction. **Sanctions** are a form of **social control**, a way to encourage conformity to cultural norms. They define the punishments and rewards that govern behaviour. These can be understood to operate at various levels of formality. **Formal norms** are established, written rules. They are behaviours worked out and agreed upon in order to suit and serve most people. Laws are formal norms **informal norms **--- casual behaviours that are generally and widely conformed to --- is longer. People learn informal norms by observation, imitation, and general socialization. Some informal norms are taught directly --- "kiss your Aunt Edna" or "use your napkin" **Mores** (pronounced *mor*--*ays*) are norms that embody the moral views and principles of a group. They are based on social requirements. Violating them can have serious consequences. The strongest mores are legally protected with laws or other formal norms. In Canada, for instance, murder is considered immoral, and it is punishable by law (a formal norm). **folkways** are norms without any moral underpinnings. They are based on social preferences*.* Folkways direct appropriate behaviour in the day-to-day practices and expressions of a culture. Folkways indicate whether to shake hands or kiss on the cheek when greeting another person. They specify whether to wear a tie and a blazer or a T-shirt and sandals to an event. **Taboos **refer to actions which are strongly forbidden by deeply held sacred or moral beliefs. They are the strongest and most deeply held norms. Their transgression evokes revulsion and severe punishment. In its original use taboo referred to being "consecrated, inviolable, forbidden, unclean, or cursed" **Symbolic interactionism** is a sociological paradigm that is most concerned with the face-to-face interactions between members of society. Interactionists see culture as being created and maintained by the ways people interact, interpret each other's actions and create common meanings. **Social Structures and Functions** - **Overview:** Social structures and functions refer to the organized patterns of relationships and roles within a society that contribute to its stability and continuity. These structures help fulfill both biological and social needs, shaping individual behavior and societal norms. - **Social Facts:** - Collective phenomena that influence individual behaviors and societal norms. - Examples include laws, morals, values, and social institutions. - **Social Roles:** - Expected behaviors associated with particular positions in society. - Contribute to social stability by providing guidelines for individuals\' actions. - **Social Reform:** - Advocates for gradual changes in social institutions rather than rapid transformations. - Focuses on improving existing systems through incremental adjustments. - **Total Institutions:** - Highly controlled environments (e.g., prisons, rehabilitation centers) where individuals undergo resocialization. - Enforce new identities and behaviors, often isolating residents from broader society. **Sociological Imagination** - **Overview:** The sociological imagination, coined by C. Wright Mills, is the ability to connect personal experiences with larger social forces. It emphasizes understanding how individual lives are shaped by societal structures and cultural contexts, distinguishing between private troubles and public issues. - **Definition:** - Concept developed by C. Wright Mills. - Awareness of the relationship between personal experiences and wider society. - **Public Issues vs. Private Troubles:** - **Private Troubles:** Individual challenges that are unique to a person. - **Public Issues:** Problems rooted in social structures, culture, and society affecting many individuals. - **Durkheim\'s Study of Suicide:** - Examines the relationship between social solidarity and suicide rates. - Higher social integration correlates with lower suicide rates; low or high solidarity increases risk. - Explains higher suicide rates among men, unmarried individuals, and Indigenous youth. - Introduces concepts like anomie (normlessness) and social facts (external societal influences). **Research Methods in Sociology** - **Overview:** Research methods in sociology encompass various techniques used to study social phenomena and interactions. These methods help sociologists gather data, analyze behaviors, and understand societal structures through empirical observations and qualitative or quantitative analysis. - **Case Study:** - In-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual. - Provides detailed insights but may lack generalizability. - **Content Analysis:** - A quantitative approach to textual research. - Involves selecting and coding items of textual content to survey their prevalence in a sample. - **Ethnography:** - Extended observation of cultural practices, beliefs, and values within an entire social setting. - Focuses on understanding the context and meaning behind social behaviors. - **Participant Observation:** - Immersion of the researcher in a group or social setting. - Allows for observations from an insider perspective, enhancing understanding of social dynamics. - **Surveys:** - Structured questionnaires designed to collect data from a large number of respondents. - Useful for gathering quantitative data on attitudes, opinions, and behaviors. - **Interviews:** - One-on-one conversations between a researcher and a subject. - Can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, providing depth and personal insight into experiences. **Economic Systems** - **Overview:** Economic systems are structured ways in which societies organize the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. They encompass various models, including capitalism, globalization, and rationalization, each influencing social behavior and cultural norms. - **Capitalism:** - Economic system where private individuals or organizations own means of production. - Market determines prices, products, and distribution based on supply and demand. - Key concepts include private property, profit motive, and market competition. - **Globalization:** - Process by which global dimensions of social relations emerge and spread. - Facilitates cultural diffusion through trade, migration, and interaction between cultures. - Influences economic practices and social structures worldwide. - **Rationalization:** - The application of reason and efficiency to all areas of life and institutions. - Reflects a trend in modern society towards systematic organization and decision-making. - Affects how economic activities are conducted and evaluated for effectiveness. **Theoretical Approaches** - **Overview:** Theoretical approaches in sociology provide frameworks for understanding social behavior and structures. Key theories include Structural Functionalism, Symbolic Interactionism, Freud\'s Psychosexual Development, and Erikson\'s Psychosocial Stages, each offering unique insights into human interaction and development within society. - **Structural Functionalism:** - Society as a structure with interrelated parts meeting biological and social needs. - Focuses on relationships between social institutions. - Concept of dynamic equilibrium: all parts working together. - Key theorists: Spencer, Durkheim, Parsons, Merton. - Emphasizes interdependence among societal components. - **Symbolic Interactionism:** - Examines individual interactions through language, gestures, and symbols. - Mead's Theory of Self-Development: - \"I\" (spontaneous self) vs. \"Me\" (socialized self). - Generalized other represents societal expectations. - **Freud\'s Psychosexual Development:** - Focuses on early childhood stages (5 stages). - Unresolved issues affect personality development. - Importance of family and caregivers in socialization. - **Erikson\'s Psychosocial Stages:** - Emphasizes social and emotional development across the lifespan. - 8 stages centered on conflicts that must be resolved for healthy development. - **Sociological Imagination:** - Coined by C. Wright Mills; connects personal experiences to broader social contexts. - Distinguishes between private troubles and public issues. - Example: Durkheim's study of suicide and its relation to societal integration. **Research Ethics** - **Overview:** Research ethics encompasses the principles and guidelines that govern the conduct of research involving human participants. It aims to protect participants\' rights, ensure integrity in research practices, and promote trust in scientific inquiry. - **Informed Consent:** - Participants must be fully informed about the research purpose, methods, risks, and benefits. - Understanding is crucial; participants should have the opportunity to ask questions. - Consent must be voluntary and free from coercion. - **Deception:** - Involves misleading participants or withholding information that may affect their decision to participate. - Controversial due to its impact on informed consent but can yield valuable knowledge. - Acceptable only in minimal risk research when necessary for answering research questions. - **Confidentiality:** - Participants\' identities must remain confidential. - Data should be anonymized to prevent linking to individual identities. - **Validity:** - Refers to the degree to which a measure accurately reflects the topic of study. - Ensures that research findings are credible and applicable. - **Reliability:** - Consistency of a measure; how well it can be reproduced under the same conditions. - Also known as reproducibility or repeatability. - **Generalizability:** - The extent to which study findings can be applied to other settings or populations. - Also referred to as external validity; important for the broader applicability of research results. **Sociology** - **Overview:** Sociology is the systematic study of society and social interaction, exploring how individuals relate to one another within various social structures. It encompasses diverse theoretical approaches to understand human behavior in a societal context. - **Definition:** - Systematic study of society and social interactions. - Examines relationships between individual experiences and broader social contexts. - **Social Interaction:** - Focuses on communication (language, gestures, symbols) among individuals. - Mead's Theory of Self-Development: - \"I\" represents the spontaneous self. - \"Me\" reflects the socialized self, shaped by societal perceptions and rules. - Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills): - Connects personal experiences to wider societal issues. - Distinguishes between private troubles and public issues. - **Theoretical Approaches:** - **Structural Functionalism:** - Views society as a complex system with interrelated parts that fulfill biological and social needs. - **Symbolic Interactionism:** - Emphasizes the importance of symbols and language in social interactions. - **Durkheim's Study of Suicide:** - Suggests stronger social ties reduce suicide risk; highlights the role of social solidarity. - **Research Methodologies:** - **Inductive Approach:** General statements derived from empirical observations. - **Interviews:** One-on-one conversations for qualitative data collection. - **Literature Review:** Comprehensive analysis of existing research on a topic. - **Case Study:** In-depth examination of a specific event or individual. - **Casual Observation:** Informal observation without systematic methods. - **Content Analysis:** Quantitative assessment of textual content prevalence. - **Validity:** Accuracy of sociological measures reflecting the study topic. - **Participant Observation:** Researcher immerses in a group for insider perspectives. - **Ethnography:** Extended observation of cultural practices and beliefs within a social setting. - **Social Functions:** - Roles that social phenomena play in meeting societal needs and ensuring continuity. - **Social Reform:** - Advocates gradual improvements in social institutions rather than rapid changes. **Socialization** - **Overview:** Socialization is the lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize the values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors necessary to function in society. It occurs through various stages and involves different agents that influence personal development and social roles. - **Primary Socialization:** - Occurs during early childhood (infancy to early adolescence). - Primarily influenced by immediate family (parents, siblings, grandparents). - Involves learning basic societal values, norms, and self-awareness. - **Secondary Socialization:** - Takes place later in life and continues throughout adulthood. - Influenced by external agents such as schools, peers, media, workplaces, and religious institutions. - Involves encountering new groups and roles, enhancing or replacing earlier learned concepts. - **Agents of Socialization:** - Individuals and institutions that impact a person\'s development. - Teach societal expectations, beliefs, values, and cultural norms. - Examples include family, friends, educational systems, and community organizations. - **Anticipatory Socialization:** - The process of preparing for future roles by adopting new behaviors, norms, and skills. - Helps individuals transition into expected societal roles. - **Resocialization:** - A process where individuals undergo significant changes in their beliefs, values, and behaviors. - Often occurs in environments like rehabilitation centers, military training, or total institutions. - **Key Concepts Related to Socialization:** - **Cultural Universals:** Patterns or traits common across all societies. - **Globalization:** The emergence and spread of global social relations. - **Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism:** Ethnocentrism is the belief in the superiority of one\'s culture; cultural relativism advocates understanding cultures on their own terms. - **Cultural Diffusion:** The spread of cultural ideas and practices between cultures. - **Theoretical Perspectives:** - **Freud's Psychosexual Development:** Focuses on early childhood stages and the role of family in shaping personality. - **Erikson's Psychosocial Stages:** Emphasizes social and emotional development across eight stages, each centered on resolving conflicts for healthy growth. **Self-Development Theories** - **Overview:** Self-development theories explore how individuals form their identities and personalities through social interactions and experiences. Key theorists like Mead, Freud, Erikson, and Cooley provide frameworks for understanding the stages and influences on self-concept throughout life. - **Mead\'s Theory of Self:** - Emphasizes the development of self through social interaction. - Consists of two parts: \"I\" (spontaneous) and \"Me\" (socialized). - The \"generalized other\" represents societal expectations. - **Freud\'s Stages:** - Focuses on psychosexual development across five stages in early childhood. - Unresolved conflicts during these stages can affect personality. - Highlights the role of family and caregivers in socialization. - **Erikson\'s Stages:** - Proposes eight psychosocial stages that span a person\'s lifespan. - Each stage presents a conflict that must be resolved for healthy development. - Emphasizes social and emotional growth throughout life. - **Cooley\'s Looking Glass Self:** - Describes self-image as shaped by others\' judgments. - Involves three components: imagining how we appear to others, imagining their judgment, and developing feelings about ourselves based on those perceptions. - Introduces concepts of play and preparatory stages in children\'s role-taking. - **Symbolic Interactionism:** - A theoretical perspective focusing on individual relationships within society. - Studies communication methods such as language, gestures, and symbols. - **Primary and Secondary Socialization:** - **Primary Socialization:** Occurs in early childhood, influenced by family; foundational values and norms are learned. - **Secondary Socialization:** Continues throughout life, influenced by external agents like schools, media, and peers; involves adapting to new roles and groups. - **Nature vs. Nurture:** - Nature refers to genetic influences on self-development. - Nurture emphasizes the impact of social environment and experiences. - **Resocialization:** - The process of unlearning old behaviors and adopting new ones, often occurring in total institutions or significant life changes. \#\#\# \*\*1. Theories -- Feminist, Conflict, Structural Functionalism, Social Constructionism, Symbolic Interactionism, and Key Figures\*\* \- \*\*Feminist Theory\*\*: Feminist theory examines gender inequalities, focusing on how patriarchal structures perpetuate the oppression of women. Gender is considered a central element of social inequality, and feminist theorists advocate for transforming these inequalities. \- \*\*Key Figures\*\*: Harriet Martineau, Dorothy Smith. Martineau was a pioneer feminist sociologist who critiqued gender inequality, while Dorothy Smith developed standpoint theory, emphasizing how gender affects knowledge production【6†source】. \- \*\*Conflict Theory\*\*: Society is seen as a competition for resources. Conflict theory, associated with Karl Marx, emphasizes the role of class conflict and power struggles as drivers of social change. \- \*\*Key Figures\*\*: Karl Marx, Max Weber. Marx focused on class struggles under capitalism, while Weber explored power inequalities based on not only class but also status and political power【6†source】【7†source】. \- \*\*Structural Functionalism\*\*: This theory views society as a system of interrelated parts working together to maintain stability. It emphasizes the role that social institutions play in meeting individual and collective needs. \- \*\*Key Figures\*\*: Émile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer. Durkheim expanded on Spencer's ideas, applying them to explain how societies maintain order and survive over time【6†source】【7†source】. \- \*\*Social Constructionism\*\*: Knowledge and reality are seen as products of social interactions. Social categories such as gender, race, and class are socially constructed rather than fixed entities【6†source】. \- \*\*Symbolic Interactionism\*\*: Focuses on face-to-face interactions and how individuals create and interpret social symbols. \- \*\*Key Figures\*\*: George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman. Mead\'s theory of the self and Goffman's dramaturgy are core concepts within this paradigm【6†source】【7†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*2. Sociological Imagination (Mills)\*\* \- Coined by C. Wright Mills, the sociological imagination refers to the ability to connect personal experiences to broader societal structures. It helps explain personal \"troubles\" as part of wider \"public issues\"【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*3. Latent and Manifest Functions\*\* \- \*\*Manifest Functions\*\*: The intended, expected consequences of social processes or institutions. \- \*\*Latent Functions\*\*: Unintended or hidden outcomes【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*4. Rationalism, Paradigms, and Theoretical Perspectives\*\* \- \*\*Rationalism\*\*: A focus on using reason and scientific methods to understand social patterns【6†source】. \- \*\*Paradigms\*\*: Theoretical frameworks that guide sociological research. These include structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism【6†source】【7†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\***5. Social Function and Social Reform\*\*** Social Function: Refers to the role that a social phenomenon performs in satisfying a social or biological need and ensuring the continuity of society. Social Reform: An approach to social change that advocates slow, incremental improvements in social institutions rather than rapid, revolutionary changes of society as a whole. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*6. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research\*\* \- \*\*Quantitative Research\*\*: Involves gathering numerical data to establish relationships between variables and is generally more generalizable【6†source】. \- \*\*Qualitative Research\*\*: Focuses on understanding social behaviors through interviews, observations, and smaller sample sizes【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*7. Participant Observation, Casual Observation, and Ethnography\*\* \- \*\*Participant Observation\*\*: Researchers immerse themselves in the social setting they study, observing from an insider's perspective【6†source】. \- \*\*Casual Observation\*\*: Informal, everyday observations without systematic methodology【6†source】. \- \*\*Ethnography\*\*: An in-depth study of people in their natural environments through extended observation【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*8. Content Analysis, Interviews, Hypothesis, Inductive and Deductive Approaches\*\* \- \*\*Content Analysis\*\*: A method of studying documents and communication artifacts to determine the presence of certain words, themes, or concepts【6†source】. \- \*\*Interviews\*\*: Conversations between researchers and participants for data collection【6†source】. \- \*\*Hypothesis\*\*: A testable educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables【6†source】. \- \*\*Inductive Approach\*\*: Developing theories based on empirical observations【6†source】. \- \*\*Deductive Approach\*\*: Testing existing theories by collecting data【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*9. Literature Review\*\* \- A literature review entails studying all available research on a given topic to build a foundation for new research【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*10. Sample vs. Population\*\* \- \*\*Sample\*\*: A smaller group selected from a population for the purposes of a study【6†source】. \- \*\*Population\*\*: The larger group from which the sample is drawn【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*11. Dependent and Independent Variables\*\* \- \*\*Independent Variable\*\*: The factor that influences or causes changes in another variable. \- \*\*Dependent Variable\*\*: The variable that is affected by the independent variable【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*12. Surveys, Experiments, Case Studies\*\* \- \*\*Surveys\*\*: Research tools used to gather data from a sample of individuals, often through questionnaires【6†source】. \- \*\*Experiments\*\*: Controlled studies designed to test hypotheses by introducing variables to compare outcomes【6†source】. \- \*\*Case Studies\*\*: In-depth analyses of a particular event, individual, or group【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*13. Validity, Reliability, Generalizability, and the Hawthorne Effect\*\* \- \*\*Validity\*\*: The degree to which a study accurately reflects or measures the concept it aims to study【6†source】. \- \*\*Reliability\*\*: Consistency of a measure over time【6†source】. \- \*\*Generalizability\*\*: The extent to which research findings apply to other settings【6†source】. \- \*\*Hawthorne Effect\*\*: When individuals modify their behavior due to awareness of being observed【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*14. Ethical Considerations (Informed Consent, Deception, Confidentiality)\*\* \- \*\*Informed Consent\*\*: Participants must be fully informed about the study and voluntarily agree to participate【6†source】. \- \*\*Deception\*\*: Misleading participants about the true nature of a study, used sparingly and only when necessary【6†source】. \- \*\*Confidentiality\*\*: Ensuring that participants\' identities and data remain private【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*15. Primary vs. Secondary Socialization\*\* \- \*\*Primary Socialization\*\*: Occurs during childhood, where family plays the most significant role in teaching basic social norms【6†source】. \- \*\*Secondary Socialization\*\*: Occurs later in life, with external agents such as schools and peer groups influencing behavior【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*16. Agents of Socialization\*\* \- These include family, peers, schools, and media, all of which play a role in shaping an individual's social identity【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*17. Mead's Stages of Self\*\* \- Mead proposed that self-development occurs in stages, where individuals learn to take the role of others. This process starts with imitation, then role-playing, and finally understanding the generalized other【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*18. Cooley's Looking-Glass Self\*\* \- Cooley's concept explains how individuals develop a self-image based on how they believe others perceive them【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*19. Freud and Erikson's Theories of Development\*\* \- \*\*Freud\*\*: Focuses on early childhood and psychosexual stages, suggesting that unresolved issues affect personality. \- \*\*Erikson\*\*: Emphasizes psychosocial stages throughout life, where each stage presents a conflict that must be resolved for healthy development【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*20. Resocialization and Total Institutions\*\* \- \*\*Resocialization\*\*: The process by which individuals learn new behaviors in response to a changing social environment【6†source】. \- \*\*Total Institutions\*\*: Places where individuals are isolated from society and subjected to tight control, such as prisons【6†source】. \#\#\# \*\*21. Capitalism\*\* \- \*\*Capitalism\*\*: An economic system where private individuals or organizations own the means of production, and the market determines prices, products, and distribution. It is based on the concepts of private property, profit motive, and market competition【6†source】【7†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*22. Anticipatory Socialization\*\* \- \*\*Anticipatory Socialization\*\*: The process of learning and adopting new behaviors, norms, and skills in preparation for future roles and statuses【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*23. Material vs. Non-Material Culture\*\* \- \*\*Material Culture\*\*: Consists of physical objects or artifacts, such as technology, buildings, and clothing【6†source】. \- \*\*Non-Material Culture\*\*: Refers to non-physical aspects of culture, including ideas, beliefs, values, norms, and language【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*24. Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism\*\* \- \*\*Ethnocentrism\*\*: The belief that one\'s own culture is superior to others, and using one\'s own culture to evaluate other cultures【6†source】. \- \*\*Cultural Relativism\*\*: Understanding and evaluating a culture by its own standards, without imposing one\'s own cultural biases【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*25. Culture, Cultural Universals, Cultural Diffusion, Cultural Lag\*\* \- \*\*Culture\*\*: Includes shared beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics of a group【6†source】. \- \*\*Cultural Universals\*\*: Patterns or traits that are common to all societies【6†source】. \- \*\*Cultural Diffusion\*\*: The spread of cultural elements from one society to another【6†source】. \- \*\*Cultural Lag\*\*: The delay in non-material culture's adaptation to changes in material culture【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*26. Subcultures and Countercultures\*\* \- \*\*Subcultures\*\*: Groups that share a specific identity but are still part of the larger society. They often have their own norms, values, and behaviors【6†source】. \- \*\*Countercultures\*\*: Groups that reject the dominant cultural norms and create their own distinct culture【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*27. Norms, Values, Mores, Folkways, and Taboos\*\* \- \*\*Norms\*\*: Rules and expectations for behavior in society【6†source】. \- \*\*Folkways\*\*: Casual norms governing everyday behavior (e.g., dress codes, manners)【6†source】. \- \*\*Mores\*\*: Serious norms tied to moral significance, such as laws【6†source】. \- \*\*Taboos\*\*: Strong prohibitions against deeply offensive actions (e.g., incest)【6†source】. \- \*\*Values\*\*: Shared beliefs about what is considered good or desirable in a culture【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*28. Social Roles\*\* \- \*\*Social Roles\*\*: Culturally defined behaviors that are expected of individuals based on their social status or position【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*29. Formal and Informal Sanctions\*\* \- \*\*Formal Sanctions\*\*: Official responses to behavior, such as laws and rules【6†source】. \- \*\*Informal Sanctions\*\*: Unofficial responses, such as praise or disapproval from peers【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*30. Sex vs. Gender\*\* \- \*\*Sex\*\*: Refers to the biological differences between males and females【6†source】. \- \*\*Gender\*\*: Socially constructed roles, behaviors, and attributes that a society considers appropriate for men and women【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*31. Gender Roles and Gender Socialization\*\* \- \*\*Gender Roles\*\*: Expectations regarding the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of men and women in a society【6†source】. \- \*\*Gender Socialization\*\*: The process by which individuals learn the gender norms of their society【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*32. Feminism\*\* \- \*\*Feminist Theory\*\*: Analyzes gender inequality, emphasizing how cultural norms and institutions maintain patriarchy【6†source】【7†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*33. Masculinity and Femininity, Patriarchy\*\* \- \*\*Masculinity and Femininity\*\*: Socially constructed ideas about appropriate behavior and roles for men and women【6†source】. \- \*\*Patriarchy\*\*: A social system in which men hold primary power and dominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*34. Globalization and Cultural Exchange\*\* \- \*\*Globalization\*\*: The increasing interconnectedness of societies across the world, leading to the exchange of cultural, economic, political, and social practices【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*35. Impression Management (Goffman)\*\* \- \*\*Impression Management\*\*: The process through which individuals attempt to control how others perceive them. This concept was developed by Erving Goffman as part of his dramaturgical theory【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*36. Norms\*\* \- \*\*Norms\*\*: Rules and expectations for behavior that guide how individuals should act in various social situations【6†source】. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*37. Important Sociologists\*\* \- \*\*Karl Marx\*\*: Developed conflict theory, focusing on class struggles and the material basis of societal inequality【6†source】【7†source】. \- \*\*Émile Durkheim\*\*: Known for his theory of suicide and the concept of social facts, which are external to individuals but influence their behavior【6†source】【7†source】. \- \*\*Max Weber\*\*: Developed the concept of rationalization and explored inequalities based on status, class, and political power【6†source】【7†source】. \- \*\*Herbert Spencer\*\*: Linked society to a biological organism, where each part contributes to the overall functioning【6†source】. \- \*\*George Herbert Mead\*\*: Developed the theory of self, where the \"I\" and \"Me\" form the self-concept【6†source】. \- \*\*Erving Goffman\*\*: Introduced the concept of dramaturgy and impression management【6†source】【7†source】. \- \*\*Charles Cooley\*\*: Known for the concept of the looking-glass self, where individuals form their self-image based on how they believe others perceive them【6†source】【7†source】. \- \*\*Robert Merton\*\*: Contributed to structural functionalism with his distinction between manifest and latent functions【6†source】. \- \*\*Dorothy Smith\*\*: Developed standpoint theory, highlighting how knowledge is shaped by one\'s social position【6†source】. \- \*\*Harriet Martineau\*\*: Early feminist sociologist who emphasized the need for gender equality and social reform【6†source】【7†source】. \-\-- This concludes the full organization of your notes according to the provided review structure. All definitions and key concepts have been integrated into the appropriate sections based on the study guide. Let me know if anything else needs adjustment! VERSION 2 I have identified all of your notes from the document. Here is the full organization that follows your review guide. All of your definitions and notes have been used: \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*1. Theories -- Feminist, Conflict, Structural Functionalism, Social Constructionism, Symbolic Interactionism\*\* \- \*\*Feminist Theory\*\* Feminist theory critiques the hierarchies of race, gender, and class, focusing on how cultural norms and institutions perpetuate patriarchy. \- \*\*Conflict Theory\*\* Views culture as a tool that reinforces inequality and power imbalances within society. It reflects the interests of dominant social groups. \- \*\*Key Figures\*\*: Karl Marx. \- \*\*Structural Functionalism\*\* Society is composed of interrelated parts that work together to meet individual needs. Key to this theory is the idea of dynamic equilibrium where parts of society share a common set of principles【6†source】. \- \*\*Key Figures\*\*: Herbert Spencer, Émile Durkheim, Parsons, and Robert Merton. \- \*\*Social Constructionism\*\* Social constructionism holds that knowledge is dependent on its social, cultural, and historical context 【6†source】. \- \*\*Symbolic Interactionism\*\* Focuses on the creation and interpretation of social symbols through communication. \- \*\*Key Figures\*\*: George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*2. Sociological Imagination (Mills)\*\* The ability to connect individual experiences to wider social structures and historical contexts. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*3. Agency\*\* The ability to choose and act independently of external constraints. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*4. Latent and Manifest Functions\*\* \- \*\*Manifest Functions\*\*: Intended and expected outcomes of social processes. \- \*\*Latent Functions\*\*: Unintended consequences. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*5. Rationalism, Paradigms, and Theoretical Perspectives\*\* \- \*\*Rationalism\*\*: Seeks to explain social patterns using reason and systematic logic. \- \*\*Paradigms\*\*: Theoretical frameworks used to guide research and theory formation. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*6. Social Function and Social Reform\*\* \- \*\*Social Function\*\*: Refers to the role that social phenomena play in satisfying societal needs. \- \*\*Social Reform\*\*: Advocates for gradual improvements rather than radical changes. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*7. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research\*\* \- \*\*Quantitative Research\*\*: Statistical methods, surveys, and generalizability. \- \*\*Qualitative Research\*\*: Focuses on smaller samples, interviews, and in-depth observation. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*8. Participant Observation, Casual Observation, and Ethnography\*\* \- \*\*Participant Observation\*\*: Researchers immerse themselves in social settings. \- \*\*Casual Observation\*\*: Informal observations without systematic processes. \- \*\*Ethnography\*\*: Involves extended observation of cultural practices. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*9. Content Analysis, Interviews, Hypothesis, Inductive and Deductive Approaches\*\* \- \*\*Content Analysis\*\*: Quantitatively analyzes the frequency of items in texts. \- \*\*Interviews\*\*: Conversations for collecting qualitative or quantitative data. \- \*\*Hypothesis\*\*: An educated guess about the relationship between variables. \- \*\*Inductive Approach\*\*: Developing theory from empirical observations. \- \*\*Deductive Approach\*\*: Testing theory through data collection. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*10. Literature Review\*\* A comprehensive study of existing research on a specific topic. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*11. Sample vs. Population\*\* \- \*\*Sample\*\*: A representative subset of a population. \- \*\*Population\*\*: The larger group from which a sample is drawn. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*12. Dependent and Independent Variables\*\* \- \*\*Independent Variable\*\*: The cause of changes in the dependent variable. \- \*\*Dependent Variable\*\*: The variable affected by the independent variable. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*13. Surveys, Experiments, Case Studies\*\* \- \*\*Surveys\*\*: Collect data from a sample, often through questionnaires. \- \*\*Experiments\*\*: Test hypotheses by controlling variables. \- \*\*Case Studies\*\*: In-depth analysis of specific events or individuals. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*14. Validity, Reliability, Generalizability, and the Hawthorne Effect\*\* \- \*\*Validity\*\*: Ensures the accuracy of measures. \- \*\*Reliability\*\*: The consistency of results across studies. \- \*\*Generalizability\*\*: The extent to which findings apply to other settings. \- \*\*Hawthorne Effect\*\*: When subjects modify their behavior because they know they are being observed. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*15. Ethical Considerations (Informed Consent, Deception, Confidentiality)\*\* \- \*\*Informed Consent\*\*: Participants must be fully aware of the research purpose. \- \*\*Deception\*\*: Only acceptable in minimal-risk research. \- \*\*Confidentiality\*\*: Ensuring privacy and data anonymity. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*16. Primary vs. Secondary Socialization\*\* \- \*\*Primary Socialization\*\*: Occurs during early childhood and is influenced by family. \- \*\*Secondary Socialization\*\*: Takes place later and involves external agents like schools. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*17. Agents of Socialization\*\* Agents include family, media, schools, and peer groups, which influence an individual\'s social development. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*18. Mead's Stages of Self\*\* Mead's concept of self consists of the \"I\" (spontaneous) and \"Me\" (socialized) components. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*19. Cooley's Looking-Glass Self\*\* Cooley's theory suggests that individuals develop their self-concept based on how they think others perceive them. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*20. Freud and Erikson's Theories of Development\*\* \- \*\*Freud\*\*: Emphasized early childhood stages and unresolved issues. \- \*\*Erikson\*\*: Focused on psychosocial development throughout life. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*21. Resocialization and Total Institutions\*\* \- \*\*Resocialization\*\*: Learning new behaviors in response to a changing environment. \- \*\*Total Institutions\*\*: Highly controlled environments like prisons. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*22. Capitalism\*\* An economic system based on private ownership, competition, and profit. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*23. Anticipatory Socialization\*\* The process of preparing for future roles by adopting new behaviors. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*24. Material vs. Non-Material Culture\*\* \- \*\*Material Culture\*\*: Physical objects like technology. \- \*\*Non-Material Culture\*\*: Beliefs and values. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*25. Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism\*\* \- \*\*Ethnocentrism\*\*: Judging other cultures by one's own standards. \- \*\*Cultural Relativism\*\*: Understanding cultures by their own standards. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*26. Cultural Universals, Diffusion, and Lag\*\* \- \*\*Cultural Universals\*\*: Traits shared by all societies. \- \*\*Cultural Diffusion\*\*: The spread of cultural elements. \- \*\*Cultural Lag\*\*: When non-material culture lags behind technological advancements. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*27. Subcultures and Countercultures\*\* \- \*\*Subcultures\*\*: Groups with distinct identities within larger societies. \- \*\*Countercultures\*\*: Groups that reject dominant cultural norms. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*28. Norms, Values, Mores, Folkways, and Taboos\*\* \- \*\*Norms\*\*: Rules for behavior. \- \*\*Mores\*\*: Strongly enforced moral norms. \- \*\*Folkways\*\*: Casual norms governing everyday interactions. \- \*\*Taboos\*\*: Forbidden actions considered deeply offensive. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*29. Social Roles and Sanctions\*\* \- \*\*Social Roles\*\*: Patterns of behavior expected of individuals in society. \- \*\*Sanctions\*\*: Reactions to enforcing norms, either rewards or punishments. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*30. Sex vs. Gender\*\* \- \*\*Sex\*\*: Refers to biological differences. \- \*\*Gender\*\*: Socially constructed roles. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*31. Gender Roles and Gender Socialization\*\* Gender socialization teaches individuals the appropriate behaviors for their gender as defined by society. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*32. Feminism\*\* Feminist theory critiques culture from the perspective of gender inequality. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*33. Masculinity and Femininity, Patriarchy\*\* \- \*\*Mascul inity and Femininity\*\*: Social constructs defining gender roles. \- \*\*Patriarchy\*\*: Social systems where men hold primary power. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*34. Globalization and Cultural Exchange\*\* Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of societies, leading to cultural exchange. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*35. Impression Management (Goffman)\*\* Goffman's theory explores how individuals manage their public image by controlling how others perceive them. \-\-- \#\#\# \*\*36. Important Sociologists\*\* \- \*\*Karl Marx\*\*: Focused on class struggles under capitalism. \- \*\*Émile Durkheim\*\*: Developed the concept of social facts and studied suicide. \- \*\*Max Weber\*\*: Emphasized rationalization in modern society. \- \*\*George Herbert Mead\*\*: Developed the theory of the self. \- \*\*Erving Goffman\*\*: Known for his theory of dramaturgy. \- \*\*Charles Cooley\*\*: Introduced the looking-glass self. \-\-- This completes the full integration of your notes based on the study guide outline. If anything else is needed, feel free to ask! - 🏛️ **Society as a Machine**: Structural functionalism views society as a well-oiled machine with interconnected parts. - ⚔️ **Conflict Perspective**: Conflict theory sees society as a battleground of competing groups struggling for resources. - 👥 **Interaction Focus**: Symbolic interactionism emphasizes the importance of everyday interactions in shaping societal meanings. - 🔍 **Macro vs. Micro**: Sociology examines both large-scale structures and individual interactions to understand society. - 📚 **Foundational Theorists**: Key figures like Durkheim, Marx, and Weber laid the groundwork for these paradigms. - 🔄 **Interpretation of Facts**: Raw facts require frameworks to be understood, as interpretations can vary based on the paradigm used. - 🌍 **Diverse Perspectives**: Each paradigm provides a different lens through which to analyze and understand social phenomena. **Key Insights** - 🏛️ **Structural Functionalism**: This paradigm views society as an organism where each part serves a purpose to maintain stability. However, it struggles to explain social change effectively, potentially seeing negative aspects as functional. - ⚔️ **Conflict Theory**: Emphasizing power dynamics, this approach highlights how different groups compete for resources, driving social change. It's crucial for understanding inequality and addressing societal issues like class conflict and racial disparities. - 👥 **Symbolic Interactionism**: This micro-level perspective focuses on individual interactions and the meanings that arise from them. It posits that reality is constructed through social interactions, emphasizing the subjective nature of human experience. - 🔍 **Macro and Micro Connections**: There's a symbiotic relationship between macro and micro analyses in sociology. Understanding individual behaviors can illuminate larger social patterns, and vice versa, fostering a comprehensive view of society. - 📚 **Historical Context**: Understanding the historical context of sociology's foundational theories provides insight into current societal structures and conflicts, showcasing the relevance of these paradigms today. - 🔄 **Importance of Assumptions**: Every scientific discipline, including sociology, relies on underlying assumptions to interpret facts. Recognizing these biases is essential for critical analysis and research. - 🌍 **Multi-Faceted Understanding**: The different paradigms in sociology are not mutually exclusive; they provide complementary views that enrich our understanding of complex social realities.

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