Copyright and Designs Notes PDF

COPYRIGHT AND DESIGNS PREWRITES INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................................................9 WHAT IS COPYRIGHT?....................................................................................................................................... 9 WHY CARE ABOUT COPYRIGHT?........................................................................................................................... 9 WHAT IS THE AIM OF COPYRIGHT?........................................................................................................................ 9 SUBSISTENCE OF COPYRIGHT......................................................................................................................... 11 ORIGINALITY................................................................................................................................................. 12 MATERIAL FORM............................................................................................................................................ 14 SUBSTANTIALITY............................................................................................................................................. 14 ORIGINALITY, MATERIAL FORM, SUBSTANTIALITY OF PART IV SUBJECT MATTER............................................................. 14 COPYRIGHT SUBJECT MATTER CATEGORIES PART III...................................................................................... 15 LITERARY WORKS........................................................................................................................................... 15 Math Questions..................................................................................................................................... 15 T-Shirt designs....................................................................................................................................... 15 News article headlines........................................................................................................................... 15 Literary works being compilation........................................................................................................... 15 Author REQUIRED for Compilations...................................................................................................................16 Compilations BY COMPUTERS............................................................................................................................16 Literary works being computer programs............................................................................................... 16 Digital Files Storing Content (.mp4 or.pdf file)...................................................................................................17 DRAMATIC WORKS......................................................................................................................................... 17 Examples of Dramatic Works................................................................................................................. 17 Marginal Dramatic Works..................................................................................................................... 18 Game Show/Reality Show...................................................................................................................... 18 Synopsis for Reality Game Show........................................................................................................................18 Fireworks..........................................................................................................................................................18 Video Games....................................................................................................................................................19 Arrangement of objects....................................................................................................................................19 MUSICAL WORKS........................................................................................................................................... 19 Song being both literary and Musical Work?.......................................................................................... 19 ARTISTIC WORKS............................................................................................................................................ 20 Visual Art.............................................................................................................................................. 20 Drawings..........................................................................................................................................................20 Paintings...........................................................................................................................................................20 Sculptures.........................................................................................................................................................21 Engravings........................................................................................................................................................22 Photographs.....................................................................................................................................................22 Architecture.......................................................................................................................................... 23 Work of artistic craftsmanship whether or not mentioned in paragraph................................................. 24 WORKS OF JOINT AUTHORSHIP.......................................................................................................................... 24 The requirement of collaboration........................................................................................................... 24 An authorial contribution...................................................................................................................... 26 Identification of authors........................................................................................................................ 27 ‘SUBJECT MATTER OTHER THAN WORKS’ CATEGORIES PART IV.................................................................... 28 SOUND RECORDINGS....................................................................................................................................... 28 CINEMATOGRAPH FILMS................................................................................................................................... 29 CINEMATOGRAPH FILMS AND SOUND RECORDINGS OVERLAP..................................................................................... 29 SOUND AND TELEVISION BROADCASTS.................................................................................................................. 30 PUBLISHED EDITIONS OF WORKS......................................................................................................................... 31 DERIVATION, SUBSTANTIAL PART AND THE PART III-PART IV DISTINCTION................................................... 32 THE ROLE OF DERIVATION................................................................................................................................. 32 Intention for Derivation?....................................................................................................................... 32 Derivation in Part III.............................................................................................................................. 32 Derivation in Part IV.............................................................................................................................. 33 Indirect Derivation................................................................................................................................. 33 Artistic Works...................................................................................................................................................33 Problem with Derivation Argument........................................................................................................ 34 THE ROLE OF SUBSTANTIAL PART........................................................................................................................ 34 Substantial Part in Part III...................................................................................................................... 35 Background Commercial Choices.......................................................................................................................35 Compilation......................................................................................................................................................35 Music...............................................................................................................................................................35 Substantial Part in Part IV...................................................................................................................... 36 INTERMINGLING OF DERIVATION AND SUBSTANTIAL PART.......................................................................................... 36 EXCLUSIVE RIGHTS......................................................................................................................................... 38 EXCLUSIVE RIGHT OF REPRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 38 Material Form....................................................................................................................................... 39 EXCLUSIVE RIGHT OF PUBLICATION..................................................................................................................... 40 EXCLUSIVE RIGHT TO PERFORM THE WORK IN PUBLIC.............................................................................................. 40 What does “to the public” mean?.......................................................................................................... 41 EXCLUSIVE RIGHT TO COMMUNICATE TO THE PUBLIC............................................................................................... 41 What does “to the public” mean?.......................................................................................................... 42 Geographical Coverage......................................................................................................................... 42 Who Exercises the Communication Right?.............................................................................................. 42 Digital platform settings....................................................................................................................................43 Joint Exercise of Exclusive Right?.......................................................................................................................44 Where should the communicator be?..................................................................................................... 44 Broadcasting......................................................................................................................................... 44 RIGHT TO ADAPTATION.................................................................................................................................... 44 RIGHT TO RENT OUT........................................................................................................................................ 45 Computer program exception................................................................................................................ 45 Grandfathering exception...................................................................................................................... 46 EXCLUSIVE RIGHTS (PART IV)......................................................................................................................... 46 SOUND RECORDINGS....................................................................................................................................... 46 To make a copy: s85(1)(a)...................................................................................................................... 46 To cause the recording to be heard in public: s85(1)(b)........................................................................... 46 To communicate the recording to the public: s85(1)(c)........................................................................... 46 To enter into a commercial rental arrangement: s 85(1)(d).................................................................... 46 CINEMATOGRAPH FILM.................................................................................................................................... 46 To copy: s86(a)...................................................................................................................................... 46 To cause the film to be seen or heard in public: s 86(b)........................................................................... 47 To communicate the film to the public: s 86(c)....................................................................................... 47 Note the absence of a rental right.......................................................................................................... 47 TELEVISION AND SOUND BROADCASTS................................................................................................................. 47 Television broadcast.............................................................................................................................. 47 Sound broadcast................................................................................................................................... 47 PUBLISHED EDITION........................................................................................................................................ 48 OWNERSHIP, PROVING TITLE IN LITIGATION AND TERM DURATION............................................................. 48 PRESUMPTIONS IN RELATION TO OWNERSHIP........................................................................................................ 48 RULE OF OWNERSHIP FOR WORKS (PART III)....................................................................................................... 49 How to determine the Author................................................................................................................ 49 Special Works Ownership – Employees.................................................................................................. 49 Contract of Service............................................................................................................................................50 In Pursuance of Terms.......................................................................................................................................50 Special Works Ownership – Employee journalist authors........................................................................ 50 Special Ownership Case – Certain privately commissioned works........................................................... 51 What is a portrait?............................................................................................................................................51 SUBJECT MATTER OTHER THAN WORKS OWNERSHIP RULES (PART IV)...................................................................... 51 Sound recordings................................................................................................................................... 52 Who is Owner...................................................................................................................................................52 Human Performer involved...............................................................................................................................52 Cinematograph films............................................................................................................................. 52 Who is Owner...................................................................................................................................................52 Broadcasts - television and sound.......................................................................................................... 53 Published editions................................................................................................................................. 53 CROWN OWNERSHIP....................................................................................................................................... 53 Who is the Crown?................................................................................................................................ 54 What is made/first published “under direction or control”?.................................................................... 54 CO-OWNERSHIP............................................................................................................................................. 54 Types of Co-ownership........................................................................................................................... 55 Co-ownership common law rules........................................................................................................... 55 TRANSFER OF OWNERSHIP RIGHTS...................................................................................................................... 56 Differential treatment of assignments................................................................................................... 56 Assignment when there is no writing..................................................................................................... 57 EXCLUSIVE LICENCES........................................................................................................................................ 58 Rights of a licensee................................................................................................................................ 58 COPYRIGHT TERMS FROM 1 JANUARY 2019.......................................................................................................... 58 Crown Copyright Term........................................................................................................................... 59 EXCEPTIONS TO INFRINGEMENT OF COPYRIGHT............................................................................................ 60 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REMUNERATED AND FREE EXCEPTIONS................................................................................ 60 REMUNERATED LICENCES.................................................................................................................................. 60 The recording of musical works and associated lyrics............................................................................. 60 Causing sound recordings to be heard in public...................................................................................... 61 The broadcast of sound recordings........................................................................................................ 61 Educational statutory licences............................................................................................................... 61 Retransmission of broadcasts................................................................................................................ 62 Government use and copying................................................................................................................. 62 Scope of s183...................................................................................................................................................63 FREE EXCEPTIONS........................................................................................................................................... 63 Implied Licence (Common Law).............................................................................................................. 63 Operation of Implied licence.............................................................................................................................64 Requirement of Necessity and Onus....................................................................................................... 64 Fair dealing (Statutory).......................................................................................................................... 65 Fair dealing for purposes of research or study...................................................................................................65 Scope of research or study...........................................................................................................................65 Operation of the exception..........................................................................................................................66 Fair dealing for purposes of criticism or review..................................................................................................66 Operation of criticism or review...................................................................................................................67 Consumptive or productive use....................................................................................................................67 Acknowledgment.........................................................................................................................................68 Fair dealing for parody or satire.........................................................................................................................68 Consumptive or productive use....................................................................................................................68 Operation of parody or satire.......................................................................................................................69 Fair dealing for reporting news..........................................................................................................................70 Operation of reporting news........................................................................................................................70 Fair dealing access by persons with a disability..................................................................................................71 Operation of access by persons with a disability...........................................................................................71 Artistic works exceptions (Part III, Division 7).....................................................................................................72 The design/copyright overlap artistic work exceptions (Part III, Division 8).........................................................73 Private use exceptions......................................................................................................................................73 Time-Shifting of Broadcast content...............................................................................................................73 Format-shifting of content stored on re-recorded media...............................................................................74 Computer program exceptions..........................................................................................................................74 Other miscellaneous statutory exceptions.........................................................................................................75 FAIR DEALING AND CONTRACT........................................................................................................................... 75 VOLUNTARY LICENSING AND INFRINGEMENT................................................................................................ 76 DIRECT INFRINGEMENT.................................................................................................................................... 76 Territoriality.......................................................................................................................................... 76 Foreign Judgments Act 1991.............................................................................................................................77 Trans-Tasman Proceedings Act 2010.................................................................................................................77 Common law....................................................................................................................................................77 LICENCE....................................................................................................................................................... 78 Voluntary Licence.................................................................................................................................. 78 Contractual Licence...........................................................................................................................................78 Bare licences and their revocation.....................................................................................................................79 Sub-licensing and reliance on licence.................................................................................................................79 Enforceability of licence against future owners..................................................................................................80 Sound recording and unlocatable co-owners.....................................................................................................80 Voluntary Licence Scheme Oversight...................................................................................................... 80 IS ‘TOLERATED USE’ WITHOUT “THE LICENCE OF THE OWNER OF THE COPYRIGHT”?............................................ 81 INFRINGEMENT BY AUTHORISING........................................................................................................................ 81 Control-based settings........................................................................................................................... 82 Statutory recognition........................................................................................................................................82 Examples of Control-based................................................................................................................................82 Approval-based settings........................................................................................................................ 83 Online service providers liability............................................................................................................. 84 Permitting place of public entertainment to be used for performance.................................................... 85 EXCEPTION FOR AUTHORISATION LIABILITY............................................................................................................ 85 Mere use of facilities exceptions – Digital Agenda Reforms 2001............................................................ 85 The Australian safe harbour regime and other specific exceptions......................................................................85 JOINT TORTFEASOR LIABILITY............................................................................................................................. 86 INDIRECT INFRINGEMENT.................................................................................................................................. 87 General Principle................................................................................................................................... 88 Restricted conduct............................................................................................................................................88 Absence of permission......................................................................................................................................88 Knowledge requirement....................................................................................................................................88 Meaning of an “article”.....................................................................................................................................89 Parallel importation exceptions............................................................................................................. 89 Before and After Statutory intervention............................................................................................................90 US Approach......................................................................................................................................... 90 TECHNICAL PROTECTION MEASURES................................................................................................................... 90 Scope of TPM........................................................................................................................................ 93 Online-Geo Blocks.............................................................................................................................................93 Spare Parts and Repair......................................................................................................................................93 Exceptions to TPMs............................................................................................................................... 93 GROUNDLESS THREATS.................................................................................................................................... 94 Threats of copyright infringement.......................................................................................................... 94 Does a lost copyright infringement case necessarily create a groundless threat action?......................................95 Threats relating to technological protection measures........................................................................... 95 PERFORMERS’ RIGHTS................................................................................................................................... 96 PART XIA..................................................................................................................................................... 96 Rights Under Part XIA............................................................................................................................ 97 Joint Performers...............................................................................................................................................97 Primary liability (No Knowledge Required).........................................................................................................97 Secondary Liability (Knowledge required)..........................................................................................................98 Term of Protection............................................................................................................................................99 Exempt Recordings.............................................................................................................................. 100 Remedies and its inalienability........................................................................................................................ 101 Right of Ownership in sound recordings for Performers........................................................................ 102 MORAL RIGHTS............................................................................................................................................ 103 WHO HAS MORAL RIGHTS.............................................................................................................................. 103 DURATION AND EXERCISE............................................................................................................................... 104 Author Moral Rights............................................................................................................................ 104 Performer’s Moral Rights..................................................................................................................... 104 Joint Authors/ Performers.................................................................................................................... 105 THE THREE MORAL RIGHTS.............................................................................................................................. 105 Positive attribution.............................................................................................................................. 105 Authorship...................................................................................................................................................... 106 Performership................................................................................................................................................. 106 Right not to have authorship / performership falsely attributed........................................................... 107 Passing off alterations as being those of an initial author or performer............................................................ 107 Integrity of authorship and performership........................................................................................... 108 Authorship...................................................................................................................................................... 108 Contextual prejudice.................................................................................................................................. 109 Artistic work exhibition.............................................................................................................................. 110 Performership................................................................................................................................................. 110 DEFENCES FOR MORALS RIGHTS....................................................................................................................... 110 Defence of Consent.............................................................................................................................. 111 Authorship...................................................................................................................................................... 111 Performership................................................................................................................................................. 111 Defence of Reasonableness................................................................................................................. 111 Right of Attribution......................................................................................................................................... 112 Right of Integrity............................................................................................................................................. 112 Artistic Works Exceptions..................................................................................................................... 113 MORAL RIGHTS INFRINGEMENT....................................................................................................................... 114 Principles of liability............................................................................................................................. 115 Derivation....................................................................................................................................................... 115 Substantial part.............................................................................................................................................. 115 Authorisation.................................................................................................................................................. 115 Dealings in articles.......................................................................................................................................... 116 MORAL RIGHTS REMEDIES.............................................................................................................................. 116 Authors............................................................................................................................................... 116 Performers.......................................................................................................................................... 117 JURISDICTIONAL ATTACHMENT................................................................................................................... 118 RECAP....................................................................................................................................................... 118 GENERAL PRINCIPLE IN THE CA........................................................................................................................ 118 JURISDICTIONAL ATTACHMENT......................................................................................................................... 118 Direct attachment of copyright matter since 1 May 1969 / Performances since 1 October 1989........... 119 Direct attachment of copyright subject matter by its “first” Australian publication........................................... 119 Direct attachment of Part III works by author being a qualified person............................................................. 120 Direct attachment of Part IV subject matter by maker or publisher being a qualified person............................. 120 Direct attachment of copyright subject matter by it being in or made in Australia............................................ 121 Direct attachment of Part XIA performances.................................................................................................... 121 Extended Jurisdictional Connection: National treatment attachment of copyright matter since 1 May 1969 / Performances since 1 October 1989.......................................................................................... 122 National treatment attachment of copyright subject matter: section 184, regulation 4..................................... 122 Attachment by country of making or first publication................................................................................. 123 Attachment by the country in which a building or fixture is situated............................................................ 123 Attachment by nationality, citizenship, residency or national law of incorporation...................................... 123 Attachment by country of broadcast and national regulatory status of broadcaster..................................... 124 Extended Jurisdictional Connection: exceptions to national treatment.................................................. 125 Limitation upon the attachment of foreign published editions: section 184, regulation 5.................................. 125 Limitation upon the attachment of public performance and broadcast use rights in sound recordings: section 184, regulations 6-7................................................................................................................................................ 125 Extended Jurisdictional Connection: national treatment for performances............................................ 126 National treatment attachment for Part XIA performances: section 248U, regulation 8.................................... 126 ECONOMIC RIGHT REMEDIES FOR COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT................................................................... 127 INTERLOCUTORY ORDERS................................................................................................................................ 127 Norwich Pharmacal orders (Ascertain identity).................................................................................... 127 Anton Piller orders............................................................................................................................... 128 Interlocutory injunctions...................................................................................................................... 129 Off-shore Blocking Injunctions (s115A)................................................................................................. 130 Costs???......................................................................................................................................................... 131 FINAL TRIAL REMEDIES: INFRINGEMENT OF PARTS III AND IV RIGHTS AND BREACH OF PART V DIVISION 2A......................... 131 Injunctions.......................................................................................................................................... 131 Discretionary denial of injunctive relief....................................................................................................... 132 Compensation to rectify ongoing future infringement in lieu of injunction.................................................. 133 Delivery-up for destruction........................................................................................................................ 133 Account of Profits................................................................................................................................ 133 Calculation of Account of Profits...................................................................................................................... 134 Ordinary Damages.............................................................................................................................. 134 Compensation to rectify past infringement under the user principle................................................................ 134 Compensation for the consequences of past infringement by proof of actual loss............................................ 135 Mutual exclusivity and comparison.................................................................................................................. 136 Additional damages............................................................................................................................ 137 Flagrancy of infringement (better have)........................................................................................................... 138 Remedies in conversion or detention.................................................................................................... 139 14.6.6 Damages for conversion or detention............................................................................................... 139 Not aware infringers........................................................................................................................... 142 THE REGISTERED DESIGN REGIME................................................................................................................ 143 CONFIDENTIAL INFORMATION.......................................................................................................................... 143 SITUATING DESIGNS...................................................................................................................................... 143 CONCEPT OF A ‘DESIGN’................................................................................................................................. 143 Visual Features.................................................................................................................................... 143 Who determines what is a visual feature?....................................................................................................... 144 Non-physical or virtual designs........................................................................................................................ 144 Product............................................................................................................................................... 145 Component parts............................................................................................................................................ 145 Products with indefinite dimensions................................................................................................................ 146 Kits................................................................................................................................................................. 146 Overall appearance of the product....................................................................................................... 146 FUNCTIONALITY............................................................................................................................................ 146 Shapes hidden from view................................................................................................................................ 146 PROTECTION TERM....................................................................................................................................... 147 EXCLUSIONS FROM THE REGIME........................................................................................................................ 147 The classes prescribed..................................................................................................................................... 148 WHO CAN APPLY TO REGISTER A DESIGN?.......................................................................................................... 148 The “designer”.................................................................................................................................... 149 Employees and contractors.................................................................................................................. 149 Successors in title................................................................................................................................ 150 Persons entitled to an assignment of the design................................................................................... 150 Legal personal representatives of deceased persons............................................................................ 150 Bar on registration.............................................................................................................................. 150 More than one owner of an unregistered design.................................................................................. 150 More than one owner In general.......................................................................................................... 151 HOW TO REGISTER A DESIGN?......................................................................................................................... 151 Prior Art base...................................................................................................................................... 151 Grace Period Exceptions.................................................................................................................................. 152 Previous Use Exceptions.................................................................................................................................. 152 Priority Date........................................................................................................................................ 153 New and Distinctive............................................................................................................................. 153 Example of New and Distinctive...................................................................................................................... 160 EXCLUSIVE RIGHTS AND INFRINGEMENT.............................................................................................................. 162 Hollow Right........................................................................................................................................ 162 Rights against Infringement................................................................................................................. 162 Infringement Application..................................................................................................................... 162 COUNTERCLAIM AS A DEFENCE......................................................................................................................... 164 THE ‘SPARE PARTS’ DEFENCE............................................................................................................................ 164 GRACE PERIOD TRIGGERED DEFENCE................................................................................................................. 165 REMEDIES AND GROUNDLESS THREATS............................................................................................................... 165 DESIGN & COPYRIGHT OVERLAP.................................................................................................................. 166 WORKS OF ARTISTIC CRAFTSMANSHIP................................................................................................................ 166 COPYRIGHT/DESIGN OVERLAP REGIME: COPYRIGHT ACT........................................................................................ 168 Corresponding design.......................................................................................................................... 168 Exception when there is Registration: s75 CA....................................................................................... 170 Exception when there is no Registration: s77 CA.................................................................................. 170 What is “industrial application”....................................................................................................................... 171 Section 77A defence to application of s77............................................................................................ 171 The grey zone between flat and shape design...................................................................................... 172 2D Design/Copyright Overlap.............................................................................................................. 172 OLD LAW REJECTED...................................................................................................................................... 173 Functional shape theory and its rejection............................................................................................. 173 Plan-to-Plan Issue................................................................................................................................ 173 11.3 COPYRIGHT/DESIGN OVERLAP REGIME: DESIGNS ACT.................................................................................... 174 [21.55] Earlier use or publication of design as an artistic work – s 18.................................................... 174 [21.56] Requirements for s 18 to apply................................................................................................. 175 [21.57] Some problems and/or unexpected consequences of the application of s 18............................. 177 General Framework for Answering Questions Direct Infringement Questions 1. Whether there is a work? a. What is the work? b. Does copyright subsist? 2. Who is the owner? 3. Whether a person has license? 4. Identify the applicable rights for each work. 5. The defendant must have exercised one of the rights. 6. There must be a causal connection between the plaintiff’s and the defendant’s work. 7. There must be sufficient “objective similarity” between the two works (in terms of their expression, not any underlying ideas). 8. The alleged infringement must have been done to the whole or a substantial part of the work. 9. Any defences? 10. Any Remedies? S75 Questions: If the ‘corresponding design’ is registered under the Designs Act 1. Does copyright subsist in an artistic work? 2. Is there a ‘corresponding design’ in relation to the artistic work? 3. Has the ‘corresponding design’ been registered under the Designs Act 1906 or the Designs Act 2003? 4. If Yes to 3, it is not an infringement of copyright in the artistic work to reproduce the work by embodying the corresponding design in a product. 5. If No to 3, copyright/designs overlap dealt with under s77. S77 Questions: If the ‘corresponding design’ is not registrable or not registered under the Designs Act 1. Is the artistic work a building, a model of a building, or a work of artistic craftsmanship? a. If YES, then work has full copyright protection. b. If NO, continue reading. 2. Is there a ‘corresponding design’ that has been ‘applied industrially’ by or with the licence of copyright owner; and have products made to corresponding design been sold, etc? a. If NO, the work has full copyright protection. b. If YES, no infringement of copyright to embody corresponding design in a product S77A Questions? 1. 1. Does copyright subsist in an artistic work? 2. Is there a ‘corresponding design’ in relation to the artistic work? 3. If it is not an infringement of copyright in work to make product because: 1. corresponding design is registered (ie s75 applies); or 2. corresponding design applied industrially & products made to corresponding design sold, etc (ie s77 applies); then 4. Reproduction derived from 3-dimensional product in course of making product or selling, etc the product, is not an infringement of copyright. 5. Making a cast or mould for purpose of making products is not an infringement. INTRODUCTION What is Copyright? Copyright is a form of intellectual property concerned with the protection of creative and intellectual expression. The author’s personal creativity ought to be respected. Hence, Copyright owners have certain exclusive rights over their works or other subject matter, and if someone other than owner exercises one of these exclusive rights, it’s a prima facie copyright infringement. Copyright even purports to protects certain moral rights. Copyright is intended to protect “works” and “subject matter other than works” for a fixed period of time (lifetime of author + 70 years). Copyright does not intended to protect:  the visual appearance of manufactured goods (that’s the province of designs law)  inventions (that’s the province of patent law) o Unlike Patent law, Copyright only protects against derivation – it does not protect against independent creation  signs and indicators used by brands and other entities (that’s the province of trademark law)  secrets (that’s the province of the equitable doctrine of confidential information). There is a distinction between copyright and property in the object in which the work is embodied. However, Copyright does not protect facts or ideas, it only protections expression of those facts or ideas (‘the fact/expression or idea/expression dichotomy’) (See IceTv). Copyright protection is automatic. There are no formalities as a condition of protection. A single object can embody multiple copyright works or other subject matter Why care about Copyright? The concern is that “creative industries” will not flourish if they cannot protect their products from “free riding” (i.e. markets will fail to produce what we want). On the other hand, there are also concerns that producers of copyright material will restrict the general public’s access to the products at reasonable prices or for further uses (i.e. we have given them market power and must suffer the consequences). What is the aim of copyright? Copyright legislations strikes a balance of competing interests and competing policy considerations. It is concerned with rewarding authors of original literary works with commercial benefits having regard to the fact that literary works in turn benefit the reading public SUBSISTENCE OF COPYRIGHT Part III Subject Matter (‘Works’) Part IV Subject Matter (‘Subject matter other than works’) Literary, Artistic Sound Cin. films Broadcasts Published Dramatic, Recordings Editions Musical to reproduce the to reproduce to make a to make a to make a to make a work in a the work in a copy of the copy of the cinematograph film facsimile material form material form sound film (s. of a television copy of the (s. 31(1)(a)(i)) (s. 31(1)(b)(i)) recording (s. 86(a)) broadcast, or a copy edition (s. 88) 85(a)) of such a film (s. 87(a)), or to make a sound recording of a television broadcast or radio broadcast, or make a copy of such a sound recording (s. 87(b)) to publish the to publish the work (s. work (s. 31(1)(a)(ii)) 31(1)(b)(ii)) to perform the to cause theto cause the work in public recording tofilm, in so far (s. 31(1)(a)(iii)) be heard in as it consists public (s. of visual 85(b)) images, to be Rights seen in public or, in so far as it consists of sounds, to be heard in public (s. 86(b)) to communicate to to to to re-broadcast or the work to the communicate communicate communicate communicate to the public (s. the work to the the recording the film to public a television 31(1)(a)(iv)) public (s. to the public the public (s. or sound broadcast 31(1)(b)(iii)) (s. 85(c)) 86(c)) (s. 87(c)) to make an adaptation of the work (s. 31(1)(a)(vi)) to do in relation to an adaptation of the work any of the specified acts (s. 31(1)(a)(vii)) to enter into a to enter into a commercial commercial rental rental arrangement in arrangement respect of the in respect of work the recording reproduced in a (s. 85(d)) sound recording (s. 31(1)(c)), or in the case of a computer program, to enter into a commercial rental arrangement in respect of the program (s. 31(1)(d)) Under s 32 of the Copyright Act, copyright subsists in original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works, published and unpublished, provided the author was a qualified person at the time the work was made or published. Copyright subsists from the time a work is made, that is, reduced to writing or some other material form (s 22) for a period defined by sections 33- 34. There are three requirements for Copyright to Subsist 1. Originality 2. Material form 3. Substantiality Originality “Original” is short-hand for “that which originates from the mind of a human author”. Originality has the following characteristics: 1. First, is that the relevant author of a work is the natural person whose intellect was responsible for the expression of the work. 2. The breadth and flexibility of originality as a copyright concept. Each of the "selfie" taken in a moment by you on your smart device and J K Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone is an original work. a. However, the complexity and depth of the two originalities are of a vastly different nature. Your originality is in one instance essentially documenting factual matter. Rowling's originality is the far more involved undertaking of confecting an imaginary world. Both originalities will equally sustain each as an original work for (under the current Australian law) the life of each author and then 70 years. Although when consideration is given as to what will be needed to be taken from each work for it to be a substantial part, the thinness of your originality and a thickness of Rowling's will have a bearing. b. In short, an exact or near exact taking of the whole of your selfie may well be required for it to comprise a substantial part of your originality, whereas merely taking a scene, certain plot elements or a character from Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone might be argued successfully to comprise a substantial part of Rowling's originality. 3. Originality is tied to the particular expression of the work, rather than in background work, or the generating of ideas or the find out of facts. a. Let’s say Photographer A discovers an obscure, yet public, location that gives her access to a spectacular natural scene at desk in summertime and she photographs that scene. The photograph is an original artistic work. However, the originality is in the artistry and skill of the undertaking the photograph in its particular form of expression. None of the effort in finding the location, or the idea of photographing the scene from the location at that time, or indeed the fact of the existence of that location or scene can be regarded as obvious aspects of photographer A’s original authorial expression. Copyright law precludes no other photographer from visiting the same location at dusk in summertime and using the same scene as their subject. b. Photographer B, however, confects the following still life scene that he photographs: three large rusty nails speared into a granny smith apple, positioned against a background covered in royal blue velvet and the scene artificially lit in a yellow tone. Here copyright law regards photographer B’s originality as having a different qualitative nature to that of photographer A. It is possible to characterise another photographer who upon seeing B's photograph recreates a very similar scene and photographs it, to be reproducing a substantial part of photographer B’s originality. 4. While the finding out of factual matter is not relevant original expression per se, putting a compilation of facts into a particular form will amount to originality. 5. Identifying the person or people who contributed the relevant originality has emerged as a critical task in copyright infringement litigation. 6. When the matters put forward as a literary work are computer-generated, they are non- authorial and therefore lacks originality. 7. The original expression protect in copyright is classically a matter of aesthetics. While the modern reach of copy right in protecting the value of the originality in things such as industrious compilations, technical drawings and computer programs precludes being too absolutist about copyright being aesthetics-exclusive, that aesthetics is at the heart of the copyright interest remains its most important confining attribute. Following University of London Press, the originality requirement does not mandate for the expression to be fresh or new. It only requires for the expression to be not copied from another work and originates from an author. Following IceTV v Nine Network 2009, for a compilation to be a work, there must be a human author, non-original subject matter compilation expressions that have been produced by computers are not considered works. This was affirmed by Telstra v Phone Directories 2010, where the Full Federal court distinguished Telstra v Phone Directories 2010 from earlier compilation cases, reasoning that the previous cases did not involve automated compilation. Following IceTV v Nine Network 2009, in relation to compilations, preparatory work are not considered to be relevant to the compilation’s originality because those work are not directed to the particular form of expression of the compilation. Material Form Following s22(1) CA, a work’s existence commenced when it is first reduced to writing or to some other material form. Following s10(1), “writing” means a mode of representing or reproducing words, figures or symbols in a visible form. Following s10(1), “material form” in relation to a work includes any form (whether visible or not) of storage of the work or a substantial part of the work (whether or not the work or a substantial part of the work can be reproduced). Following s22(2), a literary, dramatic or musical work that exists in the form of sounds embodied in an article or thing shall be deemed to have been reduced to a material form and to have been so reduced at the time when those sounds were embodied in that article or thing. Substantiality The substantiality requirement is non-statutory. However, it seems that the mainstream position is that (and aside from definitional matters within each category of work) there does exist a threshold requirement of substantiality that applies to both originality expended, complexity of expression or both The question is to what extent must the thing posited as a work be substantial in either 1. the complexity of its expression; or 2. the quantum of originality that has been expended? In Fairfax v Reed 2010, it was held that headline writings cannot be described as “works” both qualitatively and quantitatively. Originality, Material Form, Substantiality of Part IV Subject Matter Originality: - No originality requirement for other subject matter Material Form: - Definitions of ‘sound recording’, ‘cinematograph film’ require embodiment - Inherent in the nature of a ‘published edition’ - No material form required for a ‘broadcast’ Substantiality: - Dealt with by category definition in TCN 9 v Network 10 2004 COPYRIGHT SUBJECT MATTER CATEGORIES PART III There are four categories of works under Part III CA: 1. Literary 2. Dramatic 3. Musical 4. Artistic Literary Works Following s10(1) CA, “literary work” includes - a) a table, or compilation, expressed in words, figures or symbols; and b) a computer program or compilation of computer programs The definition in s10(1) is not exhaustive. Instead, the definition expands on the apparent meaning of literary works such as books and journals. University of London Press clarified that literary can mean any written matter. Math Questions Following University of London Press, literary can mean any written matter. Hence a compilation of math examination questions could be considered original literary works. T-Shirt designs In Elwood v Cotton On 2008, the disputed work was the design of a shirt. The FCAFC upheld the trial judge’s holding that the design on the shirt did not convey a “semiotic” meaning and any meaning conveyed by the numerals and text is so obscure, subjective to the reader. Hence, the design is not a literary work. News article headlines In Fairfax v Reed 2010, Bennett J held that the headline writing does not qualitatively or quantitatively justify description as a ‘work’. That said, it was not disputed that each article was a literary work and the whole of any edition of the AFR (‘including the articles, their headlines and other material such as photographs, market tables and advertisements’) was a literary work compilation. Literary works being compilation Following s10(1) CA, literary work includes “a table, or compilation, expressed in words, figures or symbols”. Because of the influence of the 1900 House of Lords decision in Walter v Lane, until 2009, Australian copyright law had provided compilation protection quite beyond both the Bernes and TRIPS minimum standards. However, in the wake of the 2009 High Court decision in IceTV v Nine Network, the status of Walter v Lane in modern Australian copyright law is contestable. The HC in IceTV v Nine Network 2009 held that the originality of compilations lay in the selection and presentation of that information together with additional programme information and synopses, to produce a composite whole, and NOT just selected information. Following IceTV v Nine Network 2009, industry, investment, effort, skill or labour without more are unlikely to readily qualify as originality to support literary work subsistence in a compilation. What is likely to be recognised as originality is the intellectual work of evaluative selection or aesthetic arrangement (or both) of a human author when that work is proximate to the particular expression of the compilation. In Tonnex v Dynamic 2012, there was sufficient originality in a compatibility chart despite it being just a curation of other information from a broader database. This is because the information selected was informed by the author’s personal assessment of what might be valuable, and the author arranged the chart is a way that is helpful as a searchable online resource. Following IceTV v Nine Network 2009, in relation to compilations, preparatory work is not considered to be relevant to the compilation’s originality because those work are not directed to the particular form of expression of the compilation. Bennett J in Fairfax v Reed 2010 held that article compilation was a literary work comprising the page-by-page selection and arrangement of the articles. Author REQUIRED for Compilations In Tonnex v Dynamic 2012, the court reiterated that for a matter to be considered a compilation, there must be an author. Unlike in IceTV v Nine Network 2009, the author of a compatibility chart can be clearly identified to be one of Dynamic’s employee. Compilations BY COMPUTERS In general, computer-generated products are not considered works in Part III of the CA, but they may constitute work in Part IV of the CA. Following IceTV v Nine Network 2009, for a compilation to be a work, there must be a human author, non-original subject matter compilation expressions that have been produced by computers are not considered works. This was affirmed by Telstra v Phone Directories 2010, where the Full Federal court distinguished Telstra v Phone Directories 2010 from earlier compilation cases, reasoning that the previous cases did not involve automated compilation. However, this case can be interpreted narrowly such that only phone directories that are generated by computers does not qualify as original literary works Literary works being computer programs Following s10(1) of the CA, “computer program” means a set of statements or instructions to be used directly or indirectly in a computer to bring about a certain result. Following Data Access v Powerflex 1999, in relation to computer programs, it is the code where the copyright subsists. To be considered a “computer program” within the definition of s10(1) CA, the work must intend to express, either directly or indirectly, an algorithmic or logical relationship between the function desired to be performed and the physical capabilities of the “device having digital information processing capabilities”. In Data Access v Powerflex 1999, the HC considered whether copyright subsisted as a literary work in the lexicon of a high-level programming language. The HC held that the meaning and syntax of the words per se are not relevant copyright expression. Powerflex wanted to use the same commands that Data Access was using, however, instead of copying everything, Powerflex only copied the name of the command and did the codes themselves. Following Dais Studio v Bullet Creative 2007, programs that needs to inter-operate with other things to bring about a result are also considered computer programs under the definition of s10(1). In Dais Studio v Bullet Creative 2007, what was purported and accepted as work is the HR Advantage iteration of the CMS. The issue was whether the sub-programs within the HR Advantage iteration of the CMS (the ‘table file’ and the ‘editor file’) are computer programs (works) as defined in s10 of the CA. The judge used the laundry powder example, the fact that laundry powder needs water to have its effect, does not remove its effect of washing clothes. Digital Files Storing Content (.mp4 or.pdf file) In Australian Video Retailers Association v Warner Home Video, Emmett J held that digital files storing content are not in and of themselves a computer program. This is because the copyright protection of computer programs is not designed to extend to the content that a computer program is capable of causing to be reproduced. In addition, following IceTV v Nine Network and Telstra v Phone Directories, files that are produced entirely by machine-based processes probably lack sufficient originality to be a work. Dramatic Works Following s10(1) of the CA, “dramatic work” includes: a) a choreographic show or other dumb show; and b) a scenario or script for a cinematograph film, but does not include a cinematograph film as distinct from the scenario or script for a cinematograph film Similar to the literary work definition, this definition merely expands on the apparent definitions of dramatic works included (such as a play script). Examples of Dramatic Works In Zeccola v Universal, the court ordered for Zeccola’s “Great White” to not be screen. Universal’s cause of action was not based on Part IV cinematograph film copyright but on underlying Part III works copyright: the Jaws novel (literary work) and the screenplay (dramatic work) adapted from it. Although “Great White” did not take any actual lines or scenes from “Jaws”, it was held that the portrayal of characters and arrangement of plot elements were similar. Marginal Dramatic Works The originality relevant to the copyright in works is the expressive form of the work, and not the underlying idea for a work of that type. It is this issue that has been brought front of mind for the dramatic work copyright argued to subsist in television program formats. Game Show/Reality Show The Privy Council upheld a New Zealand Court of Appeal decision in Green v Broadonsting Corporation of New Zealand. There, it was held that the structural format of a largely unscripted television talent program was outside the scope of what might be regarded as a dramatic work. The reasoning provided was that the subject matter of the copyright claimed for the 'dramatic format’ of Opportunity Knocks is lacking in certainty. Moreover, a dramatic work must have sufficient unity to be capable of performance and that the features claimed as constituting “format” of a television show, being unrelated to each other except as accessories to be used in the presentation of some other dramatic or musical performance, lack that essential characteristic. Nine Films and Television v Ninox Television involved two reality renovation game programs. The alleged infringer brought a successful groundless threat action which did not involve any suggestion that the threat-maker's program format failed the Green v BCNZ criteria. Seven Network (Operations) v Endemo Australia involved two reality cooking game programs. The alleged infringer accepted the possibility of dramatic work subsistence in a show format generally but did not admit such subsistence in the case of the plaintiff's particular cooking show because “it was an unimaginative collection of unoriginal ideas and situations found in earlier reality television programs". The trial judge held that the plaintiff had a reasonably arguable case but not a strong prima facie case. The principle was that when the show format being sought protection for is a competitive television game show, in which the format substantively comprises the rules governing the game, the general limitation upon copyright protection should apply. Only the particular expression of the game rules can be the work, and not the broad idea for or parameters of the game. Synopsis for Reality Game Show In the case of Banner Universal v Endemol 2017, the decision in Green v BCNZ was applied. The court held that the written synopsis for a proposed television game show program, Minute Winner, was also not a dramatic work. The contents were unclear and lacking in specifics, and even taken together they did not identify or prescribe anything resembling a coherent framework or structure which could be relied upon to reproduce a distinctive game show in recognisable form. One example (of four) described in the synopsis was:  IN A CLOTHES SHOP. The host stops a customer at random inside the shop and gives her/him one minute to choose a set of clothes, go to the dressing room and try them on. If the clothes fit and the person has put them all on in one minute, she/he wins the clothes. Fireworks In Nine Network v ABC 1999, fireworks display as dramatic work subject matter was regarded with scepticism by Hill J. However, Hill J’s resistance to the proposition was not given a cogent basis and he conceded that his scepticism does not mean copyright might not exist but it may be that no one has thought deeply about the issue. - A subsequent journal article published in 2011 evidences some such deep thought, and reproduces a "fireworks script" which denotes when each pyrotechnic is set off and coinciding with a particular musical work. - In view of that scholarship, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that a fireworks display can properly fall within the dramatic work category, subject to matters such as originality being satisfied. Video Games In Aristocrat Leisure v Pacific Gaming, the judge considered that the specifications underpinning the games loaded on its electronic gambling machines comprised dramatic works. Tamberlin J rejected the plaintiff's submission, finding that the video racing games did not fall under the definition of dramatic work in s10(1) CA. The simple video game lacked the element of performance by characters. There is no apparent plot, nor is there any choreography, script, characterisation or interaction between characters and there is a strong element of unpredictability and randomness. Arrangement of objects In Creation Records v News Group 1997, the court held that the arrangement of static objects in and around a swimming pool could not comprise a dramatic work because the scene is static and have no movement, story or action. This implies that Dramatic and Musical works inherent suitability for some type of public performance. Musical Works Unlike literary and dramatic works, there is no definition of Musical Works in the CA. However, it is assumed that the nature of a musical work is similar to that of a dramatic work in that they are both intended to be performed for audiences rather than be read. In Sawkins v Hyperion Recordsbi, Mummery LJ held that the essence of music is combining sounds for listening but music is mere noise. It can be inferred that a musical work is the product of the mind of a human author which is intended to be performed by the production of a combination of sounds to be appreciated by the ear for reasons other than linguistic content, the originality of the work resulting from the exercise of substantial independent skill, judgment or creative labour expended on its creation as opposed to its mere interpretation. Emmett J in EMI v Larikin 2011 held that while a musical work could be evidenced by a noted musical score or a sound recording, neither of them are the work itself. Song being both literary and Musical Work? Boomerang Investments v Padgett 2020 accepted that while the lyrics and compositions of a song are distinct works, lyrics should be “viewed as instructions to the singer on what sounds to make with the mouth” and that the words of a song is a part of a musical work. As such the phonetics of the lyric “love is in the air” was characterised as comprising part of the plaintiffs' musical work. In Universal v Palmer 2021, Artistic Works Following s10(1) of the CA, “artistic work” means: a) a painting, sculpture, drawing, engraving or photograph, whether the work is of artistic quality or not; b) a building or a model of a building, whether the building or model is of artistic quality or not; or c) a work of artistic craftsmanship whether or not mentioned in paragraph (a) or (b): CA s10(1) Unlike the definition of literary and dramatic works, the definition of “artistic works” is exhaustive. Each of the words that are underlined has their own definition under s10(1) of the CA. It should be noted that works under categories (a) and (b) does not need artistic quality, unlike a work under category (c). Visual Art Drawings Designs on Shirts In Elwood v Cotton On 2008, the disputed work was the design of a shirt. The FCAFC upheld the trial judge’s holding that the design on the shirt is not a literary work despite the existence of words and numbers, the design was instead held to be an artistic work. The court reasoned that artistic quality consists of the layout, balancing, form, font, positioning, shaping and interrelationship of the various elements. In Elwood v Cotton On, the meaning conveyed by the numerals and text is so obscure and subjective to the reader and subservient to the artistic aspect that they do not amount to a literary work. Logos? In AGL v Greenpeace 2021, the copyright work in issue is the AGL logo. Greenpeace did not contest that the logo does not amount to an “artistic work” on the grounds of the principle of de minimus work. The AGL logo is a simple artistic work comprising three letters of the corporate name in a simple font, accompanied by five radiating blue lines, shaded from lighter blue in the centre near the letters “AGL” to darker blue on the periphery. Hence, because of this case, it is risky to dismiss visual arts on the grounds on de minimus. Paintings Painting on Faces (generally NOT artistic works) Following Merchandising Corporation of America v Harpond 1983, for a work to be a “painting” under the definition of s10(1) of the CA, that work needs to be on an inanimate surface. The court also considered two painted straight lines to be too trivial to attract copyright. Calligraphy (or anything like) is probably painting In Australian Chinese Newspapers v Melbourne Chinese Press, Conti J held that the use of calligraphy to produce Chinese character pictograms resulted in a painting because the use of the Chinese brush pen on traditional Chinese rice paper was sufficient to be a painting. The judge relied on a textbook definition of painting as “a roughly two-dimensional work of expressive form on a surface”. Sculptures Applicability of UK Law and Current Australian Law In the English case of Lucusfilm v Ainsworth 2008, the court held that the helmet is not a sculpture. The relevant issue in the case was whether copyright subsisted in a full-face plastic helmet, used as a costume prop by characters called stormtroopers in Star Wars. The plaintiff claimed to own the UK artistic work copyright as a work of sculpture. It was clear that the helmet was created from a process involving; drawings, the production in clay of a model helmet head based on the drawings, and the production of the plastic helmet prop by vacuum moulding. - Mann J held that - it is of the essence of a sculpture that it should have a visual appeal in the sense that it might be enjoyed for that purpose alone, whether or not it might have another purpose as well. The purpose is that of the creator. This reflects the reference to “artist's hand” in the judgment of Laddie J in Metix, An artist (in the realm of the visual arts) creates something because it has visual appeal which he wishes to be enjoyed as such. He may fail, but that does not matter (no judgments are to be made about artistic merit). It is the underlying purpose that is important. - The fact that the object has some other use does not necessarily disqualify it from being a sculpture, but it still has to have the intrinsic quality of being intended to be enjoyed as a visual thing. Thus the model soldier in Britain might be played with, but it still, apparently, had strong purely Visual appeal which might be enjoyed as such. Similarly, the Critters in Wildash had other functions, but they still had strong purely visual appeal. Lucusfilm v Ainsworth explains why a Frisbee should be excluded from the category, along with the moulds in Metix and Davis. It would also exclude the wooden model in Wham-O and the plaster casts in Breville. Those decisions, in Mann J’s view, would not accord with the ordinary view of what a sculpture is, as there is no intention that the object itself should have visual appeal for its own sake, and every intention that it be purely functional. While this is cogent, the trial judge's conclusion, supported unanimously on appeal, that no artistic work copyright subsisted in the helmet as a work of sculpture is anomalous. - PROF: this case is likely not applicable in Australia. - The work of artistic craftsmanship in Australia plays a very important role - In the English regime, sculpture is the one that performs the overlapping role, hence don’t put so much thought into this case. Therefore, while the approach to what is a work sculpture arrived at by Mann J’s synthesis of the authorities is persuasive, its application to render the stormtrooper helmet to be not a work of sculpture seems impermissible under that very approach. However, policy considerations tied to the UK copyright/ design overlap exception, with a desire to confine full copyright protection to the finer arts, might be seen as controlling the outcome. - In AUSTRALIA, it is likely that all sorts of 3 dimensional original work can probably be counted as sculpture within the definition in the CA. The Metix definition of “a sculpture is a three-dimensional work made by an artist's hand” emerges as mainstream law, accepted thus far in Australia in Wildash. Implicit in it is that the aesthetical aspirations of the maker are the paramount consideration. Thus, Mann J at trial in Lucasfilm provided the following illustration: "(a) pile of bricks, temporarily on display at the Tate Modern for 2 weeks, is plainly capable of being a sculpture" whereas the "identical pile of bricks dumped at the end of my driveway for 2 weeks preparatory to a building project is equally plainly not”. - The challenge in this definitional approach to sculpture is to reconcile it with statutory language that makes clear that copyright subsists in works of sculpture “whether the work is of artistic quality or not”. - Taken to its logical end, this statutory language must admit into sculpture three- dimensional matter that is analogous to engineering drawings - such as the wooden model in Wham-O or the plaster shapes in Breville Europe. If such matter were admitted as works of sculpture in Australian law, such sculptural works are unlikely to avoid the operation of the copyright/design overlap exception. - However, Mann J's observation in Lucasfilm might provide a useful pathway between a judicial gloss that places authorial aesthetic aspiration as the essence of Sculpture, and statutory language not requiring any artistic quality. An artist’s hand is required, but if it fails to produce a visually appealing artefact, “that does not matter”. Engravings Photographs The outer boundaries of how thin the originality may be to sustain photographic work copyright under Australian law has not been tested. Clearly any digital still image consciously taken by a human author using an analogue or digital device should prima facie comprise an original photographic work - even a "selfie” taken in a second. Photocopy (not a photograph under s10(1) definition of photograph) The definition includes “a product of xerography”. The definition seems to include a mere photocopy, but whether that was truly intended is obscure and even if so, the inclusion of a mundane photocopy as a photographic artistic work would find little policy justification. As observed by an English textbook: - Originality presupposes the exercise of substantial independence, skill, labour, judgment and so forth. For this reason it is submitted that a person who makes a photograph merely by placing a drawing or painting on the glass of a photocopying machine and pressing the button gets no copyright at all. Screenshots? (not a photograph under s10(1) definition of photograph) It is likely that copyright will not subsist in certain photographs because the originality responsible for their existence is de minims. This proposition finds some support in Australian authorities - albeit none directly on photography. Images made by use of scanners or captures from the screens of smartphones might be regarded the same way. In the US decision of Bridgeman Art Library v Correll Corporation, the court went so far as to find that the Privy Council’s decision in Interlego v Tyco Industries meant that under the 1988 UK Act there was no originality in a purely representational photograph of a two- dimensional object such as a photograph or a painting. Bridgeman Art Library v Correll Corporation needs to be regarded with considerable caution in Australia for several reasons. First, the Privy Council decision in Interlego v Tyco Industries does not represent the Australian law on originality in artistic works. - Second, the Full Federal Court in its counterpart Interlego decision made amply clear that technical skill alone - absent any artistic quality - ought to sustain the originality of an artistic work such as a photograph. - Third, in Antiquesportfolio v Rodney Fitch & Co, Neuberger J was doubtful over that US court’s application of modern UK law. Neuberger J held that if the photographer could show that he had in fact used some degree of skill and care in taking the photograph, he could claim originality in that photograph. In any event, Neuberger J found originality in the catalogue photographs of three-dimensional objects, in this case, antiques. The following were choices made to exhibit particular qualities including colours, features and details, and were identified as counting towards that originality: - positioning of the object; - angle at which the photograph is taken; and - lighting and the focus. Architecture Nothing much here. Note that in the cases of Barrett Property Group v Metricon Homes 2007-2008, Barrett Property Group v Carlisle Homes 2008-2009, and Barrett Property Group v Dennis Family Homes 2011, the buildings themselves are not the works in question, instead, the blueprint of those building are. The blueprint are categorised under (a) of definition of artistic works. Work of artistic craftsmanship whether or not mentioned in paragraph SEE TOPIC ON OVERLAP BETWEEN WOAC and DESIGNS Works of Joint Authorship Following s10(1) CA, “work of joint authorship” means a work that has been produced by the collaboration of two or more authors and in which the contribution of each author is not separate from the contribution of the other author or the contributions of the other authors. Following Career Step v Talentmed, the issue of joint authorship affects the very identification of the work in issue. In that case, the plaintiff claimed the literary work was a set of course materials for which a large plurality of diverse experts were responsible as joint authors; the defendants argued that each module within the set was its own work, with its sole author or a smaller more focused team of authors. In finding for the plaintiff the trial judge held that the work in suit is a single work notwithstanding that one writer or author did not contribute to every module of that work and in most instances there was not a single writer for each module. The requirement of collaboration The court in Levy v Rutley recognised the possibility that if a work is written by two people “in prosecution of a preconcerted joint design” the two might be said to be co-authors of the whole, notwithstanding that different portions were respectively the sole productions of either. Beckingham v Hodgens supported by the UK Court of Appeal, restated Levy v Rutley as requiring that for someone to be a joint author the “parties must have a common design to produce the work” and they must “reach the threshold of a significant and original contribution in furtherance of that common design”. However, both the trial judge and the Court of Appeal rejected that a work of joint authorship required that the parties intended to be joint authors. In Beckingham v Hodgens the plaintiff's contribution of four bars, repeated three times, to the musical work of a popular song was sufficient in the circumstances to confer upon him the status of joint author. The earlier UK trial decision of Park J in Hadley v Kemp involved members of the 1980s Pop group Spandau Ballet. I

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