Foundations of Christian Ethics PDF

# FOUNDATIONS OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS George Thomas The discipline of Christian Ethics has drawn its materials from two general sources: Greek philosophy and Hebrew-Christian faith as recorded in the Bible. Out of those two sources there developed a third one, Christian theology. These three: philosoph...

# FOUNDATIONS OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS George Thomas The discipline of Christian Ethics has drawn its materials from two general sources: Greek philosophy and Hebrew-Christian faith as recorded in the Bible. Out of those two sources there developed a third one, Christian theology. These three: philosophy, Bible and theology serve as the three-fold foundations of the discipline of Christian Ethics as it is taught and practiced today. In this unit of study, therefore, we shall examine these three sources to find out for ourselves how much each has contributed to the discipline. Since we are mainly concerned with the ethical dimensions of these sources we shall use the following sub-headings: Philosophical Ethics, Biblical Ethics and Theological Ethics. ## A. PHILOSOPHICAL ETHICS The origin and development of philosophical ethics may and can be attributed to the Greek thinkers such as Plato, Aristotle, Epictetus, Zeno and Epicurus. They influenced subsequent philosophers both pagan and Christians. For our purpose then we shall study the following philosophical positions and draw out their ethics: Platonism, Aristotelianism, Stoicism, Hedonism, Utilitarianism, Kantianism, Existentialism, and Social Adjustment Ethics. Philosophical ethics is based upon very high regard for man's rational capacity.According to the Greek thinkers man is composed of three-fold elements: reason (rational soul), emotions (spirited soul) and animal passions (appetitive souls). Although these three "souls" are often at odds with one another the rational soul usually prevails. In short, man's life is governed by reason. Moreover, the philosophical ethics is teleological. It is directed toward the achievement of a telos, that is, end or purpose. What is the chief end, or highest purpose, or summum bonum of man? The chief end of man is happiness (eudaimonia), or well-being, or pleasure. This is to be achieved by developing and employing certain virtues such as wisdom, moderation, courage, and justice. Thus, for the Greeks the moral life was a life of virtue. The basic question for them was, "How shall I live to achieve happiness, on well-being or pleasure? Let us now turn to some selected philosophers for their answers. ### 1. Platonism (Plato) For Plato, the well-being or happiness of man lies in the attainment of a well-ordered and harmonious life. By the use of wisdom man may and can control his emotions and appetites which tend to create conflict within. Wisdom is the highest virtue for Plato. Wisdom is the quality or condition of all virtues and the crown of moral life. Thus Plato emphasizes the quest for this virtue which enables man to harmonize his conflicting "souls" within himself. He also gives importance to eros which means mutual love directed to the quest for the highest good in life. In other words, eros is intellectual love. In brief, for Plato the harmonious adjustment of personality in a well-rounded life is the highest end of the life of man. ### 2. Aristotelianism (Aristotle) Aristotle also believes in happiness (well-being of the daimon or soul) as the highest good in life. For him happiness does not mean sensual pleasure or even the pursuit of honor but "activity of the soul in accordance with reason." Its basis is to be found in the healthy activity or the exercise of natural capacities and energies. Normally, this brings pleasures with it which is a sign of the successful development of man's natural function. In other words, happiness is harmony with human nature through the aid of the virtue of moderation (temperance). To be happy is to be moderate in living. This is to say, one must fulfill his function for which he is fitted to do by nature. If one does things he is not capable of doing by nature he will be most unhappy. Thus, one must know his natural capacities and aptitudes and pursue them. In short, harmony with human nature by living a life of moderation is the highest good in life. Moderation means knowing what impressions or passions to control or extinguish. ### 3. Epicureanism or Hedonism (Epicurus) Epicureanism (hedonism) affirms that life is governed by two principles: pleasure and pain. Pleasure is the only good to be sought by people. Displeasure (pain) is undesirable and is to be avoided. Pleasure is attainable in the normal course of life by the use of natural capacities, by the use of sensibility the task of life is discovered and its accomplishments tested but the execution of task is done by reason. Pleasure is the alpha and omega of life. It is our first and kindred good the beginning of every choice and every aversion and to it we come back and make feeling (senses) the rule by which to judge of every good thing. By pleasure is meant here the absence of pain from the body and trouble from the soul. In brief the good life is the life of pleasure. It is an egoistic pleasure. Pleasure as a measure of truth is a doctrine which had led some of the followers of Epicurus to justify even sensual enjoyment. ### 4. Stoicism (Zeno, Epictetus) Many thinkers have contributed to the philosophy, Stoicism but Zeno and Epictetus are the two most popularly associated with it. The former founded it and the latter systematized it. The ethical creed of Stoicism accepted virtue as the highest in life. All virtues are of a piece, impossible without the others. However, courage was the most important virtue for the Stoics. A virtue is basically an attitude, not just an action. "To live consistently with nature" was a familiar maxim among them. Human conduct should be brought into agreement with the law of universal nature. Therefore, a person must courageously put aside passions, unjust thoughts, and indulgences, and must cheerfully confront all kinds of vicissitudes coming from the outside universe. In other words, to live according to the benevolence and orderliness of the universe is the highest good in life. The consequence of such a life is apatheia on euthymia (spiritual peace and well-being). Another term for this ultimative desideratum is eudaimonia the happy condition of the daimon (soul), when it resembles the deity. When this ultimate goal is achieved by the aid of courage, one's life becomes as autonomous, as uniform, and as benevolent as God (universe) himself. ### 4. Transition from Classical to Medieval (Augustine) Popularly known as Augustine (also called Aurelius Augustinus), he is one of the key figures in the transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages. In him the ancient church has reached its highest religious attainment since apostolic times. Equipped with a knowledge of neoplatonism he is familiar with the best Roman thought and the Roman emphasis upon morals and action. He displays a positive and comprehensive philosophy of history. He views history biblically and maintains that it has a beginning and a culmination-an interpretation of the entire human drama. His subject is God's dealings with man and what happens to man. His concerns are historical man and human society and the issue of man's free will and the manner in which God's grace operates. He believes that God's grace begins the work of salvation and that when grace has initiated it a man through his will cooperates. In view of this, he is acknowledged as the father of medieval Catholic Christianity. Yet he is the spiritual ancestor of much in the Reformation-that of Protestant Christianity. Both passionate and sensuous and eagerly high-minded and truth-seeking with intellectual questions, Augustine's spiritual pilgrimage has caused him "to desire to seek truth as that alone of value". ### 5. Medieval Scholasticism (Thomas Aquinas) The Prince of the School of Men is an appropriate designation Aquinas truly deserved. In him we come to the high point in the achievement of scholasticism. He applies the methods of the school to theology. He employs Aristotle in such a manner that eventually he has produced the Catholic Church's standard formulation of theology. An Aristotelian philosophy is definitive could feel consistently to remain Christians. His task, then, is the reconciliation of Aristotle and the Christian faith. His profound conviction is that Christianity is closer to Aristotle than Plato. To Aquinas, as to Aristotle, knowledge is based upon what the senses perceive. The data provided through the senses when interpreted by reason are a road to knowledge. But he contends that faith is also a road to truth. Much of truth is not reached by reason. It comes by the way of revelation from God, and, is to be appropriated by faith that is, the feeling and will. Aquinas says that man can know nature through his sense and reason. But man is also supernatural, and his ultimate happiness consists in contemplating God. His highest goal, the vision of God can come only through the outpouring of divine goodness. Here, Aquinas agrees with Augustine in saying, "without grace men can do no good whatever" -and that by its light they know what to do and by its help do what they know. High in his concept of grace that it's prevenient-previously present even before one's awareness of it. It stirs a man to repentance, and, a new birth which enables him to will and to work in such fashion as to please and glorify God. ### 6. Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill) Utilitarianism is modified form of egoistic Hedonism, developed by Jeremy Bentham in the 18th century and modified by John Stuart Mill in the 19th century. The central doctrine of utilitarianism may be stated thus: "A thing or an act is good if it produces the greatest amount of pleasure (happiness) for the greatest number of people." In other words, the utilitarian standard is not the agent's own greatest pleasure but the greatest amount of pleasure altogether. The end thus conceived, yields the true principle of distribution of pleasure. Pleasures differ both qualitatively and quantitatively. Since a person has faculties "more elevated" than animal appetites, "mental pleasures" derived from these faculties are intrinsically superior to pleasures derived from animal appetites. Man's sense of dignity makes him choose pleasures that are associated with the exercise of his higher faculties. ### 7. Kantianism (Kant's Ethics of Duty) The highest good is good will. It is the only good which does not need any qualification. Good will means sincere practical purpose or the summoning of all means in our power to do our duty. The good act must conform to the categorical imperative. An imperative expresses an obligation. Imperatives are basically of two kinds: (1) Hypothetical imperative which says something is good to do as means, that is, it commands one to do something if he wishes something else. For example, if you want to exterminate rats effectively you must use the proper skill to do it (imperative of skills). Another example, if you want health then you must follow health rules (imperative of prudence). (2) Categorical imperative is an abstract law which commands unconditionally. One must do what he ought to do. This is the kind of imperative that Emmanuel Kant is talking about. Two formulations may be stated thus: (a) Act as if the maxim of your own action were to become by your will a universal law of nature. (b) Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. In short, Kant's ethics emphasizes the fact that an act is good if you do it and at the same time you can will that everyone does it, thus it becomes a universal thing. For example, telling the truth is good because you can do it, and can will it to be followed by everyone. ### 8. Existentialism (Soren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre, Rudolf Bultmann) Existentialism is based on the doctrine that existence takes precedence over essence. Man is totally free and responsible for his acts, and that this responsibility is the source of the dread and anguish that encompasses him. In other words, man forms the essence of the life that he chooses to lead and he affirms his personal freedom, decision, and commitment and yet he is scared of such a responsibility. The good act is one that gives substance and meaning to a person's life now; it is one that is authentic or done in good faith. The good life is one in which people acting in good faith are open to one another in all that they do, no matter what they may be. They take responsibility for one another, and they act so as to provide for the freedom of one another. In short, man must be open to his neighbor, and treat him as a person rather than as an object. This also means openness to God, that is, having an authentic relationship with God. ### 9. Social Adjustment Ethics (John Dewey) There is no fixed absolute value in life. Good moral conduct is measured according to one's ability to adjust to the changing standards of society or to take one's place as a good citizen in an ordered, democratic society. Moral experimentation is necessary. All ideals and values are to be treated tentatively. In short, the good life is a life of constant social adjustment. The good person is the pragmatic and socially adjustable one. ## ATTITUDES TOWARDS PHILOSOPHICAL ETHICS Christians have different reactions towards philosophical ethics. Three possible attitudes among Christians on the relationship of philosophical ethics and Christian ethics maybe stated as follows: (1) Incorporation of philosophical ethics without any discrimination. The criticism against this is that this will de-emphasize what is distinctive in Christianity. At its best it may produce a "coalition ethics". At its worst, Christian ethics may be subsumed by Philosophical ethics. (2) Total rejection of philosophical ethics for they are not grounded on the Bible. Example of such attitude was that of Tertullian, an early church father who asked this question. "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" The implication is that philosophy has nothing to contribute to religion. (3) Sympathetic but critical understanding of philosophical ethics. This means recognition that there is something valid and good in philosophical ethics which can be appropriated in Christian Ethics. In short, Philosophical Ethics may serve as a basis of Christian Ethics. After all, ethics is philosophy concerned with the first moral principles. ## B. BIBLICAL ETHICS There are two major parts of Biblical Ethics which we shall examine in this section of our study, namely: Ethics of the Old Covenant Community and the Ethics of the New Covenant Community. Before we proceed to discuss the ethics of these two communities, let us examine some fundamental views. The Hebrew people have a unique understanding of history. Unlike the Greek concept of history as a cycle of recurring events, the Hebrews believed that history has a beginning and an end. It is His Story, God's Story. It is an arena in which God speaks to man and make known his will for them. God spoke to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, David, the prophets and many others. In other words, history is an arena in which God speaks his message and does his mighty acts of redemption. History is a stage in which the drama of life is acted out by God as the principal actor and man the re-actor. In history God made a covenant with man. But here's an equally and could even be more significant view of history: more theologically contextual, and more ethically reflective, critical and open. When we look at the world as "nature," time appears to be circular and events have the character of "many-time-ness." This is part of the traditional "monsoon orientation" of the Thai as of most other South East Asians (including Filipinos). When we look at the world as "history," time appears to be linear and events are characterized by "once-for-all-ness." This is part of the world view of the Biblical writers. The first is symbolized by a circle, the second by a straight line. Dr. Douglas J. Elwood asks: "Are the two views incompatible?" He quotes for an answer Dr. Kosuke Koyama, a Japanese theologian, from his book, *Waterbuffalo Theology*. Koyama suggests a new model: an ascending spiral which combines in itself the circle and the line symbolizing both regularity and direction. Under this symbol historical time is circular in one sense and linear in another sense. By locating the Thai (and other South East Asians) circular view within the Biblical linear view of history he shows how the former is illumined by the latter. Instead of forcing us to choose between history and nature, we "must hold both history and nature to be equally important," Koyama concludes. With this view of history Christians believe that the Bible is a continuous and full record of God's mighty acts in the history of the Hebrews or Jewish people. It is a record of what God has done for men and of what responses men have made to God. It is in a real sense the WORD OF GOD because it speaks to men today. The Bible, therefore, is a very fundamental source of the discipline of Christian Ethics. H. Richard Niebhur says: "The Bible has always been and will doubtless remain the chief source book for the study of Christian Ethics." E. Clinton Gardner says: "It is equally certain that the Old Testament has always been and will remain the one and most indispensable guide for the study of the New Testament." Moreover, he said that knowledge of the Old Testament is necessary for the understanding of the religious and ethical teachings of the New Testament. In other words, there is an underlying unity between the Old and the New Testament teachings. Both are parts of a continuous record of God's self-disclosure to Israel in particular and to mankind in general. The New Testament is the fulfillment of the Old Testament. The promises of God in the Old Testament are fulfilled in the person of Jesus Christ. Thus, these covenants are the two basic and continuous records of God's dramatic revelation in history. Despite this unity there are wide diversities of religious and moral thoughts found in the Bible. These are indeed a wide variety of conceptions of God and of moral standards reflected in the 66 books of the Bible. It is, however, the unity of the Bible which is more impressive and significant than the diversity. This unity is presupposed in the New Testament when Jesus said in the Sermon of the Mount: "Think not that I have come to abolish the law and the prophets; I have come not to abolish them but to fulfill them" (Matt. 5:17). ### 1. ETHICS OF THE OLD COVENANT COMMUNITY The ethics of this community begins with a covenant. This is a personal relationship and mutual agreement between God and man. In Genesis, it is recorded that God made a covenant with all of mankind through Noah. (Gen. 9:8-12ff). God also made a covenant with the Hebrew people through Abram. (Gen. 12, 15, 17). The covenant is a most distinctive idea in the Old Testament, affecting the total religious and moral outlook of the Israelites. For one thing, it implies the nature of God: God is a personal God who has chosen a people with whom he could relate himself, and whom he could send to do a mission for him. Thus, the Israelites believed that they were the "elect" or "chosen" people of God, who were particularly singled out by God to bring his message to the rest of mankind. They believed that they were chosen to become as "a light to the nations" (Isaiah 42:6, 49:6). For another thing, it provides a homework within which Hebrew people conceived their moral and spiritual obligation. It demands for an unconditional commitment and obedience unremitting moral responsibility on the part of man. God has promised to do something for them and in return they must obey God's commands. Finally, it is the guarantee of salvation and the ground for divine judgement. God, being a party to the covenant, must surely fulfill his part in the redemption of man. Man, on his part, must do likewise for his own redemption. Man's failure means punishment by God. The single foundation of the covenant concept of God's sovereign rule over his people and his world. Covenant stands for man's relationship to God and his obedience to God's will. The external signs of the covenants are: (1) Circumcision of Abraham's descendants; (2) Obedience to God's commandments (laws) (3) Telling forth of God's message to others; (4) Giving of land to Israel by God; (5) Making of Abraham father of many; (6) Protection given to Israel by God. ### THE COVENANT AND THE LAW (Moses' Ethical Monotheism) The Israelite law is accordingly a Covenant law. It rests upon an understanding of the meaning of life in the community. The meaning of Israel's life is provided by the saving action of God in her midst. God called and saved Israel for a purpose (Gen. 12:3). Israel was a covenant community, so her laws are expressions of the demands of the covenant relationship. These laws are identified in the Old Testament: 1. Covenant Code (Exodus 20:22-23:33). Believed to be an earliest piece of Hebrew legislation formulated in the 9th century B. C. This expresses a blending of moral and religious consideration. It emphasizes adoration and gratitude with ceremonial observance. In brief, faith and ethics are integrated. 2. Deuteronomic Code (Deut. 12-26) Believed to be a revision and expansion of the Covenant code (in the 7th century B. C. in order to fit it to the needs of the new day). This expresses both ritualistic and humanitarian considerations. Here are injunctions to imageless worship, provisions for altar sacrifices and assurance of divine presence. In brief, here is a blend of praying and doing. 3. Holiness Code (Leviticus 17-26) Believed to have been developed in the 6th century B. C. This highly emphasizes the holiness of Yahweh. Yahweh is holy, so he is righteous. Therefore, his people must be righteous as well as ceremonially pure. Thus, Leviticus 19:2 referred to as the highest development of ethics in the O.T. begins: "You shall be holy, for I, the Lord your God, am holy" (of Lev. 20:26). 4. Decalogue (Exodus 20:1-21) God has acted to save, and he now calls this act to remembrance as the presupposition of the commandments to follow. The commandments are to be understood as the stipulations of the covenant relationship. God commands and Israel is to obey. In brief, this code emphasizes the integration of religion and ethics. God is considered the author of the laws and Moses was the mediator (or law-giver). The provisions of the laws were requirements of duty to God. God has chosen the Israelites to be His people and He demands absolute obedience and worship from them. God is only one and He is good. ### THE COVENANT AND PROPHECY (Prophet's Radical Monotheism) The prophets were spokesmen of God. They spoke the message of God to His people in their actual life situation. It is in the message of the prophets that we see the high-water mark of the Old Testament teachings. The prophets were primarily religious and only secondarily ethical teachers. "Their insistence upon right conduct was religious in its origin, and at the root was never anything else than religious" (Snaith). "Their moral teaching was derived from their understanding of God, who had revealed Himself to them as a righteous God, rather than from some rationalistic theory of virtue and the highest good for man, or some conception of universal human equality, solidarity, and brotherhood" (Gardner). The prophets emphasized radical monotheism. This is to say that the good and the righteous God absolutely demands of all practice justice, righteousness, love, humility and the like in their daily relationship (Amos 5:21-24; Micah 3:9-12). The prophets were harbingers of the message of God to the current situations, telling forth God's will and purpose for men. They never spoke in abstraction but concrete terms and situations. They fought against oppressors whether they be kings or ordinary citizens. They denounced injustices and announced the judgement of God. They fought for the poor, the widows, the orphans and the oppressed. Then they made accusations against oppressors and violators, they named singly to identify them. From this fact, comes the prophetic principle of Christianity (Protestant principle of prophetic protest)-that is, principle of critical analysis of the self and of others in the light of God's will. It is the principle which, says, "Nothing on this earth is so sacred to be above objective criticism and judgement of God." In conclusion, we say that covenant and prophecy were closely related. The prophet's message was based upon the assumption of the covenant relationship. The prophet's God was the God of the covenant, whose nature reveals the ultimate norm by which all human ideals and standards of conduct are being judged. The prophet's understanding of sin is primarily disobedience to God, and not just maladjustment or failure to follow some human standards. Sin is rebellion against God. The prophets themselves were constantly reminding the Israelites that they were a covenant people, hence they have a covenant obligation to keep. ## THE COVENANT AND JUDAISM Judaism was the religion of the Jews after their Babylonian Captivity. Because of their failure to follow their covenant obligation they were punished by God by allowing their enemies to bring them into captivity. But God, being merciful God, gave them a second chance. They were allowed to return to their homeland Judah through the help of a benevolent Persian King, Cyrus the Great. Ezra and Nehemiah, the leaders of the reconstruction period were determined to keep their covenant obligation very religiously. Nehemiah saw to it that the city walls were rebuilt so that the people will have protection against their various enemies. Ezra was determined to rebuild a strong temple and religious life for his people. Out of his efforts was born Judaism, a religion characterized by a strict observance of circumcision, Sabbath and dietary laws. The Pentateuch was established as the fundamental law of the land. Marriage laws designed to purify the Jewish race were established. Mixed marriages were discouraged. Other laws were instituted. All laws were strictly enforced to ensure the approval of God and usher in His kingdom. In short, Judaism turned into legalism. To sum up, the morality (ethics) of the Old Covenant Community may be characterized as: a. God-centered (theocentric). This means that God is the source of the highest good and all moral requirements. The Hebrew religion was "shot through with an ethical morality." Morality comes from God. b. Mandatory. Its tone is imperative. It begins with reminding the Israelites that their duties stemmed out of a covenant relationship with God, and ends up with commanding men to do their duties. c. Persons concerned. Primarily concerned with persons and community of persons, rather than, with abstract ideals and virtues. Concerned with actions or deeds which affect the neighbors. d. Equalitarian. It is equalitarian in its estimate of human worth. It recognizes the fundamental equality among men. All, regardless of social status, must be cared for and treated with justice and mercy (see Holiness Code - Lev. 25:10, 23-28). e. Salvation-oriented. Salvation means redemption from the evils of present life, rather than aspiration after the highest good. Salvation means enjoyment of material possessions and with family and offsprings. It was very important for the Hebrew person to have offsprings for posterity's sake. Furthermore, the Hebrew morality was a national or group morality. The whole nation was responsible to keep the covenant obligation. When an individual violated a law the whole nation felt responsible for it. Unless he was immediately stoned the whole nation may be punished for it by God. The law and prophecy embodied the ideals of justice, love, mercy, truth, humility, righteousness and the like as they affect the daily life and conduct of people. In other words, the law and the prophecy were the seal of the covenant, pointing out the covenantal obligation of the Hebrew community. When the Old Covenant community failed to fulfill its obligation, a new covenant Community was established. Jeremiah prophesied that a new covenant was to be established, characterized by a personal responsibility. This New Covenant community was established by Jesus himself. Now, we turn our attention to the ethics of the New Covenant community. ### 2. THE ETHICS OF THE NEW COVENANT COMMUNITY (A) Ethics of the Kingdom of God (Jesus) The term "Kingdom of God" is not found in the Old Testament, but the idea itself is found in many expressions such as kingship of Yahweh (divine kingship), rule of God (theocracy), holy commonwealth, that is the reign of Monarchs who were representatives of God. and ecclesiastical rule, the rule of a priest who represents God. The kingdom of God is conceived in the Old Testament in three different ways (Gardner): (a) Assumption that God is already king, for he created the world and governs it with righteousness; (b) God's kingship is present in a special way in the lives of those who do his will; (c) Kingship of Yahweh is pictured as future reign in which his rule will be completely manifest over all earth. So, the very idea of "Kingdom of God" was familiar to Jesus and his contemporaries. The popular misconceptions of the kingdom in Jesus' time were: It is a military rule, political independence, an economic prosperity, wholly futuristic and other worldly, and exclusively for Israel. Jesus tried to correct these misconceptions. Thus, the "Kingdom of God" concept became central in his teachings. Jesus taught that the Kingdom of God is: (a) A sovereign, righteous, active rule of God in the hearts of men and in a redeemed society. It is both local and universal in scope. (b) A precious power in human life as well as a future reality. It is already here and yet it is still to come. (c) A precious gift of God to be sought above everything else in life. The preciousness of the Kingdom of God is likened to a hidden treasure. (d) A good news of God's reconciling, forgiving and redeeming love stress on divine acceptance which God has already extended to all persons prior to their repentance. It's trusting so fully in God's love as to "accept the fact that we are accepted" even though we know we are unacceptable. All of the above is ushered in by the initiating act of God before and above man's response, they be good works or strict observance of the law as well as all forms of religiosity and spirituality. Jesus challenged men and women to get involved in the continuous revolutionary activity of God toward radical renewal and new life for the individual, for society, for the world and the entire creation. Hence, he admonished them for: (a) Repentance. It means "to turn away from sin and return to God" - a renewed attitude of the wrong-doer toward God and fellowmen. It goes beyond acts of penitence to a redirection of one's life toward God and neighbor, and beyond human powers. It's no longer a mere demand nor even a condition, rather, a real possibility-" a response no longer to an impersonal Law but to the Divine Person who is reconciling and accepting Father." (b) Faith. It's not the acceptance of ideas or dogmas about God nor merely an assent to God's action and nature. Rather, the recognition of the living God and trust in his saving act as revealed in Jesus as the Christ. It is confidence in God's power and dependence in his grace. (c) Obedience. It's "hearing" or "listening" to God's word and action-man's "repentance-faith" response to God's revelation. Also, it's not the submission of the will to laws: but life lived in obedience to the Spirit. It means that acceptance of the kingdom is an incessant call to radical change of the "heart" towards righteousness and faithfulness. The belief that God is the sovereign, active ruler of the world and of one's life greatly determines one's daily conduct. The idea that the Kingdom of God is a sovereign reign in the heart of a person makes religion and ethics inseparable and integrated. This is the reason why an understanding of his ethics is important. The final authority of Christian ethics is Jesus and the "Way of Life" he set forth and imparted to his disciples as recorded in the Bible. He did not set forth systematically and logically his ethical teachings but we can draw them out from his parables, similes, vignettes, sermon, paradoxical statements and so forth. And it is often difficult to see how his teachings can be applied in a specific situation because he only gives us general principles. He left us the power to decide how to apply them in our own life-situation according to the best way we know. The ethical demands of the Kingdom of God may be stated as follows: (1) Demand of Love. This is first and foremost. Jesus says: "Love God with all your heart, with all your mind, with all your soul, and with all your strength" (Mt. 22:37). Love is not sentimental feeling but an attitude of trust and wholehearted submission of one's whole life to God, the Creator. God is the first object of true love. The next object of love is the neighbor. "Love your neighbor as you love yourself" (Mt. 22:39). This is the next greatest commandment. Loving a neighbor is an expression of loving God. "He who does not love his brother (fellowman) does not love God. He who says he loves God but hates his brother is liar" (I Jn. 4:20). The criterion for loving a neighbor is self-love. It is assumed here that a person loves himself/herself very much and this should be the way he/she ought to love another person. A neighbor is anyone in need. But a neighbor may mean also just a fellow national. So, Jesus gives another object of love the enemy. The enemy is the most unlovable person and yet Jesus commands us to love him/her just as much. The enemy in this context is a foreigner or one who belongs to the "outgroup." To love an enemy is the real test of Christian love. For as Jesus said, "What do you do more than others if you love only those who love you?" (Mt. 5:46-47). This is done also by the pagans. So, what is the difference between the Christian and the pagans? The difference is the Christian forgives and loves the enemy. (2) Demand for Perfection. Jesus says, "You must be perfect as your heavenly father is perfect" (Mt. 5:48). Ordinarily, perfection means faultlessness, flawlessness, or moral sinlessness. If these were the meaning, then, nobody can follow this commandment. No man is and can be perfect in this sense. There must be another sense. William Barclay, a New Testament scholar says that in the original Greek, Jesus uses the term teleios for perfect. Teleios comes from telos which means end or purpose. To be perfect then would mean to fit into the purpose for which God has created a person. What is man's ultimate purpose in life? "To love God and serve Him above all" is our Christian answer. Perfection, then, means one's life in a single-minded devotion to God. A life which is absolutely loyal to God has direction, purpose and meaning. It is perfect (teleios). On the other hand, a life which has no loyalty to God has many loyalties and commits many errors. It is imperfect. (3) Demand for Inward Morality. The Old Covenant law says, "You shall not commit adultery." But Jesus says, "You shall not look at a woman lustfully" (Mt. 5:27-28). To do so is as bad as adultery. What this means is that motive is an important aspect of morality. What is in one's mind is as important aspect of morality... What is in one's mind is as important as the external act. Jesus has another example. The Old law says, "You shall not murder." But Jesus says, "You shall not be angry" (Mt. 5:21-22). Anger is the "mother" of murder. No one murders another person without anger or jealousy. So, if one is boiling with anger inside it is just as bad as murder outside. In short, morality is both internal and external. (4) Demand for the Supremacy of Spiritual Values. "Seek ye first the Kingdom of God and his righteousness and all these things shall be yours as well" (Mt. 6:33). This is Jesus demand for the supremacy of spiritual values-the Kingdom of God and God's righteousness. Such values as love, justice, mercy, kindness, humility and the like are the things, that really matter in life. They are the "weightiest matters" of the law which give substance to man's life and his relationships, and, which truly matter. The Christian believer is commanded to be primarily concerned with these values that endure the test of time. (5) Demand for Respect of Man's Worth and Dignity. "The Sabbath is made for man and not man for the Sabbath" (Mk. 2:27). From this statement of Jesus it is clear that he gives man some worth and dignity which are beyond the value of institutions. One time a woman supposedly caught in the act of adultery was brought and accused before him by some self-righteous Jews. Jesus rebuked those who maltreated her because they had no respect for her dignity. They probably broke into her private house to get her and to drag her out to be humiliated (Jn. 8:1-11). (6) Demand for being concerned with the present as well as the future life. The Kingdom of God is both a present and future reality. The Christians are in the world even if they are not of the world. What this means is that the Christians must pay attention to what is happening in the present life as well as to what is going to happen to them after this earthly life. Specifically, this means being concerned with what is happening in the social life, in politics, economics, education, religion, etc. They cannot be indifferent to these areas of life because whatever happens these will affect the personal life for good or for bad. The Christian concern for these areas is for the sake of the spiritual both existential and eschatological outlook. To put it in another way, a Christian must, be both "this worldly" and "other-worldly." But he doesn't have to be "too other-worldly" nor "too this-worldly" in his religious life.