The Formation of Western Europe (800-1500) PDF

The Formation of Western Europe, 800–1500 Previewing Main Ideas RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS In Western Europe the time period from 800 to 1500 is known as the Age of Faith. Christian beliefs inspired the Crusades and the building of great cathedrals, and guided the...

The Formation of Western Europe, 800–1500 Previewing Main Ideas RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS In Western Europe the time period from 800 to 1500 is known as the Age of Faith. Christian beliefs inspired the Crusades and the building of great cathedrals, and guided the development of universities. Geography In which political unit was the capital of Christianity, Rome, located? ECONOMICS Medieval Europeans developed new methods of trade and new systems of finance and commerce. The changes are known as the Commercial Revolution. Geography Through which political units would a trader pass if he left from Venice and went to Calais using a land route? CULTURAL INTERACTION Although destructive in many ways, the Crusades resulted in a great deal of cultural exchange. Medieval Christian Europe learned and adopted much from the Muslim world. Geography A stopping place for Crusaders on their way to the Holy Land was the city of Constantinople. In what political unit is Constantinople located? INTERNET RESOURCES Interactive Maps Go to classzone.com for: Interactive Visuals Research Links Maps Interactive Primary Sources Internet Activities Test Practice VIDEO Patterns of Interaction Primary Sources Current Events video series: Bubonic Plague Chapter Quiz and Smallpox 376 377  What are the dangers and rewards of going on a Crusade? You are a squire in England. The knight you serve has decided to join a Christian Crusade (a holy war) to capture the city of Jerusalem from the Muslims. He has given you the choice of joining or staying home to look after his family and manor. On an earlier Crusade, the knight and his friends looted towns and manors, taking jewels and precious objects. But some of the knights were also held for ransom, robbed, and murdered. You are torn between the desire for adventure and possible riches that you might find on the Crusade, and fear of the hazards that await you on such a dangerous journey. 1 Richard the Lion-Hearted leads a group of Crusaders on the Third Crusade to regain Jerusalem from the Muslims. 2 Servants and women sometimes accompanied the EXAM I N I NG the ISSU ES Crusaders as they made their way toward the Holy Land. What reasons might an individual have to join a Crusade? What might be the advantages and disadvantages of staying home to defend the knight’s family and estate? As a class, discuss these questions. In your discussion, remember what you’ve learned about the power of religious beliefs to move people to action. As you read about the Crusades in this chapter, see how events turned out for the Crusaders. 378 Chapter 14  1 Church Reform and the Crusades MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES CULTURAL INTERACTION The The Crusades left a legacy of simony Richard Catholic Church underwent distrust between Christians and Gothic the Lion- reform and launched Crusades Muslims that continues to the Urban II Hearted against Muslims. present. Crusade Reconquista Saladin Inquisition SETTING THE STAGE Some historians have called the period in Western Europe between 500 and 1000 a “dark age.” Magyars seeking plunder pushed up from the Danube River region. Vikings raided western European church monas- teries. These groups destroyed many of these centers of learning. Around the 900s, however, a new spirit invaded the church and brought about a spiritual revival in the clergy. Filled with new energy, the church began restructuring itself and started massive building programs to create new places of worship. The Age of Faith TAKING NOTES Following Chronological Monasteries led the spiritual revival. The monastery founded at Cluny in France Order Use a time line to in 910 was especially important. The reformers there wanted to return to the note important events in basic principles of the Christian religion. To do so, they established new religious the Age of Faith. orders. Influenced by the religious devotion and reverence for God shown by the new monasteries, the popes began to reform the Church. They restored and 900 expanded its power and authority. A new age of religious feeling was born—the Age of Faith. Still, many problems troubled the Church. 1500 Problems in the Church Some priests were nearly illiterate and could barely read their prayers. Some of the popes were men of questionable morals. Many bish- ops and abbots cared more about their positions as feudal lords than about their duties as spiritual leaders. Reformers were most distressed by three main issues. Many village priests married and had families. Such marriages were against Church rulings. Bishops sold positions in the Church, a practice called simony (SY muh nee). Using the practice of lay investiture, kings appointed church bishops. Church reformers believed the Church alone should appoint bishops. Reform and Church Organization Pope Leo IX and Pope Gregory VII enforced Church laws against simony and the marriage of priests. The popes who followed Leo and Gregory reorganized the Church to continue the policy of reform. In the 1100s and 1200s, the Church was restructured to resemble a kingdom, with the pope at its head. The pope’s group of advisers was called the papal Curia. The Curia also acted as a court. It developed canon law (the law of the Church) on mat- ters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. The Curia also decided cases based The Formation of Western Europe 379  on these laws. Diplomats for the pope traveled through Europe dealing with bishops and kings. In this way the popes established their authority throughout Europe. The Church collected taxes in the form of tithes. These consumed one-tenth the yearly income from every Christian family. The Church used some of the money to Evaluating perform social services such as caring for the sick and the poor. In fact, the Church Courses of Action operated most hospitals in medieval Europe. How did the popes increase their New Religious Orders In the early 1200s, wandering friars traveled from place to power and place preaching and spreading the Church’s ideas. Like monks, friars took vows of authority? chastity, poverty, and obedience. Unlike monks, friars did not live apart from the world in monasteries. Instead, they preached to the poor throughout Europe’s towns and cities. Friars owned nothing and lived by begging. Dominic, a Spanish priest, founded the Dominicans, one of the earliest orders of friars. Because Dominic emphasized the importance of study, many Dominicans were scholars. Francis of Assisi (uh SEE zee), an Italian, founded another order of friars, the Franciscans. Francis treated all creatures, including animals, as if they were his spiritual brothers and sisters. Women played an important role in the spiritual revival. Women joined the Dominicans, Benedictines, and Franciscans. In 1212, a woman named Clare and her friend Francis of Assisi founded the Franciscan order for women. It was known as the Poor Clares. In Germany, Hildegard of Bingen, a mystic and musician, founded a Benedictine convent in 1147. Like friars, these women lived in poverty and worked to help the poor and sick. Unlike the friars, however, women were not allowed to travel from place to place as preachers. Cathedrals—Cities of God During the medieval period most people worshiped in small churches near their homes. Larger churches called cathedrals were built in city areas. The cathedral was viewed as the representation of the City of God. As such, it was decorated with all the richness that Christians could offer. Between about 800 and 1100, churches were built in the Romanesque (ROH muh NEHSK) style. The churches had round arches and a heavy roof held up by thick walls and pillars. The thick walls had tiny windows that let in little light. A New Style of Church Architecture A new spirit in the church and access to more money from the growing wealth of towns and from trade helped fuel the building of churches in several European countries. In the early 1100s, a new style of architecture, known as Gothic, evolved throughout medieval Europe. The term Gothic comes from a Germanic tribe named the Goths. Unlike the heavy, gloomy Romanesque buildings, Gothic cathedrals thrust upward as if reaching toward heaven. Light streamed in through huge stained glass windows. Other arts of the medieval world were evident around or in the Gothic cathedral—sculpture, wood- carvings, and stained glass windows. All of these elements were meant to inspire the worshiper with the magnificence of God. See the diagram on the next page to learn more about Gothic cathedrals. Soon Gothic cathedrals were built in many towns of France. In Paris, the vaulted ceiling of the Cathedral of Notre Dame (NOH truh DAHM) eventually rose to more than 100 feet. Then Chartres, Reims, Amiens, and Beauvais built even taller cathedrals. In all, nearly 500 Gothic churches were built between 1170 and 1270. 380 Chapter 14  Gothic Architecture The master builders in France, where the Gothic style originated, developed techniques of structural engineering that were key to Gothic architecture: 1 ribbed vaults that supported the roof’s weight, 2 flying buttresses that transferred weight to thick, exterior walls, 3 pointed arches that framed huge stained glass windows, and 4 tall spires that seemed to be pointing to heaven. ▲ Chartres Cathedral The cathedral of Chartres (shahrt) is a masterpiece of Gothic architecture. The cathedral has hundreds of sculptures. The stone carvings that frame every door illustrate Bible stories. In this photograph, you can see the cathedral has not one, but two bell towers. ▲ Stained Glass In addition to its sculpture and soaring towers, Chartres Cathedral has some of the most beautiful stained glass windows of any Gothic cathedral in Europe. The windows illustrate stories from the Bible. As illiterate SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Visual Sources peasants walked past the 176 1. Drawing Conclusions Pose and answer three questions about elements windows, they could view in the style of Gothic architecture that might affect the sense of height those stories. The window and light inside. above depicts the parable of 2. Comparing and Contrasting Think about stained glass windows you the Good Samaritan. have seen. Do they tell a story? What figures or events do they illustrate? The Formation of Western Europe 381  The Crusades The Age of Faith also inspired wars of conquest. In 1093, the Byzantine emperor Alexius Comnenus sent an appeal to Robert, Count of Flanders. The emperor asked for help against the Muslim Turks. They were threatening to conquer his capital, Constantinople: PRIMARY SOURCE Come then, with all your people and give battle with all your strength, so that all this treasure shall not fall into the hands of the Turks.... Therefore act while there is still time lest the kingdom of the Christians shall vanish from your sight and, what is more important, the Holy Sepulchre [the tomb where Jesus was buried] shall vanish. And in your coming you will find your reward in heaven, and if you do not come, God will condemn you. EMPEROR ALEXIUS COMNENUS, quoted in The Dream and the Tomb by Robert Payne Pope Urban II also read that letter. Shortly after this appeal, he issued a call for Vocabulary what he termed a “holy war,” a Crusade, to gain control of the Holy Land. Over Holy Land: the next 300 years, a number of such Crusades were launched. Palestine; the area where Jesus lived Goals of the Crusades The Crusades had economic, social, and political goals as and preached well as religious motives. Muslims controlled Palestine (the Holy Land) and threat- ened Constantinople. The Byzantine emperor in Constantinople appealed to Christians to stop Muslim attacks. In addition, the pope wanted to reclaim ▼ The red cross Palestine and reunite Christendom, which had split into Eastern and Western on his tunic identifies this branches in 1054. knight as a In addition, kings and the Church both saw the Crusades as an oppor- crusader. tunity to get rid of quarrelsome knights who fought each other. These knights threatened the peace of the kingdoms, as well as Church property. Others who participated in the Crusades were younger sons who, unlike eldest sons, did not stand to inherit their father’s property. They were looking for land and a position in society, or for adventure. In the later Crusades, merchants profited by making cash loans to finance the journey. They also leased their ships for a hefty fee to transport armies over the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, the merchants of Pisa, Genoa, and Venice hoped to win control of key trade routes to India, Southeast Asia, and China from Muslim traders. The First and Second Crusades Pope Urban’s call brought a tremen- dous outpouring of religious feeling and support for the Crusade. According to the pope, those who died on Crusade were assured of a place in heaven. With red crosses sewn on tunics worn over their armor and the battle cry of “God wills it!” on their lips, knights and common- ers were fired by religious zeal and became Crusaders. By early 1097, three armies of knights and people of all classes had gathered outside Constantinople. Most of the Crusaders were French, but Bohemians, Germans, Englishmen, Scots, Italians, and Spaniards came as well. The Crusaders were ill-prepared for war in this First Crusade. Many knew nothing of the geography, climate, or culture of the Holy Land. They had no grand strategy to capture Jerusalem. The nobles argued among themselves and couldn’t agree on a leader. Finally an army of 12,000 (less than one-fourth of the original army) approached Jerusalem. The Crusaders besieged the city for over a month. On July 15, 1099, they captured the city. 382 Chapter 14  The Crusades, 1096–1204 ENGLAND HOLY POLAND ROMAN el hann ish C EMPIRE Engl Paris Regensburg Christian lands Vienna Muslim lands Metz Kingdoms established Vezelay by the Crusaders ATLANTIC FRANCE HUNGARY First Crusade, 1096–1099 Venice Second Crusade, 1147–1149 OCEAN Clermont Genoa Belgrade Third Crusade, 1189–1191 Fourth Crusade, 1202–1204 Marseille BULGARIA SERBIA Black Sea Corsica Adrianople SPAIN Rome Constantinople PORTUGAL Sardinia 40°N KINGDOM BYZANTINE EMPIRE SELJUK TURKS Lisbon OF Medi ter Edessa r aSICILY ne Antioch a n Crete Cyprus 0 500 Miles Se Tripoli a 0 1,000 Kilometers Acre Jerusalem GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 40°E 0° 1. Place What Muslim power ruled lands close to the Christian city of Constantinople? 2. Movement Which Crusade did not make it to Jerusalem? Where did this Crusade end? All in all, the Crusaders had won a narrow strip of land. It stretched about 650 miles from Edessa in the north to Jerusalem in the south. Four feudal Crusader states were carved out of this territory, each ruled by a European noble. The Crusaders’ states were extremely vulnerable to Muslim counterattack. In 1144, Edessa was reconquered by the Turks. The Second Crusade was organized to recapture the city. But its armies straggled home in defeat. In 1187, Europeans Summarizing were shocked to learn that Jerusalem itself had fallen to a Kurdish warrior and What, if any- Muslim leader Saladin (SAL uh dihn). thing, had the The Third Crusade The Third Crusade to recapture Jerusalem was led by three of Crusaders gained by the end of the Europe’s most powerful monarchs. They were Philip II (Augustus) of France, Second Crusade? German emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa), and the English king, Richard the Lion-Hearted. Philip argued with Richard and went home. Barbarossa drowned on the journey. So, Richard was left to lead the Crusaders in an attempt to regain the Holy Land from Saladin. Both Richard and Saladin were brilliant warriors. After many battles, the two agreed to a truce in 1192. Jerusalem remained under Muslim control. In return, Saladin promised that unarmed Christian pilgrims could freely visit the city’s holy places. The Crusading Spirit Dwindles In 1204, the Fourth Crusade to capture Jerusalem failed. The knights did not reach the Holy Land. Instead, they ended up looting the city of Constantinople. In the 1200s, four more Crusades to free the holy land were also unsuccessful. The reli- gious spirit of the First Crusade faded, and the search for personal gain grew. In two later Crusades, armies marched not to the Holy Land but to Egypt. The Crusaders intended to weaken Muslim forces there before going to the Holy Land. But none of these attempts conquered much land. The Formation of Western Europe 383  Richard the Lion-Hearted Saladin 1157–1199 1138–1193 Richard was noted for his good looks, Saladin was the most famous Muslim charm, courage, grace—and leader of the 1100s. His own people ruthlessness. When he heard that considered him a most devout man. Jerusalem had fallen to the Muslims, Even the Christians regarded him as he was filled with religious zeal. He honest and brave. joined the Third Crusade, leaving He wished to chase the Crusaders others to rule England in his place. back into their own territories. He said: Richard mounted a siege on the city I think that when God grants me of Acre. Saladin’s army was in the hills victory over the rest of Palestine, I overlooking the city, but it was not shall divide my territories, make a strong enough to defeat the Crusaders. will stating my wishes, then set When finally the city fell, Richard had sail on this sea for their far-off the Muslim survivors—some 3,000 men, lands and pursue the Franks women, and children—slaughtered. there, so as to free the earth from The Muslim army watched helplessly anyone who does not believe in from the hills. Allah, or die in the attempt. The Children’s Crusade The Children’s Crusade took place in 1212. In two dif- ferent movements, thousands of children set out to conquer Jerusalem. One group in France was led by 12-year-old Stephen of Cloyes. An estimated 30,000 children under 18 joined him. They were armed only with the belief that God would give them Jerusalem. On their march south to the Mediterranean, many died from cold and starvation. The rest drowned at sea or were sold into slavery. In Germany, Nicholas of Cologne gathered about 20,000 children and young adults. They began marching toward Rome. Thousands died in the cold and treach- erous crossing of the Alps. Those who survived the trip to Italy finally did meet the pope. He told them to go home and wait until they were older. About 2,000 sur- Making vived the return trip to Germany. A few boarded a ship for the Holy Land and were Inferences never heard of again. How does the A Spanish Crusade In Spain, Muslims (called Moors) controlled most of the Children’s Crusade illustrate the power country until the 1100s. The Reconquista (reh kawn KEES tah) was a long effort of the Church? by the Spanish to drive the Muslims out of Spain. By the late 1400s, the Muslims held only the tiny kingdom of Granada. In 1492, Granada finally fell to the Christian army of Ferdinand and Isabella, the Spanish monarchs. To unify their country under Christianity and to increase their power, Isabella and Ferdinand made use of the Inquisition. This was a court held by the Church to sup- press heresy. Heretics were people whose religious beliefs differed from the teach- ings of the Church. Many Jews and Muslims in Spain converted to Christianity during the late 1400s. Even so, the inquisitors suspected these Jewish and Muslim converts of heresy. A person suspected of heresy might be questioned for weeks and even tortured. Once suspects confessed, they were often burned at the stake. In 1492, 384 Chapter 14  the monarchs expelled all practicing Jews and Muslims from Spain. The Effects of the Crusades The Crusades are a forceful example of the power of the Church during the medieval period. The call to go to the Holy Land encouraged thousands to leave their homes and travel to faraway lands. For those who stayed home, especially women, it meant a chance to manage affairs on the estates or to oper- ate shops and inns. European merchants who lived and traded in the Crusader states expanded trade between Europe and Southwest Asia. The goods imported from Southwest Asia included spices, fruits, and cloth. This trade with the West benefited both Christians and Muslims. However, the failure of later Crusades also less- ened the power of the pope. The Crusades weakened the feudal nobility and increased the power of kings. Thousands of knights and other participants lost their lives and fortunes. The fall of Constantinople weakened the Byzantine Empire. ▲ This scene For Muslims, the intolerance and prejudice displayed by Christians in the Holy reveals torture Land left behind a legacy of bitterness and hatred. This legacy continues to the used in the Inquisition. present. For Christians and Jews who remained in the Muslim controlled region after the fall of the Crusader states, relations with the Muslim leadership worsened. For Jews in Europe, the Crusades were a time of increased persecution. The Crusades grew out of religious fervor, feudalism, and chivalry, which came together with explosive energy. This same energy led to the growth of trade, towns, and universities in medieval Europe. SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. simony Gothic Urban II Crusade Saladin Richard the Lion-Hearted Reconquista Inquisition USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which of the events of the 3. What were three main causes 6. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Which of the Age of Faith do you think of the need to reform the following do you think best represents the spirit of the was most important to the Church? Age of Faith—Church reform, the Crusades, or the Gothic Church? Explain. 4. Which Crusade was the only cathedrals? Explain. successful one? 7. MAKING INFERENCES What evidence supports the idea 5. How did the goals of the that the Church functioned like a kingdom? 900 Crusades change over the 8. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS How did the Crusades change the years? history of Europe? Give reasons for your answer. 1500 9. WRITING ACTIVITY CULTURAL INTERACTION Write a script about an encounter between a Crusader and a Muslim defender of Jerusalem. INTERNET ACTIVITY Review the information on page 381. Use the Internet to research the INTERNET KEYWORD Washington National Cathedral. Prepare a multimedia presentation Washington National Cathedral showing the Gothic characteristics of the Washington National Cathedral. The Formation of Western Europe 385  Using Primary and Secondary Sources The Crusades In the Crusades, both Christians and Muslims believed that God was on their side. They both felt justified in using violence to win or to keep the Holy Land. The following excerpts show their belief in the rightness of their deeds. A PRIMARY SOURCE B PRIMARY SOURCE C PRIMARY SOURCE Pope Urban II William of Tyre Saladin In 1095, Pope Urban II issued a plea A Christian bishop, William of Tyre, This is an excerpt of Saladin’s reply to that resulted in the First Crusade. The drew upon eyewitness accounts of the a letter from Frederick I (Barbarossa) pope assured his listeners that God capture of Jerusalem by Crusaders. threatening Saladin. Saladin wrote the was on their side. letter after he recaptured Jerusalem. It was impossible to look upon the vast Let the holy sepulcher of our Lord and numbers of the slain without horror; Whenever your armies are assembled Saviour, which is possessed by everywhere lay fragments of human... we will meet you in the power of the unclean nations, especially arouse bodies, and the very ground was God. We will not be satisfied with the you.... This royal city [Jerusalem], covered with the blood of the slain. It land on the seacoast, but we will cross situated at the center of the earth, is was not alone the spectacle of over with God’s good pleasure and now held captive by the enemies of headless bodies and mutilated limbs take from you all your lands in the Christ and is subjected, by those who strewn in all directions that roused strength of the Lord.... And when the do not know God, to the worship of horror in all who looked upon them. Lord, by His power, shall have given us the heathen. Accordingly, undertake Still more dreadful was it to gaze upon victory over you, nothing will remain this journey eagerly for the remission the victors themselves, dripping with for us to do but freely to take your of your sins, with the assurance of the blood from head to foot, an ominous lands by His power and with His good reward of imperishable glory in the sight which brought terror to all who pleasure.... By the virtue and power kingdom of heaven. met them. It is reported that within the of God we have taken possession of Temple enclosure alone about ten Jerusalem and its territories; and of thousand infidels perished, in addition the three cities that still remain in the to those who lay slain everywhere hands of the Christians... we shall D PRIMARY SOURCE throughout the city in the streets and occupy them also. squares, the number of whom was Luttrell Psalter estimated as no less. The illustration below from a Latin text shows Richard the Lion-Hearted (left) unhorsing Saladin during the Third Crusade. However, the two men never actually met in personal combat. 1. Using specific phrases or passages from Source A and Source C, demonstrate how their attitudes were similar. 2. What directive in Source A might have been at the root of the action described in Source B? 3. What evidence in Source D reveals the artist’s bias about the confrontation between Islam and Christianity? 386  2 Changes in Medieval Society MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES ECONOMICS The feudal system The changes in the Middle Ages three-field burgher declined as agriculture, trade, laid the foundations for modern system vernacular finance, towns, and universities Europe. guild Thomas developed. Commercial Aquinas Revolution scholastics SETTING THE STAGE While Church reform, cathedral building, and the Crusades were taking place, other important changes were occurring in medieval society. Between 1000 and 1300, agriculture, trade, and finance made significant advances. Towns and cities grew. This was in part due to the growing population and to territorial expansion of western Europe. Cultural interaction with the Muslim and Byzantine worlds sparked the growth of learning and the birth of an institution new to Europe—the university. A Growing Food Supply TAKING NOTES Determining Main Ideas Europe’s great revival would have been impossible without better ways of Use a diagram to identify farming. Expanding civilization required an increased food supply. A warmer changes in medieval climate, which lasted from about 800 to 1200, brought improved farm produc- society. tion. Farmers began to cultivate lands in regions once too cold to grow crops. They also developed new methods to take advantage of more available land. Switch to Horsepower For hundreds of years, peasants had depended on oxen Changes g in to pull their plows. Oxen lived on the poorest straw and stubble, so they were Medieval Societyy easy to keep. Horses needed better food, but a team of horses could plow three times as much land in a day as a team of oxen. Before farmers could use horses, however, a better harness was needed. Sometime before 900, farmers in Europe began using a harness that fitted across the horse’s chest, enabling it to pull a plow. As a result, horses gradually replaced oxen for plowing and for pulling wagons. All over Europe, axes rang as the great forests were cleared for new fields. The Three-Field System Around A.D. 800, some villages began to organize their lands into three fields instead of two. Two of the fields were planted and the other lay fallow (resting) for a year. Under this new three-field system, farm- ers could grow crops on two-thirds of their land each year, not just on half of it. As a result, food production increased. Villagers had more to eat. Well-fed peo- ple, especially children, could better resist disease and live longer, and as a result the European population grew dramatically. The Formation of Western Europe 387  The Guilds A second change in the European economy was the devel- Surnames opment of the guild. A guild was an organization of indi- Many people can trace their last viduals in the same business or occupation working to names, or surnames, back to a improve the economic and social conditions of its members. medieval occupation in Europe. The first guilds were merchant guilds. Merchants banded The name Smith, for example, refers together to control the number of goods being traded and to to someone who “smites,” or works, keep prices up. They also provided security in trading and metal. The surname Silversmith reduced losses. would belong to a person who works silver. In German-speaking areas, a About the same time, skilled artisans, such as wheel- smith was named Schmidt. wrights, glassmakers, winemakers, tailors, and druggists, Someone who made goods out of began craft guilds. In most crafts, both husband and wife wood was often surnamed Carpenter. worked at the family trade. In a few crafts, especially for In French-speaking areas, a carpenter cloth making, women formed the majority. The guilds set was called Charpentier, while in German areas, the same person standards for quality of work, wages, and working condi- would be called Zimmerman. tions. For example, bakers were required to sell loaves of The last name of Boulanger bread of a standard size and weight. The guilds also created indicated a baker in France. A baker plans for supervised training of new workers. in Germany often had the surname By the 1000s, artisans and craftspeople were manufactur- Becker. ing goods by hand for local and long-distance trade. More and better products were now available to buyers in small Summarizing towns, in bigger cities, and at trade fairs. Guilds became How did guilds change the way powerful forces in the medieval economy. The wealth they business was accumulated helped them establish influence over the gov- conducted and ernment and the economy of towns and cities. products made? Craft Guilds Guild Services Craft guilds formed an important part of To members: To the community: town life during the medieval period. They Set working conditions Built almshouses for victims of trained young people in a skilled job, Covered members with a type of misfortune regulated the quality of goods sold, and were health insurance Guaranteed quality work major forces in community life. Provided funeral expenses Took turns policing the streets Provided dowries for poor girls Donated windows to the Church Apprentice Journeyman Master Parents paid for training (Day Worker) Owned his own Lived with a master and Worked for a master shop his family to earn a salary Worked with other Required to obey the Worked 6 days a week masters to protect master Needed to produce a their trade Trained 2–7 years masterpiece (his finest Sometimes served in work) to become a civic government Was not allowed to marry master during training Had to be accepted When trained progressed by the guild to to journeyman become a master 388 Chapter 14  Commercial Revolution Just as agriculture was expanding and craftsmanship changing, so were trade and finance. Increased availability of trade goods and new ways of doing business changed life in Europe. Taken together, this expansion of trade and business is called the Commercial Revolution. Fairs and Trade Most trade took place in towns. Peasants from nearby manors traveled to town on fair days, hauling items to trade. Great fairs were held several times a year, usually during religious festivals, when many people would be in town. People visited the stalls set up by merchants from all parts of Europe. Cloth was the most common trade item. Other items included bacon, salt, honey, cheese, wine, leather, dyes, knives, and ropes. Such local markets met all the needs of daily life for a small community. No longer was everything produced on a self-sufficient manor. More goods from foreign lands became available. Trade routes spread across Europe from Flanders to Italy. Italian merchant ships traveled the Mediterranean to ports in Byzantium such as Constantinople. They also traveled to Muslim ports along the North African coast. Trade routes were opened to Asia, in part by the Crusades. Increased business at markets and fairs made merchants willing to take chances on buying merchandise that they could sell at a profit. Merchants then reinvested the profits in more goods. Vocabulary Letters of credit: A Business and Banking As traders moved from fair to fair, they needed large letter issued by a amounts of cash or credit and ways to exchange many types of currencies. bank allowing the Enterprising merchants found ways to solve these problems. For example, bills of bearer to withdraw exchange established exchange rates between different coinage systems. Letters of a specific amount of money from the credit between merchants eliminated the need to carry large amounts of cash and ▼ This fish market bank or its made trading easier. Trading firms and associations formed to offer these services expanded the branches. to their groups. variety of food available in a medieval town. 389  The Commercial Revolution needed workers paid for labor Increased More money available Trade and lending services for building businesses available Merchants’ taxes Merchants’ wealth increase the king’s and power expand power and wealth SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Graphics 1. Drawing Conclusions How did increased trade increase the power of the king? 2. Making Inferences Why would workers now have to be paid? Merchants looked for new markets and opportunities to make a profit. Merchants first had to purchase goods from distant places. To do so they had to borrow money, but the Church forbade Christians from lending money at interest, a sin called usury. Over time, the Church relaxed its rule on usury and Christians entered the Drawing banking business. Banking became an important business, especially in Italy. Conclusions Society Changes The changes brought about by the Commercial Revolution were Why were changes in financial slow, yet they had a major effect on the lives of Europeans. As you can see in the services necessary diagram shown above, increased trade brought many changes to aspects of society. to expand trade? Two of the most important changes involved what people did to earn a living and where they lived. As towns attracted workers, the towns grew into cities. Life in the cities was different from life in the sleepy villages or on manors. Urban Life Flourishes Scholars estimate that between 1000 and 1150, the population of western Europe rose from around 30 million to about 42 million. Towns grew and flourished. Compared to great cities like Constantinople, European towns were unsophisti- cated and tiny. Europe’s largest city, Paris, probably had no more than 60,000 peo- ple by the year 1200. A typical town in medieval Europe had only about 1,500 to 2,500 people. Even so, these small communities became a powerful force for change in Europe. Trade and Towns Grow Together By the later Middle Ages, trade was the very lifeblood of the new towns, which sprung up at ports and crossroads, on hilltops, and along rivers. As trade grew, towns all over Europe swelled with people. The excitement and bustle of towns drew many people. But there were some drawbacks to living in a medieval town. Streets were narrow, filled with animals and their waste. With no sewers, most people dumped household and human waste into the 390 Chapter 14  street in front of the house. Most people never bathed, and their houses lacked fresh air, light, and clean water. Because houses were built of wood with thatched roofs, they were a constant fire hazard. Nonetheless, many people chose to move to towns to pursue the economic and social opportunities they offered. People were no longer content with their old feudal existence on manors or in tiny villages. Even though legally bound to their lord’s manor, many serfs ran away. According to custom, a serf could now become free by living within a town for a year and a day. A saying of the time went, “Town air makes you free.” Many of these run- away serfs, now free people, made better lives for themselves in towns. Merchant Class Shifts the Social Order The merchants and craftspeople of medieval towns did not fit into the traditional medieval social order of noble, clergy, and peasant. At first, towns came under the authority of feudal lords, who used their authority to levy fees, taxes, and rents. As trade expanded, the burghers, or merchant-class town dwellers, resented this interference in their trade and com- merce. They organized themselves and demanded privileges. These included free- dom from certain kinds of tolls and the right to govern the town. At times they fought against their landlords and won these rights by force. The Revival of Learning During the Crusades, European contact with Muslims and Byzantines greatly expanded. This contact brought a new interest in learning, especially in the works of Recognizing Greek philosophers. The Muslim and Byzantine libraries housed copies of these writ- Effects ings. Most had disappeared during the centuries following the fall of Rome and the How did the invasions of western Europe. Crusades contribute The Muslim Connection In the 1100s, Christian scholars to the expansion of trade and from Europe began visiting Muslim libraries in Spain. Few learning? Western scholars knew Greek but most did know Latin. So Jewish scholars living in Spain translated the Arabic ver- sions of works by Aristotle and other Greek writers into Latin. All at once, Europeans acquired a huge new body of knowledge. This included science, philosophy, law, mathe- matics, and other fields. In addition, the Crusaders brought back to Europe superior Muslim technology in ships, navi- gation, and weapons. Scholars and the University At the center of the growth of learning stood a new European institution—the univer- Muslim Scholars sity. The word university originally referred to a group of A number of Islamic scholars had a great influence on European scholars meeting wherever they could. People, not build- thought. The image above shows ings, made up the medieval university. Universities arose at Ibn Sina, known in the West as Paris and at Bologna, Italy, by the end of the 1100s. Others Avicenna. He was a Persian followed at the English town of Oxford and at Salerno, Italy. philosopher, astronomer, poet, Most students were the sons of burghers or well-to-do arti- and physician. His book, The Cure, sans. For most students, the goal was a job in government or an interpretation of Aristotle’s philosophy, greatly affected Western the Church. Earning a bachelor’s degree in theology might thought. This work, translated into take five to seven years in school; becoming a master of the- Latin, influenced the scholastics. ology took at least 12 years of study. New ideas and forms of expression began to flow out of INTERNET ACTIVITY Create a the universities. At a time when serious scholars and writers documentary film script on Muslim were writing in Latin, a few remarkable poets began using a scholars. Go to classzone.com for lively vernacular, or the everyday language of their home- your research. land. Some of these writers wrote masterpieces that are still The Formation of Western Europe 391  read today. Dante Alighieri wrote The Divine Comedy (1308–1314) in Italian. Geoffrey Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Tales (about 1386–1400) in English. Christine de Pisan wrote The Book of The City of Ladies (1405) in French. Since most people couldn’t read or understand Latin, these works written in the vernacular brought literature to many people. Aquinas and Medieval Philosophy Christian scholars were excited by the ideas of Greek philosophers. They wondered if a Christian scholar could use Aristotle’s logical approach to truth and still keep faith with the Bible. In the mid-1200s, the scholar Thomas Aquinas (uh KWY nuhs) argued that the most basic religious truths could be proved by logical argument. Between 1267 and 1273, Aquinas wrote the Summa Theologicae. Aquinas’s great work, influenced by Aristotle, combined ancient Greek thought with the Christian thought of his time. Aquinas and his fellow scholars who met at the great universi- ties were known as schoolmen, or scholastics. The scholastics used their knowledge of Aristotle to debate many issues of their time. Their teachings on law and government influ- enced the thinking of western Europeans, par- ▲ Thomas Aquinas’s ticularly the English and French. Accordingly, writings focused on they began to develop democratic institutions questions of faith and traditions. versus reason and logic. SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. three-field system guild Commercial Revolution burgher vernacular Thomas Aquinas scholastics USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. How did medieval society 3. How did guilds influence 6. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS What was the effect of the change between 1000 and business practices in medieval development of towns on the feudal system? 1500? towns? 7. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why would writers choose to 4. How were Muslim scholars produce works in the vernacular instead of in Latin? linked to the revival of learning 8. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS How did the Commercial in Europe? Revolution lay the foundation for the economy of Changes g in 5. In what ways did burghers modern Europe? Medieval Societyy expand their freedom from 9. WRITING ACTIVITY ECONOMICS Write a brief news article landlords? on the value of letters of credit and how they have changed commercial trade activities. CONNECT TO TODAY WRITING AN INVESTIGATIVE REPORT Contact a local bank and find out what services are available to its commercial clients. Write a brief report on the banking services. Identify which services seem to have had their beginnings in the late medieval period and which ones are modern. 392 Chapter 14  3 England and France Develop MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES POWER AND AUTHORITY As Modern concepts of jury trials, William the parliament the kingdoms of England and common law, and legal rights Conqueror Hugh Capet France began to develop into developed during this period. Henry II Philip II nations, certain democratic common law Estates-General traditions evolved. Magna Carta SETTING THE STAGE By the early 800s, small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms cov- ered the former Roman province of Britain. In Europe, the decline of the Carolingian Empire in the 900s left a patchwork of feudal states controlled by local lords. Gradually, the growth of towns and villages, and the breakup of the feudal system were leading to more centralized government and the development of nations. The earliest nations in Europe to develop a strong unified government were England and France. Both would take similar paths. England Absorbs Waves of Invaders TAKING NOTES Clarifying Identify major For centuries, invaders from various regions in Europe landed on English shores. steps toward democratic The Angles and the Saxons stayed, bringing their own ways and creating an government. Anglo-Saxon culture. Step Early Invasions In the 800s, Britain was battered by fierce raids of Danish Step Description Vikings. These invaders were so feared that a special prayer was said in churches: Description “God, deliver us from the fury of the Northmen.” Only Alfred the Great, Anglo- Saxon king from 871 to 899, managed to turn back the Viking invaders. Gradually he and his successors united the kingdom under one rule, calling it England, “land of the Angles.” The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that had invaded the island of Britain. In 1016, the Danish king Canute (kuh NOOT) conquered England, molding Anglo-Saxons and Vikings into one people. In 1042, King Edward the Confessor, a descendant of Alfred the Great, took the throne. Edward died in January 1066 without an heir. A great struggle for the throne erupted, leading to one last invasion. The Norman Conquest The invader was William, duke of Normandy, who became known as William the Conqueror. Normandy is a region in the north of France that had been conquered by the Vikings. Its name comes from the French term for the Vikings—North men, or Norman. The Normans were descended from the Vikings, but they were French in language and in culture. As King Edward’s cousin, William claimed the English crown and invaded England with a Norman army. William’s rival was Harold Godwinson, the Anglo-Saxon who claimed the throne. Harold was equally ambitious. On October 14, 1066, Normans and The Formation of Western Europe 393  Anglo-Saxons fought the battle that changed the course of English history—the Battle of Hastings. After Harold was killed by an arrow that pierced his eye, the Normans won a decisive victory. After his victory, William declared all England his per- sonal property. William kept about one-fifth of England for himself. The English lords who supported Harold lost their lands. William then granted their lands to about 200 Norman lords who swore oaths of loyalty to him personally. By doing this, William unified control of the lands and laid the foundation for centralized government in England. Eleanor of Aquitaine 1122–1204 England’s Evolving Government Eleanor of Aquitaine was one of the Over the next centuries, English kings tried to achieve two most remarkable women in history. goals. First, they wanted to hold and add to their French She was wife to two kings and lands. Second, they wanted to strengthen their own power mother to two kings. She married over the nobles and the Church. Louis VII of France when the Second Crusade began. In 1147, she William the Conqueror’s descendants owned land both in accompanied him to the Holy Land. Normandy and in England. The English king Henry II Shortly afterward their marriage was added to these holdings by marrying Eleanor of Aquitaine annulled. Eleanor then married Henry from France. Plantagenet, who was to become The marriage brought Henry a large territory in France Henry II of England. Their marriage produced eight children. Two became called Aquitaine. He added Aquitaine to the lands in English kings, Richard the Lion- Normandy he had already inherited from William the Hearted and John. Conqueror. Because Henry held lands in France, he was a vas- sal to the French king. But he was also a king in his own right. RESEARCH LINKS For more on Eleanor Juries and Common Law Henry ruled England from 1154 of Aquitaine, go to classzone.com to 1189. He strengthened the royal courts of justice by send- ing royal judges to every part of England at least once a year. They collected taxes, settled lawsuits, and punished crimes. Henry also introduced the use of the jury in English courts. A jury in medieval England was a group of loyal people—usually 12 neighbors of the accused—who answered a royal judge’s questions about the facts of a case. Jury trials became a popular means of settling disputes. Only the king’s courts were allowed to conduct them. Over the centuries, case by case, the rulings of England’s royal judges formed a unified body of law that became known as common law. Today the principles of Recognizing English common law are the basis for law in many English-speaking countries, Effects including the United States. What impact did the English The Magna Carta Henry was succeeded first by his son Richard the Lion- common law Hearted, hero of the Third Crusade. When Richard died, his younger brother John have on the took the throne. John ruled from 1199 to 1216. He failed as a military leader, earn- United States? ing the nickname John Softsword. John lost Normandy and all his lands in north- ern France to the French under Philip Augustus. This loss forced a confrontation with his own nobles. Some of John’s problems stemmed from his own personality. He was cruel to his subjects and tried to squeeze money out of them. He alienated the Church and threatened to take away town charters guaranteeing self-government. John raised taxes to an all-time high to finance his wars. His nobles revolted. On June 15, 1215, they forced John to agree to the most celebrated document in English history, the Magna Carta (Great Charter). This document, drawn up by English nobles and 394 Chapter 14  reluctantly approved by King John, guaranteed certain basic political rights. The nobles wanted to safeguard their own feudal rights and limit the king’s powers. In later years, however, English people of all classes argued that certain clauses in the Magna Carta applied to every citizen. Guaranteed rights included no taxation with- out representation, a jury trial, and the protection of the law. The Magna Carta Summarizing guaranteed what are now considered basic legal rights both in England and in the What is the United States. significance of the The Model Parliament Another important step toward democratic government Magna Carta? came during the rule of the next English king, Edward I. Edward needed to raise Vocabulary taxes for a war against the French, the Welsh, and the Scots. In 1295, Edward sum- borough: a self- moned two burgesses (citizens of wealth and property) from every borough and two governing town knights from every county to serve as a parliament, or legislative group. In November 1295, knights, burgesses, bishops, and lords met together at Westminster in London. This is now called the Model Parliament because its new makeup (com- moners, or non-nobles, as well as lords) served as a model for later kings. Over the next century, from 1300 to 1400, the king called the knights and burgesses whenever a new tax was needed. In Parliament, these two groups grad- ually formed an assembly of their own called the House of Commons. Nobles and bishops met separately as the House of Lords. Under Edward I, Parliament was in part a royal tool that weakened the great lords. As time went by, Parliament became strong. Like the Magna Carta, it provided a check on royal power. The Magna Carta The Magna Carta is considered one of the cornerstones of democratic government. The underlying principle of the document is the idea that all must obey the law, even the king. Its guaranteed rights are an important part of modern liberties and justice. PRIMARY SOURCE 38. No bailiff [officer of the court] for the future shall, upon his own unsupported complaint, put anyone to his “law,” without credible witnesses brought for this purposes. 39. No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned... or exiled or in any way destroyed, nor will we [the king] go upon him nor send upon him, except by the lawful judgement of his peers or by the law of the land. 40. To no one will we sell, to no one will we refuse or delay, right or justice. 45. We will appoint as justices, constables, DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS sheriffs, or bailiffs only such as know the law of 1. Analyzing Motives Why might the English nobles have the realm and mean to observe it well. insisted on the right listed in number 45? 2. Making Inferences Which of the statements is a forerunner to the right to a speedy public trial guaranteed in the Sixth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution? The Formation of Western Europe 395  Capetian Dynasty Rules France The kings of France, like those of England, looked for ways to increase their power. After the breakup of Charlemagne’s empire, French counts and dukes ruled their lands independently under the feudal sys- tem. By the year 1000, France was divided into about 47 feudal territories. In 987, the last member of the Carolingian family—Louis the Sluggard—died. Hugh Capet (kuh PAY), an undistinguished duke from the middle of France, succeeded him. The Capet family ruled only a small territory, but at its heart stood Paris. Hugh Capet began the Capetian dynasty of French kings that ruled France from 987 to 1328. France Becomes a Separate Kingdom Hugh Capet, his son, and his grandson all were weak rulers, but time and geography favored the Capetians. Their ter- ritory, though small, sat astride important trade routes in northern France. For 300 years, Capetian kings ▲ The coronation tightened their grip on this strategic area. The power of the king gradually spread of Philip II in outward from Paris. Eventually, the growth of royal power would unite France. Reims Cathedral Philip II Expands His Power One of the most powerful Capetians was Philip II, called Philip Augustus, who ruled from 1180 to 1223. As a child, Philip had watched his father lose land to King Henry II of England. When Philip became king at the age of 15, he set out to weaken the power of the English kings in France. Philip was crafty, unprincipled, and willing to do whatever was necessary to achieve his goals. Philip had little success against Henry II or Henry’s son, Richard the Lion- Hearted. However, when King John, Richard’s brother, gained the English throne, it was another matter. Philip earned the name Augustus (from the Latin word meaning “majestic”), probably because he greatly increased the territory of France. He seized Normandy from King John in 1204 and within two years had gained other territory. By the end of Philip’s reign, he had tripled the lands under his direct control. For the first time, a French king had become more powerful than any of his vassals. Philip II not only wanted more land, he also wanted a stronger central govern- ment. He established royal officials called bailiffs. They were sent from Paris to every district in the kingdom to preside over the king’s courts and to collect the king’s taxes. Philip II’s Heirs France’s central government became even stronger during the reign of Philip’s grandson, Louis IX, who ruled from 1226 to 1270. Unlike his grandfather, Louis was pious and saintly. He was known as the ideal king. After his death, he was made a saint by the Catholic Church. Louis created a French appeals court, which could overturn the decisions of local courts. These royal courts of France strengthened the monarchy while weakening feudal ties. In 1302, Philip IV, who ruled France from 1285 to 1314, was involved in a quar- rel with the pope. The pope refused to allow priests to pay taxes to the king. Philip disputed the right of the pope to control Church affairs in his kingdom. As in England, the French king usually called a meeting of his lords and bishops when he needed support for his policies. To win wider support against the pope, Philip IV decided to include commoners in the meeting. 396 Chapter 14  The Development of England and France England France William the Conqueror invades England in 1066. Hugh Capet increases the territory of France. Henry II (1154–1189) introduces use of the jury in English courts. Philip II (1180–1223) established bailiffs to preside over courts and collect taxes. John (1199–1216) agrees to the Magna Carta in 1215. Louis IX (1226–1270) creates a French appeals court. Edward I (1272–1307) calls the Model Parliament in 1295. Philip IV (1285–1314) adds Third Estate to the Estates-General. SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts 1. Clarifying What aspects of courts were developed during the rule of Henry II and Philip II? 2. Developing Historical Perspective Which aspect of centralized government developed about the same time in both England and France? Estates-General In France, the Church leaders were known as the First Estate, and the great lords as the Second Estate. The commoners, wealthy landholders or mer- Summarizing chants, that Philip invited to participate in the council became known as the Third What three Estate. The whole meeting was called the Estates-General. estates made up Like the English Parliament in its early years, the Estates-General helped to the Estates- increase royal power against the nobility. Unlike Parliament, however, the Estates- General? General never became an independent force that limited the king’s power. However, centuries later, the Third Estate would play a key role in overthrowing the French monarchy during the French Revolution. Beginnings of Democracy England and France were just beginning to establish a democratic tradition. This tradition rested on setting up a centralized government that would be able to govern widespread lands. The creation of common law and court systems was a first step toward increased central government power. Including commoners in the decision-making process of government was also an important step in the direction of democratic rule. Before England and France could move forward in this direction, however, they had to contend with a century of turmoil that included religious disputes, plague, and war. SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. William the Conqueror Henry II common law Magna Carta parliament Hugh Capet Philip II Estates-General USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which of the steps toward 3. What two legal practices date 6. COMPARING Compare the way in which England and democratic government are back to Henry II? France began developing as nations. similar to U.S. practices? 4. What are some basic rights 7. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS Which of the changes in English Explain. guaranteed by the Magna government is reflected in the government of the United Carta? States today? Step 5. Why did Philip II call the 8. EVALUATING COURSES OF ACTION What steps were Step Description Estates-General together? necessary to centralize governments in England and France? Description 9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Imagine that you are an adviser to the English or French king. Write him a letter to argue for or against including commoners in the Parliament or Estates-General. CONNECT TO TODAY COMPARING HISTORICAL DOCUMENTS Find a copy of the Magna Carta and a copy of the Bill of Rights of the United States Constitution. Study both documents and create a table showing where the Constitution reflects the ideas of the Magna Carta. The Formation of Western Europe 397  4 The Hundred Years’ War and the Plague MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL Events of the 1300s led to a Avignon bubonic SYSTEMS In the 1300s, Europe change in attitudes toward Great Schism plague was torn apart by religious religion and the state, a change John Wycliffe Hundred strife, the bubonic plague, and reflected in modern attitudes. Jan Hus Years’ War the Hundred Years’ War. Joan of Arc SETTING THE STAGE The 1300s were filled with disasters, both natural and human-made. The Church seemed to be thriving but soon would face a huge division. A deadly epidemic claimed millions of lives. So many people died in the epidemic that the structure of the economy changed. Claims to thrones in France and England led to wars in those lands. The wars would result in changes in the governments of both France and England. By the end of the century, the medieval way of life was beginning to disappear. TAKING NOTES A Church Divided Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects Use At the beginning of the 1300s, the Age of Faith still seemed strong. Soon, how- the chart to identify ever, both the pope and the Church were in desperate trouble. causes and effects of Pope and King Collide In 1300, Pope Boniface VIII attempted to enforce papal major events at the end of the Middle Ages. authority on kings as previous popes had. When King Philip IV of France asserted his authority over French bishops, Boniface responded with an official Cause & document. It stated that kings must always obey popes. Effect Philip merely sneered at this statement. In fact, one of Philip’s ministers is Split in said to have remarked that “my master’s sword is made of steel, the pope’s is Church made of [words].” Instead of obeying the pope, Philip had him held prisoner in Plague September 1303. The king planned to bring him to France for trial. The pope was 1oo Years' rescued, but the elderly Boniface died a month later. Never again would a pope War be able to force monarchs to obey him. Avignon and the Great Schism In 1305, Philip IV persuaded the College of Cardinals to choose a French archbishop as the new pope. Clement V, the newly selected pope, moved from Rome to the city of Avignon (av vee NYAWN) in France. Popes would live there for the next 69 years. The move to Avignon badly weakened the Church. When reformers finally tried to move the papacy back to Rome, however, the result was even worse. In 1378, Pope Gregory XI died while visiting Rome. The College of Cardinals then met in Rome to choose a successor. As they deliberated, they could hear a mob outside screaming, “A Roman, a Roman, we want a Roman for pope, or at least an Italian!” Finally, the cardinals announced to the crowd that an Italian had been chosen: Pope Urban VI. Many cardinals regretted their choice almost immediately. Urban VI’s passion for reform and his arrogant personality caused 398 Chapter 14  the cardinals to elect a second pope a few months later. They chose Robert of Geneva, who spoke French. He took the name Clement VII. Now there were two popes. Each declared the other to be a false pope, excom- municating his rival. The French pope lived in Avignon, while the Italian pope lived in Rome. This began the split in the Church known as the Great Schism (SIHZ uhm), or division. In 1414, the Council of Constance attempted to end the Great Schism by choos- ing a single pope. By now, there were a total of three popes: the Avignon pope, the Roman pope, and a third pope elected by an earlier council at Pisa. With the help of the Holy Roman Emperor, the council forced all three popes to resign. In 1417, the Council chose a new pope, Martin V, ending the Great Schism but leaving the papacy greatly weakened. Scholars Challenge Church Authority The papacy was further challenged by an Englishman named John Wycliffe (WIHK lihf). He preached that Jesus Christ, not the pope, was the true head of the Church. He was much offended by the worldli- ness and wealth many clergy displayed. Wycliffe believed that the clergy should own no land or wealth. Wycliffe also taught that the Bible alone—not the pope— Contrasting was the final authority for Christian life. He helped spread this idea by inspiring an According English translation of the New Testament of the Bible. to the different Influenced by Wycliffe’s writings, Jan Hus, a professor in Bohemia (now part beliefs of the time, what was the true of the Czech Republic), taught that the authority of the Bible was higher than that source of religious of the pope. Hus was excommunicated in 1412. In 1414, he was seized by Church ▼ This painting, authority? leaders, tried as a heretic, and then burned at the stake in 1415. titled The Triumph of The Bubonic Plague Strikes Death, depicts the effect of During the 1300s an epidemic struck parts of Asia, North Africa, and Europe. the plague. Approximately one-third of the population of Europe died of the deadly disease known as the bubonic plague. Unlike catastrophes that pull communities together, this epidemic was so terrifying that it ripped