Forensic Science Slides PDF

BT2302 FORENSIC SCIENCE BT2302-FA24-BSBT-FA23-A MARYAM ZAREEN LECTURER DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY  INTRODUCTION: CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND FORENSIC SCIENCE Criminal justice involves the system of practices, insti...

BT2302 FORENSIC SCIENCE BT2302-FA24-BSBT-FA23-A MARYAM ZAREEN LECTURER DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY  INTRODUCTION: CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND FORENSIC SCIENCE Criminal justice involves the system of practices, institutions, and policies established by governments to control crime, enforce laws, and provide justice Focuses on the enforcement of laws and the administration of justice Forensic science applies scientific principles and techniques to investigate crimes, analyze evidence, and present findings in court. Provides the necessary scientific tools to uncover truth, identify suspects, and ensure fairness in legal processes.  WHAT IS FORENSIC SCIENCE? Forensic Science describes the science of associating people, places, and things involved in criminal activities The word “forensic” is derived from the Latin forum for “public” The Oxford English Dictionary lists one of the first uses of the phrase “forensic science” to describe “a mixed science” (Oxford English Dictionary, 2005). The discipline divides neatly into halves, like the term that describes it. Science” is the collection of systematic methodologies used to increasingly understand the physical world. Forensic science has grown as a profession and into a science in its own right. Given the public’s interest in using science to solve crimes, it looks as if forensic science has an active, if hectic, future. Assist in investigating and adjudicating (formal judgment) criminal and civil cases.  INTRODUCTION: CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND FORENSIC SCIENCE BRIDGING SCIENCE AND LAW Two interconnected fields that play crucial roles in maintaining law and order, and ensuring justice in society Both are indispensable in the pursuit of justice Both protect society by upholding the rule of law and maintaining order  LAW ENFORCEMENT CAREERS Criminal justice offers diverse career opportunities, each requiring different levels of education, training, and skills. Police Officers Detective/Criminal Investigator Federal Agent (ISI, FBI, DEA, ATF) ISI (Inter-services Intelligence), Pakistan ANF (Anti-Narcotics Force), Pakistan FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation), USA DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration), USA ATF (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives) Border Patrol Agent Highway patrol officers  LEGAL AND COURT CAREERS Prosecutor Prosecutors, or district attorneys, represent the government in criminal trials. Defense Attorney Represent individuals accused of crimes Judge Preside over court proceedings, interpret laws, and ensure that trials are conducted fairly Paralegal Assist attorneys by conducting legal research, drafting documents, and organizing case files Court Clerk Manage courtroom administrative functions, process legal documents, maintain records, and assist judges during trials. Bailiff Maintain order in courtrooms, ensuring the safety of participants  CRIMINAL CASES CIVIL CASES 1. Theft: 1. Breach of Contract Someone is accused of stealing property. One party sues another for failing to honor the 2. Assault and Battery: terms of a contract. A person is charged with causing physical harm to 2. Property Disputes: another. Neighbors might go to court over boundary 3. Murder: disputes. Someone is prosecuted for intentionally killing 3. Personal Injury: another person. A person sues another for injuries sustained in an 4. Drug Trafficking: accident (e.g., car accident, slip-and-fall). Individuals are charged with the illegal distribution 4. Defamation: of drugs. Someone sues for damages caused by false 5. DUI (Driving Under the Influence): statements that harm their reputation. A person is accused of operating a vehicle while 5. Divorce: impaired by alcohol or drugs. Spouses seek legal separation and division of assets or child custody arrangements. Penalties can include fines, imprisonment, or Penalties typically involve monetary damages or community service. specific actions rather than imprisonment. the plaintiff sues the defendant to seek compensation or some other remedy  AREAS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE CRIMINALISTICS The term criminalistics is sometimes used synonymously with forensic science ORIGIN “Criminalistics” is a word imported into English from the German kriminalistik Criminalistics is generally thought of as the branch of forensic science that involves the collection and analysis of physical evidence generated by criminal activity. It includes areas such as drugs, firearms and tool marks, fingerprints, blood and body fluids, footwear, and trace evidence. “ TRACE EVIDENCE: Fire and explosive residues Glass, soils, hairs, and fibers Paints, plastics, wood, metals, and chemicals “Forensic sciences” instead of “criminalistics” and “forensic scientists” instead of “criminalist” are preferred terms of usage  FORENSIC SCIENCE AND INVESTIGATION CAREERS A PATH THAT CAN SUIT YOUR INTERESTS AND SKILLS WITHIN SOLVE CRIMES AND AID IN LEGAL INVESTIGATIONS It is an interdisciplinary program that combines knowledge from biology, chemistry, physics, computer sciences, sociology, dentistry, medicine and law to analyze and interpret crime scene evidence The prime responsibility of Forensic scientists is to analyze evidence and provide expert testimony  1. CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATOR (CSI) CSIs are responsible for collecting and documenting evidence at crime scenes, which is then analyzed by forensic scientists to assist in solving crimes  2. FORENSIC SCIENTIST/BIOLOGIST Forensic scientists analyze physical evidence from crime scenes, such as samples for DNA, fingerprints, or toxicology, and provide expert testimony in court.  3. BALLISTICS EXPERT These experts analyze firearms, ammunition, and gunshot residue to help solve crimes involving firearms. Analyze the trajectory and impact of bullets to recreate crime scenes involving firearms.  4. FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGIST Forensic psychologists assess the mental state of criminal offenders, victims, or witnesses and provide expert testimony related to psychological factors in court cases. Psychiatry, psychology or behavioral sciences Assess competency to stand trial and aid in defense. Evaluates the defendant's mental capacity to form intent or distinguish right from wrong Assist in serial crime investigations by creating psychological profiles. Predicting behaviors: Offenders often act in reproducible ways, revealing behavioral patterns that provide clues.  5. FORENSIC TOXICOLOGIST (Forensic Chemistry) analyzing biological samples (like blood, urine, hair, or tissues) to detect and identify the presence of toxic substances, drugs, alcohol, or poisons. Majority of cases are alcohol-related, determined by blood or breath alcohol levels Determine whether substances contributed to a person's death, illness, or impaired state during a crime Collaboration with forensic pathologists enhances understanding of toxicological findings in the context of autopsies and death investigations.  6. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGIST With expertise in dentistry they use human remains for disaster victim identification and assessing bite mark evidence Famous Case: Theodore Bundy, a notorious serial killer, was partially convicted based on bitemark evidence.  7. FORENSIC PATHOLOGY AUTOPSY OR POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION Determine the cause and manner of death under suspicious or unknown circumstances through the examination of a body Helps establish timelines, i.e., they may provide an estimated time of death Forensic pathology is conducted by a medical examiner, who is a physician Specially trained in clinical and anatomic pathology  8. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY Skeletal Analysis: Focuses on the study of human bones to identify victims in cases involving severely decomposed or unrecognizable remains. Identifies unidentified victims e.g., victims of mass fatalities like bombings, airplane crashes Compare skeletal remains with those of missing persons, X-ray techniques used for identification Report the age, sex, and height of the deceased. Work alongside pathologists and dentists Aid in providing closure to families  9. FORENSIC ENGINEERING Determine the cause of failure and improve safety standards. Failures that lead to personal injury or property damage Helps ascertain responsibility in legal cases Examples: Analyzes mechanical failures, structural collapses, or vehicular accidents 1. Structural collapse: Investigate by testing the materials, products, or structures that fail to function as designed. 2. Essential for failure analysis Analyze traffic accidents to reconstruct events/Accidents reconstruction/ determine the path, direction, speed of the person who was driving, and the type of collision 3. Fire Investigation: Determining the origins and causes of fires, particularly in suspected arson cases.  9. FORENSIC ENGINEERING CASE STUDY: KANSAS CITY HOTEL BALCONY COLLAPSE HYATT REGENCY WALKWAY COLLAPSE Incident: Significant balcony collapse in the 1980s resulting in injuries and fatalities Investigation: Forensic engineers found that concrete supports were made of substandard materials. Outcome: Led to criminal charges against the contractor, highlighting the importance of forensic engineering.  10. DIGITAL FORENSICS Involves recovering, analyzing, and preserving data from electronic devices like computers, smartphones, and networks to investigate cybercrimes such as hacking, identity theft, and online fraud.  11. FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINATION Examines disputed documents, including handwriting analysis, ink, and paper examination, and detecting forgeries. Dispute regarding their authenticity, source, or integrity Documents comparison (Handwritten and typewritten document comparison) Detection of alterations (erasures, obliterations, forgeries) Charred Documents: Examination of documents that have been damaged by fire. Counterfeit Currencies: Detection and analysis of fake currency Paper and Ink Analysis Determining Source and Age through material analysis Helps ensure authenticity and integrity in legal and financial documents Extensive experience is essential for accurate analysis and conclusions.  12. FORENSIC ACCOUNTING Investigates financial records to detect embezzlement, fraud, money laundering, and other financial crimes. Support, and analyze financial data for legal cases.  13. FORENSIC LINGUISTICS Studies the language used in written or spoken communications to determine authorship, and detect deception in ransom notes, threatening letters, or digital communications.  OTHER SPECIALTIES A variety of scientists may contribute to the field of forensic as and when required Requiring expert opinion on unique forensic questions Diverse Expertise: Artists, biologists, chemists, and specialists assist in various investigations. Types of Cases: Involvement in mass disasters, airplane crashes, missing persons, and art forgeries.  FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORY ORGANIZATION Varies by jurisdiction, agency, and history International Variation: Organizational differences are more pronounced when comparing U.S. laboratories to those in other countries. FactorsInfluencing Services: Examination offerings depend on budget, personnel, equipment, and crime statistics.  PUBLIC FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORIES Government Administration: managed and funded by the government The Bureau of Justice Statistics conducted censuses in 2002 and 2005 to assess the public forensic laboratory landscape. Backlogged Cases: Estimated 359,000 cases backlogged by end of 2005. Controlled Substance Work: Over half of backlogged cases involved controlled substances. Use of Private Labs: About half of public labs sent casework to private labs to manage workloads.  PRIVATE FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORIES Typically perform one or two types of examinations Operated by retired forensic scientists offering specialized services. Major focus is on DNA Analysis, particularly in criminal cases and paternity testing. Direct services: Unlike most public labs that serve only law enforcement. It provides forensic services to accused persons.  FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORY SERVICES Forensic laboratories offer varying levels of service depending on the system. Statewide Systems: Typically, one headquarters laboratory provides a full range of forensic services. Regional Laboratories: May offer limited services (e.g., fingerprints and drugs) and forward other evidence to headquarters. A lab may not offer certain analyses (e.g., gunshot residue) yet still be labeled as "full service” The term full service may differ from state to state  GOAL OF CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION Crime scene investigation includes: Securing of crime scene Photography Proper search of crime scene Systematic documentation of the crime scene Along with the suitable collection, packaging, preservation and transport of all the evidences identify, document, and collect physical and biological evidence at the crime scene must be done with great care and a thoughtful approach Solving the crime means Piecing together the evidences to form a picture of what happened at the crime scene.  STANDARD FORENSIC LABORATORY SERVICES Evidence Submission: A police officer or CSI/investigator submits evidence to the laboratory and completes a form detailing the evidence and its types. Evidence Intake Unit: Laboratories have established systems for receiving & ensuring proper management of evidence. Modern intake: Computerized systems to generate barcodes for each evidence item or its container. Barcodes are scanned by laboratory units allowing easy tracking throughout the laboratory. Evidence Storage: Includes secured areas for storing evidence such as a a room or a warehouse based on workload. Unique Laboratory Number: Each case is assigned a unique laboratory number, and each item of evidence is labeled with this number and additional identifying information (e.g., item number).  STANDARD LABORATORY SERVICES Chain of Custody: Documentation that tracks the location of evidence from collection to courtroom presentation. Begins at the crime scene when evidence is first collected. Accompanying Paperwork: Evidence is accompanied by documentation (either hard copy or electronic) as analysts sign or accept possession of the items Analytical Sections of Forensic Laboratories: sample forwarded to relevant or multiple forensic units Logical Analysis Order: following a sequence to preserve the integrity of the evidence e.g., testing a gun for fingerprints before firing CRIME LABORATORY SCIENTIST Receive, secure, handle, inventory, return and preserve physical evidence collected in criminal investigations and submitted to the crime laboratory for examination or analysis.  OTHER LABORATORY SERVICES Specialist Areas Include: Polygraph (lie detectors) Voiceprint and speaker identification Bloodstain pattern analysis Entomology  FORENSIC DNA AND SEROLOGY OUR FOCUS OF STUDY 1. Serology: The study of bodily fluids, such as blood or seminal fluids, to detect the presence of biological material in crimes like sexual assault or homicide. Forensic samples are typically first processed for serological testing before proceeding to DNA analysis Using serology, the nature of body fluids is identified whether human and what kind of sample Common tests include the detection of blood group antigens, seminal fluid identification through acid phosphatase Commonly used instruments include Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), Immunofluorescence Microscopes, Spectrophotometers, High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Light & electron microscopes  FORENSIC DNA AND SEROLOGY OUR FOCUS OF STUDY 2. DNA Analysis: Involves examining genetic material from commonly encountered biological samples (blood, body fluids, hair, saliva [buccal cells from cigarette butts, drinking straws, cans, masks, bottles] etc.) to identify individuals. Once confirmed by serological testing, further tested by DNA Analysis STR or short tandem repeat analysis, create a genetic profile that is compared with reference profile Commonly used instruments include Real-time (qPCR) machines, Capillary Electrophoresis (CE) Systems, DNA sequencers, Microfluidic Devices  FORENSIC AGENCIES IN PAKISTAN 1. The Punjab Forensic Science Agency *Thokar Niaz Baig, Multan Road, Lahore 2. Sindh Forensic DNA and Serology Laboratory *Karachi, Sindh 3. Liaqat University of Medical and Health Sciences * Jamshoro, Sindh PUNJAB FORENSIC SCIENCE AGENCY https://pfsa.punjab.gov.pk/  MISSION STATEMENT “To receive physical evidence from law enforcement agencies, on criminal and civil cases, analyze and provide accurate results of forensic analysis in a timely manner, and testify in COURTS OF LAW on analytical findings for the people of Punjab”  REMEMBERING A PIONEER DIRECTOR GENERAL Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Tahir (Late) A founder and pioneer in the field of Forensic Science in Pakistan Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Tahir (Late) Dr. Muhammad Ashraf Tahir (Late) PUNJAB FORENSIC SCIENCE AGENCY CRIME SCENE UNIT REGIONAL OFFICES 1. Lahore 2. Faisalabad 3. Gujranwala 4. Rawalpindi 5. Sargodha 6. Sahiwal 7. Multan 8. Bahawalpur 9. Dera Ghazi Khan PROVIDES SERVICES  SINDH FORENSIC DNA AND SEROLOGY LAB Located at the Dr. Panjwani Center for Molecular Medicine and Drug Research (PCMD), which is part of the International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences (ICCBS) at the University of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan.  ICCBS https://iccs.edu/page-sfdl  GUIDELINES FOR COLLECTION, STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF CRIME SCENE DNA SAMPLES Securing the crime scene Preliminary survey Contamination control Documentation Sketching Photography Methods for searching crime scenes Preservation, packaging and forwarding of biological evidences Maintaining the chain of custody Crime scene investigation kit  FEDERAL AGENCIES WITH FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORIES, USA A federal agency is an organization or administrative unit within the government that operates at the national level to perform specific functions, regulate areas of policy, or provide services for the public Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) - The FBI Laboratory provides a wide range of forensic services, including DNA analysis, fingerprint identification, and toxicology. Located in Washington, D.C. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) - The DEA's forensic labs focus on the analysis of controlled substances (can be legally prescribed under strict regulations, potential for abuse and addiction), drug-related evidence, and clandestine drug (inherently illegal) labs. Maintains seven drug laboratories across the U.S. (locations include Washington, DC; Miami; Chicago; Dallas; San Francisco; New York; San Diego). Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) - The ATF Laboratory provides forensic services related to firearms, explosives, arson investigations, and alcohol and tobacco-related crimes. Operates three regional laboratories in Greenbelt, MD; Atlanta; and San Francisco, along with a fire research laboratory in Washington, DC.  UNIQUE FORENSIC LABORATORY ANIMAL-ORIENTED FORENSICS Operated by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in Ashland, Oregon. One of the few labs worldwide focusing on animal-related forensic science. Mission: Supports investigations by Service agents in national parks, targeting poachers and those harming endangered species. International Support: Assists other countries in tracking illegal animal trafficking, including items like elephant ivory (jewelry, carvings, and decorative objects).  FEDERAL AGENCIES OF PAKISTAN WITH FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORIES https://pakistan.gov.pk/ministries# Several federal agencies operate forensic science laboratories to support law enforcement and investigations Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) - The FIA operates forensic facilities to investigate cybercrimes, document analysis, and other criminal investigations, especially those involving federal laws. It operates under Ministry of Interior. Mainly deals with human trafficking, cybercrime, immigration violations, and financial crimes. Punjab Forensic Science Agency (PFSA) It is managed by the Punjab provincial government, PFSA is a central forensic facility that provides services to federal and provincial agencies across Pakistan, handling DNA, toxicology, firearms analysis, and more. It comes under the Home Department of the Government of Punjab, which the Ministry of Home Affairs oversees at the provincial level. Anti-Narcotics Force (ANF) - The ANF has specialized forensic labs to test and analyze drugs and narcotics for evidence in anti-drug operations across the country. It operates under Ministry of Narcotics Control recently integrated in Ministry of Interior, currently headed by Federal Minister, Syed Mohsin Raza Naqvi  “Guiding Principle of Forensic Agencies” Physical evidence is factual and can never be absent from the crime scene. (Prof. Locards)” THERE IS NO CRIME IN THE WORLD THAT CAN BE COMMITTED WITHOUT LEAVING ANY TRACE BEHIND. “FAILURE OF NOT FINDING THE PHYSICAL EVIDENCE AT THE CRIME SCENE DOES NOT MEAN THAT IT IS NOT PRESENT, PHYSICAL EVIDENCE IS ALWAYS PRESENT WHEN HUMANS ARE NOT.  EDMOND LOCARD BIOGRAPHY Born in Saint-Chamond, France, on December 13, 1877 Studied medicine and law in Lyon; became assistant to criminologist Alexandre Lacassagne. Founded the first forensic laboratory in Europe in 1910. Persuaded Lyon's Police Department to provide space and assistants for his forensic lab. Authored the seven-volume work, Traité de Criminalistique. First to codify Galton points for fingerprint identification. Continued research in Lyon until his death in 1966.  LOCARD'S EXCHANGE PRINCIPLE Professor Edmond Locard (1877–1966) was a pioneering French forensic scientist and criminologist who became known as the "Sherlock Holmes of France" Best known for formulating Locard's Exchange Principle, which states that: “Every contact leaves a trace," meaning that whenever two objects come into contact, there is always a transfer of material between them. Emphasizes the importance of physical evidence in criminal investigations.  FORENSIC SCIENCE LABORATORY ACCREDITATION ADMINISTRATIVE AFFAIRS ASCLD-LAB Accreditation: The American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors has established the ASCLD Laboratory Accreditation Board to provide accreditation services, requiring a rigorous self-study, checklist of requirements, and on-site evaluation. Minimum Standard: Accreditation ensures that laboratories meet minimum criteria regarding facilities, security, training, and quality control, but it does not directly assess the competence of individual forensic scientists. Re-accreditation: Laboratories must undergo re-accreditation every five years to maintain their status.  PFSA, PAKISTAN LAB ACCREDITATION PFSA has received accreditation from the American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors Laboratory Accreditation Board (ASCLD-LAB), which is a significant recognition that ensures the agency meets established standards for quality and competence in forensic science. PFSA is also accredited under the ISO/IEC 17025 standard, which pertains to the general requirements for the competence of testing and calibration laboratories. * ISO stands for “International Organization for Standardization” * IEC stands for “International Electrotechnical Commission”.  ACCESS TO FORENSIC LABORATORY SERVICES Imbalance in resources between the prosecution and defense in criminal cases, potentially impacting the fairness of trials. Public Funding: Most forensic science laboratories in the U.S. are publicly funded and managed by federal, state, or local government agencies, primarily to support law enforcement functions. Limited Access for the Accused: Despite public funding, individuals accused of crimes typically do not have access to forensic science services. Even if they are willing to pay, few public laboratories permit access to their services. While private laboratories can serve defendants, the costs are often prohibitively high. Courts frequently do not authorize sufficient funds for indigent (low-income) defendants to cover the costs of forensic analysis and expert testimony. Even individuals willing and able to pay may find that qualified forensic science laboratories are not available Implications: This limited access raises concerns about fairness and justice in the legal process, as the accused may lack the resources to independently analyze evidence that could support their defense.  THE FORENSIC SCIENTIST EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF FORENSIC SCIENTISTS Historical Recruitment: Forensic scientists were traditionally recruited from chemistry or biology backgrounds, with little formal education in forensic science itself, as most learning occurred on the job. Emergence of Programs: Since the mid-20th century, universities in the United States have begun offering undergraduate and graduate programs specifically focused on forensic science. Undergraduate & Graduate Degrees: These programs in forensic science provided a solid foundation in chemical, mathematical, biological, and physical sciences, alongside applied laboratory experience. It includes coursework in law and criminal procedure, with practicum opportunities in operational forensic laboratories. Research Component: Graduate programs often require a research component, allowing students to engage in scientific inquiry related to forensic science.  EXPERT TESTIMONY What’s an Expert? An expert in forensic science is someone with specialized knowledge, skills, and abilities that allow them to draw conclusions from evidence that an average person could not. Credentials of an Expert: Expertise in forensic science doesn’t necessarily require a Ph.D.; experience and accumulated knowledge can also qualify someone as an expert. Dual Role of Forensic Scientist: Being skilled in analysis is only part of the job; a forensic scientist must also be able to clearly explain the findings to a judge or jury. 1. Analyzes evidence 2. Understands legal standards 3. Follows protocols to preserve evidence integrity 4. Can testify in court with an awareness of how their findings impact the case  EXAMPLE OF EXPERTISE Determining specific mechanical failures (like brake failure) requires expertise beyond what an average person can provide; in this context, a mechanic would serve as the expert….. HOWEVER!!! Distinction Between Expert and Forensic Scientist: Although the mechanic may possess the technical expertise to assess the brake system, he may lack the specialized training to apply his findings within a legal context.