Forensic Psychology PDF

# Forensic Psychology ## Incapacitation - Offenders are removed from society as a means of protecting the public. - This is a preventative measure, not a form of punishment. - Often used for serious offenders or those who are considered a high risk to reoffend. ## Deterrence - The aim is to det...

# Forensic Psychology ## Incapacitation - Offenders are removed from society as a means of protecting the public. - This is a preventative measure, not a form of punishment. - Often used for serious offenders or those who are considered a high risk to reoffend. ## Deterrence - The aim is to deter potential offenders from committing crimes. - This can be achieved through: - **General deterrence:** Punishment of an offender acts as a warning to others. - **Specific deterrence:** Punishment is intended to deter the individual offender from reoffending. ## Retribution - Offenders are punished for their crimes, as they deserve. - This is a form of moral justice. - It is a way of expressing society's disapproval of the crime. ## Rehabilitation - Aim is to help offenders change their behavior and become law-abiding citizens. - This often involves: - Therapy - Education programs - Job training - Rehabilitation programs can be effective, but they are not always successful. ## Counterpoint: - The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs is debated. - **Blackburn (1976)** found that some in prison programs increased recidivism rates. - **Smith (2017)** showed that while treatment programs were generally effective there were still problems with young offenders and significant recidivism rates. - **Losel (2010)** found that treatment programs were ineffective in reducing recidivism rates. ### Reasons for Ineffectiveness: - **Individual differences**: Many offenders may have specific psychological issues that are not addressed by treatment. - **Inadequate resources**: In many cases, treatment programs lack the resources to provide individualized care. ## Strengths - **Reduced recidivism rates**: Studies have shown that treatment programs can reduce recidivism rates. - **Improved social skills**: Treatment can help offenders develop better social skills, which may reduce their likelihood of reoffending. ## Limitations - **High cost**: Treatment programs can be expensive. - **Limited effectiveness**: Treatment programs are not always effective. - **Time-consuming**: Treatment takes time, and offenders may not be willing to commit. ## Evaluation (American Approach) - **Strengths:** - Organized - Disorganized - **Limitations**: - The top-down approach uses the principles of investigative psychology which is the study of criminal behavior to understand crime in order to find the criminal. - May be difficult to apply to many types of crime. - Does not take into account the many factors that may determine whether a crime is solved, which may abolish the distinctions between a serial killer and a “one off” offender. - It does not consider the fact that offenders may be influenced by others. ## Evaluation (British Approach) - **Strengths:** - More nuanced - Focuses on the psychology of the offender and the victim. - **Limitations:** - Emphasizes the perpetrator over the victim. - Has a focus on psychological factors above social factors. ## Offender Profiling - **A method of predicting the characteristics of an unknown offender.** - **Based on a set of data points, including:** - Offense characteristics - Crime scene characteristics - Evidence retrieved from the crime scene. - **Used as a tool to:** - Narrow down the pool of suspects - Target investigations - Help police understand the offender's motivations and behavior. - **Involves:** - Studying the crime scene - Analyzing the victim's background and behavior. ### Historical Approach: - **Lombroso** suggested that criminals can be identified by physical characteristics. - This was widely criticized as being racist and biased. - **Later research** by **Eysenck (1967)** suggested that offenders may be predisposed to crime based on their personality traits. ### Types of Offenders: - **Physiological Differences**: - Insensitivity to pain - Sangs - Tattoos - Prominent jaws - **Physical Characteristics**: - Height - Eye Color - Hair Color - **Behavioral Characteristics**: - Extraversion - Psychoticism - Neuroticism - **Socio-cultural Characteristics**: - Unemployment - Family History of Crime - Social Exclusion ### Biological Explanation - **Twin studies** and **adoption studies** have shown that there is a genetic component to criminal behavior. - **Studies** have shown that identical twins are more likely to share criminal behavior than fraternal twins. - **The findings** suggest that there is a biological tendency for certain behaviors, but the environment also plays a role. - **Gene-environment interaction** also plays a role in offending behavior. ### Psychological Explanation - **Eysenck's personality theory**: - Suggests that a combination of biological and environmental factors can influence criminal behavior. - **Forensic psychology** explores the complexities of criminal behavior and the reasons why people commit crimes. - **It is a multi-faceted field** that draws upon principles from psychology, sociology, law and criminology. ## Gender and Nurture - **Gender**: There is a genetic predisposition for crime, which is associated with the Y chromosome. - **Nurture**: Have a uterine nervous system which means they are more likely to be exposed to teratogens in the womb that affect brain development. - **Research**: suggests that testosterone affects aggression, but this is not an excuse for bad behavior. - **Male offenders**: are often motivated by external factors such as opportunity or peer pressure, which differs from women whose offending behavior is more likely to be due to more direct experiences of abuse. ## Stigma - **Stigma**: the idea that people who commit crimes are 'bad' or 'evil' and can be readily identified by their physical characteristics. - **This stigma can affect**: - An individual's ability to find work. - Their ability to build healthy relationships. - Their access to housing. - **The stigma associated with crime**: can be difficult to overcome even after an individual has served their sentence. - **Stigma can perpetuate**: the cycle of offending, as it can make it difficult for offenders to reintegrate into society. ## Risk of Offending - **Risk of Offending**: the likelihood that an individual will commit a crime in the future. - **Forensic psychologists**: use a variety of tools to assess an individual's risk of re-offending. - **Factors affecting risk**: - Age - Gender - Prior criminal history - Mental health - Substance abuse - Level of social support - **Risk assessment tools**: can be helpful for identifying individuals who may be at high risk of re-offending, allowing for preventative measures to be taken. ## Neurological Explanations - **Evidence suggests**: that differences in brain structure and function may play a role in criminal behavior. - **Differences in the prefrontal cortex**: may be associated with impulsivity, aggression and poor decision-making. - **Differences in the amygdala**: may be associated with emotional regulation and fear processing. - **Research into neurobiology of crime**: is still in its early stages, but there is promise for understanding the biological factors that can influence behavior. ## Cognitive Distortions - **Cognitive distortions**: are patterns of thinking that are often associated with criminal behavior that lead to a warped version of reality. - **They can be**: an excuse to justify criminal acts. - **By challenging these distortions**: Forensic Psychologists aim to help offenders recognize and change their thinking patterns. - **This is a crucial step in**: building awareness and understanding, and enabling offenders towards rehabilitation. ## Moral Reasoning - **Kohlberg (1968)**: applied the concept of moral reasoning to explain offending behavior. - **Studied**: the stages of moral reasoning in individuals. - **Proposed**: that people's morality develops through a series of stages, with each stage representing a more advanced level of moral thinking. - **Offenders**: are more likely to demonstrate pre-conventional moral reasoning than non-offenders. ### Moral Development - **Palmer and Hollin (1995)**: compared moral reasoning in 332 offenders. - **Findings**: those who committed crimes for financial gain, were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those who committed crimes for impulsive reasons. - **Pre-conventional reasoning**: tends to be associated with crimes that are more self-centered. ## Cognitive Challenge - **Cognitive Challenge**: to help offenders recognize and change their thinking patterns. - **Techniques**: - **Role-playing**: to help offenders see the consequences of their actions. - **Cognitive restructuring**: to help offenders develop more positive thinking patterns. - **Aim**: to reduce the likelihood of reoffending. - **Evidence**: has shown that cognitive therapy can be effective in reducing recidivism rates. ## Learning Attitudes - **Learning Attitudes**: are shaped by a range of influences, including family, friends and social norms. - **Individuals**: are more likely to commit crimes if they have strong pro-criminal attitudes. - **This is the group of people**: who are most likely to be at risk of re-offending. - **The idea**: that individuals can be taught to develop pro-social attitudes that will help them avoid crime. ## Learning Techniques - **Techniques for learning**: to change criminal attitudes. - **Techniques**: that can be used to promote pro-social behavior. - **Examples**: - **Cognitive-behavioral therapy**: to help offenders identify and change their negative thoughts and behaviors. - **Social skills training**: to help offenders develop communication and interpersonal skills. ## Differential Association Theory - **Differential Association Theory**: first proposed by **Sutherland (1939)** . - **Suggests**: that criminal behavior is learned through association with others. - **The theory does**: not explain why some people who are exposed to criminal influences do not become criminals. - **Can be applied to understanding**: why adolescents may be more likely to offend if they have peers who are involved in criminal activity. ## Strengths: - **Evidence**: suggests that delinquent behavior is learned through social interactions - **The theory**: has been influential in the development of crime prevention programs. ## Similarities: - **The theory**: shares similarities with the theory of social learning, which also suggests that behavior is learned through observation and imitation. ## Situations - **Situational factors**: can influence the likelihood of an individual committing an offense. - **Examples**: - **A crowded bar**: may increase the risk of an individual becoming involved in violence. - **A high-crime neighborhood**: may increase the risk of an individual being victimized by crime. ## Social Control Theory - **Social Control Theory**: suggests that people are less likely to commit crimes if they are strongly bonded to society. - **Strong social bonds**: are often associated with healthy families, stable employment and a sense of belonging. - **Individuals**: who lack these bonds are more likely to engage in criminal behavior. ## Strengths: - **Research evidence**: suggests that social control factors are important in determining criminal behavior. ## Limitations: - **There is no consensus**: on the exact nature of social control, and it can be difficult to measure. - **The theory**: has been criticized for being too simplistic, and for not adequately accounting for the complex dynamics of crime. ## Environmental Theories - **Environmental theories**: focus on the role of the environment in shaping criminal behavior. - **Research**: supports the idea that environmental factors can contribute to crime. - **Examples**: - **Poverty**: can lead to crime in some communities. - **Lack of opportunity**: can lead to crime in other communities. - **Environmental factors**: can contribute to crime, but they are not the only factor. ## Social Learning Theory - **Social Learning Theory**: was first proposed by **Albert Bandura (1977)**. - **Suggests**: that learning takes place through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. - **People are more likely**: to commit crimes if they are exposed to criminal behavior. - **This can happen**: through direct observation of criminal behavior, or through indirect exposure to criminal behavior, such as watching violent movies. - **The theory**: has been used to explain a wide range of criminal behaviors, including violence, drug abuse, and delinquency. ## Strengths: - **The theory**: has a strong empirical basis. - **It can be applied**: to a wide range of criminal behaviors. ## Similarities: - **The theory**: shares similarities with Differential Association Theory, in that it emphasizes the role of social learning in shaping criminal behavior. ## The Theory of Strain - **The Theory of Strain**: first proposed by **Robert Merton (1938)**. - **Suggests**: that crime occurs when there is a discrepancy between culturally defined goals and the legitimate means of achieving those goals. - **People who are unable**: to achieve success through legitimate means may resort to illegitimate means, such as crime. - **The strain**: can be caused by a number of factors, such as poverty, unemployment, or social inequality. # Strengths: - **The theory**: is supported by empirical evidence, and it can explain a wide range of criminal behaviors. - **It has been influential**: in the development of social policy, such as programs to address poverty and provide opportunities for disadvantaged youth. ## Limitations: - **The theory**: has been criticized for being too deterministic, and for not adequately accounting for individual differences. - **It does not explain**: why some people who experience strain do not commit crimes. ## The Theory of Labeling - **The Theory of Labeling**: first proposed by **Howard Becker (1963)**. - **Suggests**: that crime is a social construct. - **People**: are labeled as criminals by society, and this label can have a profound impact on their lives. - **Labeling**: can lead to self-fulfilling prophecy, where people who are labeled as criminals may actually end up committing more crimes. ## Strengths: - **The theory**: has been influential in the development of criminal justice policies and criminal justice reform. ## Limitations: - **The theory**: has been criticized for being too deterministic. - **It has been accused**: of downplaying the role of individual factors in crime. ## Risk of Offending - **Risk of Offending**: the likelihood that an individual will commit a crime in the future. - **Forensic psychologists**: use a variety of tools to assess an individual's risk of re-offending. - **Factors affecting risk**: - Age - Gender - Prior criminal history - Mental health - Substance abuse - Level of social support - **Risk assessment tools**: can be helpful for identifying individuals who may be at high risk of re-offending, allowing for preventative measures to be taken. ## Institutions - **Institutions**: play a crucial role in reducing criminal activity. - **Examples:** - Prisons - Probation - Parole - Youth detention centers ## Strengths: - **Institutions**: can provide a structured environment for offenders. - **The opportunity**: to learn new skills and develop new perspectives. - **Can help offenders**: reintegrate back into society. ## Limitations: - **Prisoners**: often experience high levels of stress and anxiety as a result of being imprisoned. - **They may experience**: loneliness, boredom and frustration. - **Prisons**: can be a breeding ground for criminal behavior. - **Offenders** are often more likely to engage in criminal activity in the years following release. ## Institutions: - **The American Psychological Association (APA (2010))**: has pointed to the role of the criminal justice system in perpetuating the cycle of crime. ## Strengths: - **The APA**: supports the idea that the criminal justice system should be focused on rehabilitation. ## Limitations: - **The APA**: does not provide specific solutions for reducing crime. ## Institutions: - **Offenders**: have different experiences in different prisons. - **This can influence**: their likelihood of re-offending. - **Offenders**: are more likely to re-offend if they are in a prison that is characterized by high levels of violence and brutality. ## Strengths: - **There is a growing awareness**: that prison conditions can impact on offenders' future behavior. - **This is leading**: to calls for prison reform. ## Limitations: - **There is no quick fix**: to the problems of crime. - **Addressing crime**: requires a multi-faceted approach that involves social, economic and political reform. ## The Criminal Justice System and Youth - **Youth offenders**: are often treated differently from adult offenders. - **They may be**: more likely to receive rehabilitative services. - **The aim**: is to help young people develop positive coping mechanisms.