Foreign Language Learning Skills Book PDF

The book is based on a lot of research but to keep the book as brief and practical as possible, only a few studies are cited. For more references, see Nation, I.S.P. (2009) Teaching ESL/RFL Listening and Speaking. New York: Routledge, Nation, I.S.P. (2009) Teaching ESL/RFL Reading and Writing. New Y...

The book is based on a lot of research but to keep the book as brief and practical as possible, only a few studies are cited. For more references, see Nation, I.S.P. (2009) Teaching ESL/RFL Listening and Speaking. New York: Routledge, Nation, I.S.P. (2009) Teaching ESL/RFL Reading and Writing. New York: Routledge, and Nation, P. (2013) What should Every EFL Teacher Know? Seoul: Compass Publishing. A summary of the book There are four things that you need to do when you learn a foreign language: Principle 1: Work out what your needs are and learn what is most useful for you Principle 2: Balance your learning across the four strands Principle 3: Apply conditions that help learning using good language learning techniques Principle 4: Keep motivated and work hard–Do what needs to be done You need to spend equal amounts of time on each of the four strands: 1 learning from meaning-focused input (listening and reading) 2 learning from meaning-focused output (speaking and writing) 3 language-focused learning (studying pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar etc) 4 fluency development (getting good at using what you already know) Language learning activities You need to be clear why you are learning the language. If speaking the language is your main goal, you need to get some help on pronouncing the language early in your study of the language. If reading is your main goal, do a lot of regular deliberate learning of vocabulary and a lot of reading. There are about twenty language learning techniques that you should use and you need to understand how to use these techniques well and in the right balance. These are described in the activity boxes in this book. ‫افضل استراتيجيه لتعلم اللغه‬ When you start learning the language, get hold of the 120 item survival vocabulary for that language from Paul Nation’s web site, and learn that using word cards. If the survival vocabulary has not been made for your language, get a speaker of that language to help you make it, using the English survival list as a guide. If you like using a tablet or cell phone, find a good flash card program for doing your word card learning. Otherwise, use small cards putting the foreign word or phrase on one side Introduction / 5  and the translation on the other. Become really fluent with the survival vocabulary by practicing it over and over again. Get a movie that you like in the foreign language and find the script for it on the web. Watch parts of the movie many times while studying the script. Get a short book in the foreign language and start working your way through it with a dictionary. An easy book is best and the books that native-speaking children use at school when they are first taught to read can be a good choice. When you have read the book carefully, read it again at least twice more quickly. Put the repeated words on to word cards to study. Do lots of easy reading every week. Try to arrange a regular speaking time with a native speaker either face-to-face or on the web. Practice useful role plays of common situations, such as greeting people and saying goodbye, buying things in a shop, asking for help and asking directions. Repeat these role plays several times so they can be done fluently. Keep a list of them so they can be practiced again and varied over several weeks. ٢‫استراتيجيه‬ Learn useful phrases and sentences as whole units but also make sure you understand their parts and how they fit together. Understanding the parts makes the whole phrase or sentence easier to remember. Avoid learning near synonyms, opposites or members of a lexical set together. Lexical sets are groups like the months of the year, the names of fruit, colours, parts of the body and articles of clothing. If you learn the words in such pairs or groups at the same time, the words in them get mixed up with each other making them harder to learn. Spend some time regularly studying and practicing pronunciation, preferably with a teacher who understands about the sounds of the language. This is very important if you are learning a language such as a tone language like Chinese which uses very different sounds from your first language. 6 The conditions for language learning The two most important conditions supporting learning are spaced repetition and the quality of attention given to items. Quality is increased by recalling what you have met, making varied recalls, analyzing and elaborating on language items, and giving deliberate attention. Learning a language involves a lot of work and even the most talented language learners work hard at a learning a language, so be prepared to work hard, work regularly and keep your motivation high by noting your successes in using the language and in increasing your language knowledge. Set regular weekly goals for words to learn, pages to read, and minutes to spend doing listening. Keep a record of what you do so you can see your progress. Introduction / 7  Chapter What do you need to do to learn a foreign 01 language? This chapter outlines four basic principles that learners should follow when they are learning another language. In the following chapters each of these principles is given much more detailed attention. This chapter thus provides an overview of the book. Principle 1 → Work out what your needs are and learn what is most useful for you Principle 2 → Balance your learning Principle 3 → Apply conditions that help learning Principle 4 → Keep motivated and work hard–Do what needs to be done Will following the principles described in this book help my learning? This book can help you, and here are some possible reasons why. If your language course does not provide large amounts of input through reading and listening at the right level for you, then you are missing a very important opportunity for learning. Research with very young foreign language learners, found that by increasing the amount of interesting and understandable written input without increasing class time, learners had almost double the language proficiency gains of those who followed a program involving the same amount of class time but with much less input. These gains were maintained a year later. Similarly, if you are not doing deliberate learning through using bilingual word cards, but instead are spending time doing a variety of vocabulary related exercises, you are likely to be learning vocabulary at less than half the rate that you could easily achieve. If your course does not include fluency development activities such as timed reading, then following a timed reading course taking a total of around three hours of study will increase your reading speed in the foreign language by at least 50% and in some cases will double your reading speed. There is a lot of research on learning foreign languages, but the findings of this research do not always get put into practice. Applying the findings of some of this research can result in very dramatic increases in learning. 8 Principle 1: Work out what your needs are and learn what is most useful for you If you are clear about why you are learning a language, you can better choose what and how to learn. Most people want to be able to speak a language, but some have the goal of reading it. If you are already part of the way through your language study, then test yourself to see how much you know. To get an idea about how much you need to learn when you learn another language, here are some vocabulary size figures from English. It is likely that European languages like French, Spanish, Dutch and German require similar vocabulary sizes. Other languages are likely to require similar sizes but there is no research on this. To be familiar with 98% of the running words in a friendly informal conversation, or to be familiar with 98% of the running words in a movie, you need to know around 6,000 different words. To be familiar with 98% of the running words in a novel or newspaper, you need to know around 8000-9000 different words. This is a lot of words and native speakers learn them at the rate of around 1,000 different words a year, until they reach a vocabulary size of close to 20,000 different words. However, as we shall see, not all words are created equal, and with a vocabulary of 1,000 to 2,000 of the most useful words we can hold adequate conversations and get most things done. Principle 2: Balance your learning ‫تعريف‬ Balancing learning is probably the most important principle, but it does require some skill and effort in applying it. The principle of the four strands says that if you want to have a well-balanced language course, you need to spend equal amounts of time on 1 learning from meaning-focused input (listening and reading) 2 learning from meaning-focused output (speaking and writing) 3 language-focused learning (studying pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar etc) 4 fluency development (getting good at using what you already know). All four strands are important and they need roughly equal amounts of time. In Chapters 3 to 6 we will look at how this can be done. Chapter 1 / 9  If the language you are learning has a sound system that is very different from your native language, it is worth deliberately learning about the sound system of the foreign language. This means finding a teacher who can do more than say sounds for you to copy; the teacher needs to explain how the sounds are produced in your mouth. An alternative is to do that study yourself. Some people can learn the sounds well without help or study, but if you are having difficulty with the sounds, then it is best to have a teacher. If your goal is only to read the language, then the time that you would spend on output (strand 2) can simply be changed to more reading input. Similarly, if your goal is just to speak the language (particularly if the script of the language you are learning is difficult), you may want to make all of your input strand consist of spoken language. Principle 3: Apply conditions that help learning Learning a language involves both deliberate and incidental learning, and these both involve the conditions of repetition, retrieval (recall), varied meetings and varied use, using visuals, and deliberate attention. Good learning also involves avoiding interference which makes learning more difficult. We will look in more detail at these conditions in Chapter 7, but they are mentioned throughout the book because they are so important. Is there a best method for learning a language? Unfortunately, the answer is no. Language learning can occur through all kinds of methods. What is most important is that good principles of learning are applied. You may have heard of methods like grammar-translation, aural-oral, the silent way, Suggestopaedia, the communicative approach, and TPR (Total Physical Response). These all have their supporters and attackers. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses and there is no research that shows the superiority of one method over another. It is fine to follow a particular method although it is not necessary. What is important is that there is a balance of learning opportunities across the four strands of meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, language-focused learning, and fluency development. It is also important that the learning conditions of repetition, retrieval, varied meetings and varied use, deliberate attention, and deep processing occur. The most useful items to learn should get the most attention and you need access to material which is at the right level for you. 10 Principle 4: Keep motivated and work hard–Do what needs to be done Many people begin learning a language and then give up when they see how much work is required. It takes young native speakers many years to learn their first language and they are highly motivated to learn it. When learning a foreign language, there is often not the immediate motivation of being able to use what you have just learned. It is usually easier to learn when the language is being used around you. A learner of a foreign language needs to set short-term goals where there are signs of progress and achievement. This can be as simple as learning twenty new words, or learning how to answer the telephone. Having clear short term goals can keep motivation high. In Chapter 8 we will look more closely at motivation and working hard. A very useful principle to follow when learning most things is the time-on-task principle. This principle says if you want to learn something, do it a lot. If you want to learn to read, read a lot. If you want to learn to speak, speak a lot. This is a rather crude quantity-based principle, but it works. The more time you spend doing something, usually the better you will become at doing it. It is easy to criticize this principle because it concentrates on quantity rather than quality. However, there is a lot of research to support it. In the following chapter we will look at finding out what you need to learn. Chapter 1 / 11  Chapter Work out what your needs are and learn 02 what is most useful for you To work out what your language learning needs are, first focus on what you already know, and what you plan to do with the language you are learning. What are your reasons for learning that language? Why are you learning the language? Language is used for a wide range of purposes and one way of speeding up learning is to focus on a particular purpose and the language needed for that purpose. So, it is helpful to be clear about your purpose in learning a particular language. For example, are you learning the language so that you can travel where that language is spoken? Table 2.1 looks at reasons for learning a language and how these affect what you need to learn. Table 2.1 Reasons for learning another language and what you need to learn Reasons Learning focuses I am just interested in the Spoken language should be your major focus at the beginning. language I am living in a country where Spoken language should be your major focus. You should make this language is spoken a list of your speaking needs and keep adding to it. It is worth and I want to be able to starting with some of the Survival vocabulary (Nation and communicate with others Crabbe, 1993)*. My partner or another family Spoken language should be your major focus. If the family member is a native speaker member is willing and able to help you, you should start with of that language useful repeated routines such as greetings and talking around daily repeated activities such as getting a meal ready or talking about what happened during the day. I want to travel in countries You do not need to learn a lot of the language. Learn the where that language is Survival vocabulary. Aim for a high degree of spoken fluency spoken with the items in that very limited vocabulary. Put all of the survival vocabulary on to word cards. I need to know this language You should begin working with the texts you want to read. This to read books related to my is because the technical words in the subject area make up a very work or subject area large proportion of the running words in such texts (somewhere between 20% and 30% - that is one in every three to five words will be a technical word). If you read outside your subject area you will need to learn many words that are not useful in your subject area. 12  I need to study for a degree Start working with the texts you will use in your study. Put using this language unknown words onto word cards and do the same with repeated phrases. Study these cards every day. I want to use this language Start working with conversational spoken language and then to do business with people move to business-focused conversation. who speak this language It is a university or school Get examples of the final exam and prepare for the kinds of requirement and I want to questions the exam asks. pass the final exam * Go to Paul Nation’s web site to find the survival vocabulary in a range of different languages in the Vocabulary Resource Booklet The list of reasons in Table 2.1 is roughly ordered according to the strength of motivation to learn the language. The strongest motivation is usually a strong feeling of personal interest. The weakest motivations are those where other people’s requirements are forcing you to do something. Motivation is highly likely to have an effect on how hard you work at learning the language. Note 2.1: Are all words created equal? If we do a frequency count of words in a text, no matter how long that text is we get the same pattern of results. A small number of words are very frequent, and a large number of words are very infrequent. A rather small number of words are very frequent The ten most frequent words of English typically cover 25% of the words in any text and the 100 most frequent words cover around 50%. Have a look at a page and see how often the word the occurs (It occurs in almost every line in this paragraph!). By itself, that word covers 7% of any written English text. The most frequent 1,000 words cover around 80% of the words in most texts. In some languages the coverage figures are even higher than this. When learning words, it is good to learn the high frequency words first. The effort of learning these words is well repaid by opportunities to meet and use these words. Vocabulary specialists typically see the high frequency words of English as consisting of around 2,000 to 3,000 words. Only a small number of these words are function words (words like the, a, of, because, it, one, which, that). Most are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs (content words). Chapter 2 / 13  You can make a frequency ranked list of the words in the language you want to learn by going to Sketch Engine www.sketchengine.co.uk. (See the instructions near the beginning of Chapter 2 of this book). You don’t have to learn these words in exactly the same order in which they occur in the list, but you should learn them in groupings of say 100 words that roughly match the frequency list. A large number of words are very infrequent Half of the words in any text will occur only once in that text. So, if you read a novel which is 100,000 words long from beginning to end, you will meet around 5,000 different words (Captain Blood is 115,879 words long and contains 5,071 different word families). Half of the different words that you meet (well over 2,000) will occur only once. That means there will not be repeated opportunities to meet these words to help learn them, and if you look them up in a dictionary and study them, you may have to wait a long time before you meet them again. One of the skills in learning a language is to know what words are worth learning at each stage of your proficiency development. Because there are many low frequency words, it is best to read material that uses a controlled vocabulary so that your time is not spent on low frequency words that are not useful for you at your present level of proficiency. For more on this topic go to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zipf ’s_law. How much language do you need to learn to cope with being a foreign tourist? There is good news here. With around 120 words and phrases (which would take a total of four hours of deliberate study to learn), you can deal with the most basic requirements. These basic requirements include meeting and greeting people, being polite (please, thank you), going shopping, ordering food, seeking directions, reading signs, finding somewhere to stay, talking about yourself, and controlling language input. This survival vocabulary is available in over 20 different languages. It is very similar to the word and phrase lists that you find at the back of tourist guide books, except that this one has been well researched. You can find these lists at http://www.victoria. ac.nz/lals/staff/paul-nation.aspx. It is a good idea very early in your language study to make sure that you have covered all the survival vocabulary because this is made up of very useful language items. 14  Finding out about useful words and phrases by using a concordancer You can find out about particular words and phrases by using a computer-based tool called a concordancer. It is worth spending an hour or so learning how to use a concordancer because a concordancer can quickly give you lots of examples of a word or phrase you are interested in. These examples can be a great help for learning for the following reasons. 1 The examples will help you see the range of senses of a word or phrase, and will help you see which are the commonest senses. 2 The examples can show you how a word or phrase is used. 3 The number of examples can help you see how frequent a word or phrase is. 4 The examples can show you what words a particular word occurs with. This information is useful for deciding whether to learn a word or phrase and can help you learn it by enriching the information you have about that word. What is a concordancer? A concordancer is a program where you type in a word or phrase or two or more words, and the program searches for examples of these in a collection of texts (a corpus). There are two kinds of concordancers. The easiest to use are online concordancers where you go to a web site and use the program and corpus that the web site provides. Here are some useful web sites. Netspeak www.netspeak.org Word and phrase www.wordandphrase.info Just the word www.just-the-word.com Compleat Lexical Tutor www.lextutor.ca Wordneighbours www.wordneighbours.ust.hk The concordancer at www.sketchengine.co.uk allows free searching for a limited time in a very wide variety of languages and corpus sizes. The other kind of concordancer is one that you download to your computer and so you do not use it online. You need to provide your own corpus to search for examples. It is not too hard to find a corpus or to make a corpus, but it is best to start learning about concordancers using an online concordancer. The best free downloadable concordancer is AntConc which can be found on Laurence Anthony’s web site http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.ac.jp/software.html. Chapter 2 / 15  Here is an example of output from a concordancer, using the search word contrary. 1 The facts described are contrary to the principles enshrined in the constitution 2 come in and wing it.” Contrary to some of his statements in the past, Redford in 3 are a legitimate issue, contrary to the view that every criticism of her intellect 4 The Sierra Club to the contrary notwithstanding, the Supreme Court’s June 29 5 are wise and welcome. Contrary to what critics say, the new policy poses no 6 the literal and popular sense. On the contrary, “hope... can be situated only in 7 an experience that precedes it. On the contrary, language makes experience possible. 8 knowledge, be predicted. To the contrary, reversing human expectations, it The output can be sorted in the concordancer to make it easier to see patterns. Look at this video to see an example of a concordancer being used. http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=QbwgruJ4_gA Find out how much you know already If you have already been studying a language for a year or more, then see how much you now know. To do this for English, go to www.my.vocabularysize.com and measure your vocabulary size. Knowing your vocabulary size helps you understand how far you have to go in learning the language and is also a useful guide in finding suitable reading material. Table 2.2 shows how you can use your vocabulary test results to choose reading material in English. Table 2.2 Matching vocabulary size to reading material for meaning-focused input Vocabulary size Source of reading material 1,000 words or less Choose books from the early levels of published graded readers 1,000-2,000 words Choose books from the middle levels of published graded readers 2,000-4,000 words Choose books from the later levels of published graded readers 4,000 words or more Choose books from the Mid-frequency readers Unfortunately, other languages do not have readily available vocabulary size tests, but here is a rough way of getting similar information about how much vocabulary you know. 16  1 Get a frequency ranked list of words in the language you are learning. You can do this by going to www.sketchengine.co.uk. 2 Start with the most frequent word and go through the list deciding if you could give a meaning for each word. If you already know a lot of words in that language, look at every fiftieth word (in that case multiply your known words by fifty to calculate how many words you know). Here is how you can get a frequency ranked word list for any of many different languages. 1 Go to www.sketchengine.co.uk 2 Choose the language corpus (the collection of texts) you want by choosing from the table Corpora or click Show all corpora just below the table. If the corpus is very large you may have to wait for a minute or two. A Make concordance box will appear, but don’t use that. 3 On the far left, click Word list. Don’t change any of the settings but just click the Make wordlist button near the bottom of the box. Wait while the program creates a list for you. 4 In the list at the far left, click Save. If you only want the first 1000 words (that is plenty if you are beginning to learn the language), click the Save Word List button. To measure knowledge of the first 2000 words of French, go to http://www.lextutor. ca/tests/yes_no_fr/. If you know very little of the language, the frequency-ranked list can be a useful rough guide for learning (see Note 2.1: Are all words created equal?). Most of the words at the top of the list will have grammatical functions and need to be learned in sentence contexts. In the next chapter we will look at learning through listening and reading. Chapter 2 / 17  Receptiue skills Chapter Balance your learning–learn through 03 listening and reading How can you learn a language through listening? A useful thing to do in the very early stages of learning another language is to listen to the way in which the language is spoken, even when you don’t understand anything at all. An effective way to do this is to watch a movie with subtitles which uses that language. This kind of form-focused listening helps you get a feel for the language which will be very useful when you begin to speak it yourself. Later, as your skill in the language develops, a good way to get some listening practice is to find a movie where you can download the script of the movie and study it before watching it. The first step is to read the script looking up the words you don’t know and working out what the sentences mean. Then you can watch the movie with subtitles. Then a few weeks later watch it again. Similarly, many graded readers now come with an accompanying CD which provides the spoken version of the text. You can try reading before listening, and reading while listening. 3-to listen to test are at proficiency Activity 3.1: Reading while listening While you listen to a recording, you silently read the same text. This activity uses one skill (reading) to support the other (listening). Learners prefer listening while reading over listening by itself and tend to gain higher vocabulary learning scores and comprehension related scores when reading while listening. How much vocabulary do you need to know to watch a movie? Movies are usually under 10,000 running words long (a novel is usually over 100,000 words long). Movies typically contain around 1,000 different word families. These words come from a range of frequency levels. To follow most of the words in a movie without any preparation, you need to have a reasonably large vocabulary – at least 3,000 words and preferably around 6,000 18 words. Because the number of different words in a movie is not so large, preparing for a movie by reading the script and studying the vocabulary is a manageable task. Because the amount of meaningful input that you get has a strong effect on how much of the language you learn, you should try to regularly get lots of listening and reading input at the right level of difficulty for you. How can you learn a language through reading? There is very good research showing that it is possible to learn a lot of a language through reading. If you want to use reading as a way of developing language proficiency, what should you do? 1 Read texts which are at the right level for you. This is easy to do if you are a learner of English, but probably impossible for learners of many other languages. This is because in English there are many books, called graded readers, which are specially written within a controlled vocabulary for learners of English. Graded readers are books specially written for foreign language learners, so that at almost every level of proficiency learners can read books which are at the right level for them. Graded readers are written at various levels within a controlled vocabulary. Almost every major language teaching publisher has their own series of readers. Oxford University Press has the Oxford Bookworms, Cambridge University Press has the Cambridge English Readers, Penguin has the Penguin Readers and Heinemann has the Foundation Readers and the National Geographic readers. The Oxford Bookworms series has the following levels. Level 1 2 3 4 5 6 New words 400 300 300 400 400 700 Total words 400 700 1,000 1,400 1,800 2,500 So, a learner who knows only 400 words can read several books at level 1 of the series. One of the good things about graded readers is that every word that is met is probably worth learning, even if that word is not repeated in the book. Graded reader series end at around 3,000 words. If you know more words than this, you should read the Mid-frequency readers which are written at the 4000, 6,000, and 8,000 word levels. They are free and can be found at Paul Nation’s web site http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/staff/paul-nation.aspx. They can be read on electronic readers or tablet computers. Chapter 3 / 19  For more information on graded readers visit the Extensive Reading Foundation web site, and to see which have been voted the best graded readers. There are a few graded readers in Japanese and a few in French. If you are learning a language other than English, it is useful to get hold of the books that native speakers use at school when they begin to learn to read. This is because these books are written for learners with small vocabularies and do not introduce words that these first language learners are unlikely to know. Another good source of reading is to read an encyclopaedia especially written for young children. 2 Accompany reading with deliberate learning from word cards or flash card programs (see Chapter 5). 3 Read electronic texts using a program that has easy dictionary look-up. For example, using Kindle or Kobo, you can look up the meaning of a word just by touching it. To put a text into Kindle, you need to find your special Kindle email address. To find this address, logon to the Amazon Kindle web site. Choose Your account, and click on the first heading of the vertical menu, Your account (If you don’t see the left hand column, it may be because you have not yet logged in to your account). In the far left column, under the heading Your kindle account, click Personal document settings. This will give you a list of the email addresses of your devices or apps. You can email any document you want to read to this address and it will appear on your Kindle app on your device. 4 Make sure you do plenty of reading. The higher your level of proficiency, the more you will need to read in order to meet words at the right level for you enough times to have a chance to learn them (see Note 8.2: How much reading do you need to do?). Reading helps language learning by providing the important learning condition of repetition. That is, through reading learners meet words, word groups and grammatical constructions several times and so have a good chance of learning them. Activity 3.2: Extensive reading Extensive reading involves doing large quantities of reading using material which is at the right level for you. Ideally, this reading should be enjoyable. Material which is at the right level contains no more than two unfamiliar words in every 100 running words (about 1 unknown word or less in every five lines). For elementary and intermediate learners, this means reading books written within a controlled vocabulary (graded readers). 20  How to practice extensive reading The aim should be to read a book a week, spending at least an hour or two per week reading. In a well-balanced language course, just under a quarter of the course time should be spent on extensive reading. Two thirds of this time should be spent reading material containing a few unknown words, and one third of this time should be spent quickly reading very easy material in order to develop reading fluency. Why is extensive is reading importint It is not necessary to sit comprehension tests on the reading, although there are web sites for learners of English which provide such tests (see the Extensive Reading Foundation web site http:// erfoundation.org/wordpress/graded-readers/mreader). The research on extensive reading has shown that it brings about improvement in reading, vocabulary growth and a wide range of language skills and knowledge. Research has shown that through reading we learn vocabulary, word groups, grammatical features and improve our reading skill. Reading can also result in feelings of success; it is not enormously time consuming, and can be very enjoyable. Activity 3.3: Narrow reading Staying within a single topic or subject area is sometimes called narrow reading. It has three major positive effects on language learning. Its strongest effect is to reduce the total number of different words that you meet. Having a lot of different topics results in a very diverse vocabulary, and in many more words that will occur only once in the texts. In addition by staying within the same subject area you build up a lot of useful content knowledge that will make reading easier and so will make guessing unknown words from context easier. You can do narrow reading by (1) reading within a specialist area of knowledge, preferably one that you already know a lot about, (2) following the same story or general topic area when reading newspapers, or (3) doing the Issue logs activity (see Activity 8.1). However, if you already have a rather large vocabulary, over 6,000 or 7,000 words, it may be more useful for you to read widely so that you can meet more unknown words that you can learn. Reading across a range of different topics greatly increases the number of different words that you meet. You need to consider whether this is a good thing or a bad thing for you at your present level of proficiency. Chapter 3 / 21  Way isn’t it a good idea to read a book Is it a good idea to choose a book that interests you and read it from the beginning to the end learning all the new words you meet? Generally this is not a good idea if the book is not written in a controlled vocabulary, or if the book is not on a topic that you already know a lot about. The main reason why it is not a good idea is that it will contain a large number of unknown words (possibly more than 1000), most of which will be well outside your current knowledge and which will not be repeated in the book or even in the next book you read. Around half of the different words in any text occur only once. You are likely to meet an unknown word in every line of the text. However, it is worth struggling through a book if one or more of the following conditions apply: 1 The book is a set text for your course. 2 The book is an important text in the academic field that you are studying. It will help you learn the technical vocabulary of your field. 3 The subject matter of the book is very familiar to you and the technical terms are similar to those in your L1. 4 It is a novel that you have already read in your first language so you can easily guess or skip a lot of the unknown words. You can make reading such a book easier if you buy an electronic version of the text or scan it to make an electronic version (Do not distribute the electronic version to other people as this will break copyright). If you put the text in an electronic reader like Kindle or Kobo you can get easy dictionary look-up. A useful alternative to reading a long text is to do narrow reading of a variety of short texts on the same topic. When you have read a long text, is it better to re-read the same book or read a different one? The advantages of re-reading a book are 1 it will be a lot easier than reading it the first time 2 it will guarantee repetition of the vocabulary 3 it will provide an opportunity for recall of previously met vocabulary to occur 4 it may help develop reading fluency 5 it will take much less time than reading a different book of the same length. 22 The advantages of reading a different book are 1 some of the words met in the previous book will be met again in varied meetings 2 there will be many new words to learn. These lists suggest that re-reading is a good idea, and that it would be good to have a mixture of re-reading and different reading in a language learning program. In the early stages of language learning your goal should be to spend at least around a half an hour to an hour per week doing meaningful listening and reading. You need to increase this time as proficiency develops. Having looked at learning through input, in the next chapter we look at learning through output (speaking and writing). Chapter 3 / 23  productiue skills Chapter Balance your learning–learn through 04 speaking and writing Listening and reading are called the receptive skills because they involve receiving input, while speaking and writing are called the productive skills. In general, producing language is more difficult than receiving it because when producing it, choices have to be made about which words to use and which grammatical constructions they occur in. According to the principle of the four strands, which we follow in this book, over one quarter of the time in a well-balanced language learning program should be devoted to the productive skills of speaking and writing. This includes developing fluency in speaking and writing. Note 4.1: Do children learn languages better than adults? Elastic When considering this question, it is important to distinguish between learning a second language and learning a foreign language. Learning a second language involves learning a language while living in a country where the language is spoken. Children do this very well, and generally the younger they are, the better their learning will be. Learners are much more likely to acquire a native-like pronunciation of the language if they begin learning a second language at a young age (before six or seven years old). Learning a foreign language occurs in a very different situation. There is not usually a strong need to learn the language, There are not a lot of opportunities to meet and use the foreign language, motivation needs to be very high, and the time available is usually very limited. When learning a foreign language, adults have some advantages: they are better at aiming for long-term goals, at keeping working at the learning, and they often have learning skills and strategies that they have already practised in other learning. Adults are also better able to reflect on their learning and take personal control of it. How can you learn a language through speaking? The quickest way to begin speaking in another language is to memorize useful phrases and sentences. The very first phrases and sentences should come from the survival vocabulary which includes greetings, expressions of politeness, the language needed for shopping and moving around, numbers, the language needed in a restaurant, and brief descriptions of yourself, your work, and your reasons for being in the foreign country. 24  Activity 4.1: Memorized sentences and dialogues Write the sentences you want to memorize on small cards with their first language translation on the back. Ideally, you should get some help with pronunciation of these phrases and sentences before working on memorizing them. When memorizing, look at the first language translation and try to recall the foreign language phrase or sentence. Activity 5.1 describes how to use word cards. The phrases and sentences should be ones that you can use immediately. Table 8.5 contains a list of situations that you could use to prepare short dialogues to memorize. Deliberate memorization is fast and long-lasting and makes material readily available for language use. As your proficiency in the language develops, it would be useful to set up a regular conversation group of learners (and hopefully including a native speaker or two) who meet to practice conversation. During these conversation sessions, you can work your way through a list of situations you are likely to be in, doing small role plays of these situations. Each situation should be practiced several times, two or three times in one session, and then once or twice in increasingly spaced subsequent sessions. In an ordinary conversation, a native speaker is unlikely to correct a foreign language learner if what the learner says is understandable even if not correct. It is therefore useful to find someone who is both willing and capable of giving you corrective feedback about your speaking. It is also useful to decide on a particular focus for correction, such as the pronunciation of a certain sound or the use of a particular grammatical feature so that the corrections are not overwhelming. Activity 4.2: Role play Role-play activities involve two or three people working together acting out the parts in a common situation such as going to the doctor, buying things in a shop, seeking directions, ordering food in a restaurant, and starting up a conversation with a stranger. Each person in the pair or group takes on a different role and they act out the situation. At the end of each role-play, the players should comment on how they could improve what they just did. Then they should immediately do the role-play again adding in the improvements. If it is possible to do it a third time straight after that, then that is a good thing to do. The same role-play should be practised again two or three times in later sessions. If the topic is carefully chosen, role play activities prepare you for spoken language use. Chapter 4 / 25  Activity 4.3: Prepared talks It is worth developing short talks that you can write out, memorize, get checked, and then practice. These can include topics that you would be likely to talk about with other people, for example, the work that you do, your hobbies, interesting things that you have done in the foreign country, your family, and what visitors to your country should go to see. Another useful activity involves imaginary mental conversations. This activity can be largely silent but there is value in speaking aloud (although not in public places!). The activity involves imagining a conversation with a real person who you can visualise, perhaps a movie star. You simply practice speaking to them in your mind, polishing the conversation until you are happy with it. When you are studying by yourself, speaking is the hardest skill to develop because of a lack of opportunity to talk to others. You need to do your best to find these opportunities through direct contact with native speakers or other learners and through electronic contact using programs like Skype. How can you learn a language through writing? There should be three kinds of writing in any language course you take. The first kind of writing is done carefully, with the help of a dictionary if necessary, and focuses on accuracy. Someone else who is proficient in the language should correct it so that you can get feedback about the accuracy of your writing. The second kind of writing should focus on fluency, and the most useful activity for doing this is 10 minute writing (see Activity 6.3). The third kind of writing (see Activity 8.1: Issue logs) focuses on quantity of writing under careful conditions and does not require feedback on the language, although it would be useful to get it. Activity 4.4: Read and write Writing is easier if you bring a lot of knowledge to what you write. Choose a topic that is relevant for you, read about it in your first language and in the foreign language, and then write about it, using everything that you have read. Instead of just reading and writing, you can listen and write, or watch, listen and write (watching a movie before writing for example) (see Activity 7.1: Linked skills activities for a similar kind of activity). 26 The time-on-task principle says that the more time you spend on an activity, the better you will be at doing it. The more you practice, the better you become. All the four skills, listening, speaking, reading and writing, improve with large amounts of regular practice. You will not only learn the particular skill, you will also improve your vocabulary and grammar. In the two previous chapters we have looked at learning through using the language. In the next chapter, we look at a different kind of learning–deliberate learning–which makes up the third of the four strands of a well-balanced course. Chapter 4 / 27  Chapter Balance your learning–do deliberate study 05 of language features Deliberate learning is very efficient and effective and so it is worth doing it. This deliberate learning can involve the teacher teaching, but it must also involve you as the learner taking responsibility for your own learning. What deliberate learning should you do? You need to organize your own deliberate learning. The most important deliberate learning activity is using word cards (see Activity 5.1). You need to take control of this very effective activity and keep using it to learn new vocabulary and even more importantly to keep revising previously met vocabulary. You may find that some teachers advise against using this strategy largely because of the belief that all vocabulary learning needs to occur in context. They are wrong. It is important that there is vocabulary learning in context through meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, and fluency development, but it is also important that there is deliberate decontextualised learning through the use of word cards, because such learning is very efficient and effective. Some people also believe that because word card learning involves first language translation, it encourages thinking in the first language rather than the foreign language. Research however has shown that in the beginning and intermediate stages of language learning the first and foreign languages are unavoidably stored together. Using bilingual word cards is a very effective deliberate learning strategy that you should use. As well as word card learning, you should also use concordancers to study words and grammar (see Chapter 2), you should do dictation, transcription, delayed copying, and oral repetition activities to gain familiarity with spoken and written forms, and you should do intensive reading preferably using an electronic reader such as Kindle so that there is easy word look-up. 28 Activity 5.1: Word cards Using word cards to learn vocabulary is just one step in learning a word. Using word cards is a deliberate learning strategy and fits into the language-focused learning strand of a course. 1. Write the word to be learned on one side of a small card and its translation on the other side. This encourages you to recall the item after the first meeting. Each recall strengthens the connection between the form of the word and its meaning. Seeing them both together does not do this. 2. In the beginning, start with small packs of cards -- about 15 or 20 words. Difficult items should be learned in small groups to allow more repetition and more thoughtful processing. As the learning gets easier, increase the size of the pack -- more than 50 seems to be unmanageable simply for keeping the cards together and getting through them all in one go. 3 Space the repetitions. The best spacing is to go through the cards a few minutes after first looking at them, then an hour or so later, then the next day, then a week later, and then a couple of weeks later. This spacing is much more effective than massing the repetitions together into an hour of Because it will study. The total time taken may be the same but the result is different. Spaced repetition results in longer lasting learning. 4. For words which are difficult to learn, use depth of processing techniques like the keyword technique (see Note 5.1). Think of the word in language contexts and situational contexts. Break the word into word parts if possible. The more associations you can make with an item, the better it will be remembered. 5. Make sure that words of similar spelling or of related meaning are not together in the same pack of cards. This means days of the week should not be all learned at the same time. The same applies to months of the year, numbers, opposites, words with similar meanings, and words in the same set such as items of clothing, names of fruit, parts of the body, and things in the kitchen. These items interfere with each other and make learning much more difficult. 6. Keep changing the order of the words in the pack. This will avoid learning where the meaning of one word reminds you of the meaning of the next word in the pack. 7. Say the word aloud to yourself. This helps the form to enter long term memory. 8. Write phrases or sentences containing the words on the card too where this is helpful. This particularly applies to verbs. Some words are most usefully learned in phrases. Chapter 5 / 29  Note 5.1: What is the keyword technique? The keyword technique is a very effective and well researched way of helping remember vocabulary. It involves the following steps. Step 1: Think of a word in your first language (or another language you know) that sounds like the L2 word or the beginning of the L2 word. This is your keyword. Step 2: Think of an image involving the meaning of the L2 word and the meaning of the meaning of the keyword. It is important that you actually visualize this image in your mind. So, the keyword technique has four parts. (1) The new L2 word (2) The keyword (3) The image involving the L2 word and the keyword. (4) The meaning of the L2 word. In the following examples, the four parts are numbered to match the four parts of the technique. If you are Indonesian and you want to remember (4) the meaning of (1) parrot, then you can use (2) the Indonesian word parit meaning “ditch” as the keyword. You then (3) imagine a parrot in a ditch. So the keyword performs two functions: to provide a form link, e.g. parit-parrot, and to provide a meaning link ‘parrot’-‘ditch’. If you are Thai and you want to learn (1) the English word council, then you can use as (2) the keyword the Thai phrase khâaw săan which means ‘uncooked rice’. You think of (3) the meaning of uncooked rice in an image with the meaning of council, as in the picture. This then helps you to attach (4) the meaning of council to the form council. The keyword technique works because it makes you process more than one feature of a word and this processing is not shallow in the way that exact repetition is shallow. The only limit is your imagination! The keyword does not have to sound exactly like the foreign word to be learned, and it does not have to be like all of the word. If the form of the keyword is like the beginning of the foreign word, then that is usually enough. In research, the keyword technique typically results in 25% more learning than other deliberate learning activities. (adapted from Nation, I.S.P. (2008). Teaching Vocabulary: Strategies and Techniques. Boston: Heinle Cengage Learning) 30  How can you learn multiword phrases? Words typically occur with other words to make up phrases. Most of these phrases have a meaning that is closely related to the meanings of the words that they contain, for example, next week, six o’clock, strong tea, in a minute. For some phrases, the relationship between the meaning of the phrase and the words it contains is not quite so clear, but there is still a strong connection. For example, kill two birds with one stone, see the light at the end of the tunnel, you know, for instance, think about. For a small number of phrases, the meaning of the parts has no obvious connection with the meaning of the whole, for example, at all, of course, as well, by and large, raining cats and dogs. There are many words to describe these various kinds of phrases such as idioms, collocations, multiword units, figuratives, and lexical bundles. However, what is important about all the various kinds of phrases is that it is worth giving some deliberate attention to them as phrases, because this will help towards more accurate and fluent use of the language. There are several ways of giving this attention. 1 Work out how the meanings of the parts relate the meaning of the whole. For phrases and clauses that have a figurative meaning, this may involve seeing the connection between the literal meaning and the figurative meaning. For example, gave me the green light has the literal meaning of seeing a green traffic light. Its figurative meaning is getting permission to move forward. 2 Look at the form of the phrase. About 20% of phrases in English make use of alliteration (words beginning with the same sound), such as leading light, baby boom, head held high or some other sound connection such as similar vowel sounds (blue moon), rhyme (when the cat’s away, the mice will play), repetition (by and by), and partial rhyme (last gasp). 3 Think about and find out about the history of the phrase. Where do toe the line and cut and run come from? Just as words differ in their frequency of occurrence, so do phrases. Some are very frequent and a much larger number are not so frequent (see Note 2.1: Are all words created equal?). You can check to see how frequent a phrase is by using a concordancer (see Chapter 2). Chapter 5 / 31  Is it good to learn related words together? Although it seems like a good idea to learn related words at the same time, whether it is helpful or not depends on the relationship between them. Words like near synonyms (embarrass-humiliate, prevent-protect), opposites (hot-cold, long-short), and members of a lexical set (days of the week, colours, the names of fruit, articles of clothing, parts of the body) are best not learned together. The effect of learning them together is so strong that it can make learning 50% to 100% more difficult. Being 100% more difficult means that it would take twice as many repetitions to learn these words compared to learning unrelated words. It has been suggested that where the related words are nouns, objects which are nearer to each other in shape, apple-orange, are more likely to interfere than objects which are different in shape, banana-orange. The relationship that helps learning is where the words are related as if in a story (frog, pond, green, slimy, hop, croak). So, it is a good idea to note words from your reading onto word cards as these words are unlikely to be members of the same lexical set. When learning items that are similar to each other there is not only the difficulty of learning the items but also the difficulty of not mixing them up with each other. If the words also have some formal similarities this can make interference even more likely. We are more likely to confuse Tuesday and Thursday than Tuesday and Sunday because Tuesday and Thursday begin with the same letter and both contain s and day. The way to reduce the effects of interference is to learn possibly interfering items at different times, not together. Activity 5.2: Transcription Transcription involves getting a recording of a short spoken text on a relevant topic and replaying it many times while trying to make a written version of it. The text should only be around 100 words long. It is best to choose a spoken text where you can get a written version to check and correct what you have transcribed. When you re-listen to the text it is OK to pause its playback and focus on parts of the text. This deliberate learning activity improves listening skills and provides useful feedback on word and phrase recognition. 32 Activity 5.3: Intensive reading Intensive reading is a way of deliberately focusing on language features as they are used in context. Intensive reading involves working your way slowly and carefully through a text with the help of a dictionary. Your goal is to gradually understand the text by working out the meaning of the parts you do not understand at first. The activity can be done alone, or with the help of another learner, or with the help of a teacher. Often translation is used as a way of clarifying parts of the text. Another way of doing intensive reading, especially for learners working alone, is to do repeated reading paying attention to different aspects of the text on each repetition. For example, the first reading could focus on the unknown vocabulary in the text and on comprehension. The second reading could focus on useful multiword units that could be used productively in later speaking or writing. The third reading could focus on the use of some of the function words in the text, such as prepositions or articles. The value of this intensive repeated reading is that when we read our main focus is on the meaning and thus largely the content words. When we are familiar with the content, we can then give our attention to how the language is being used to convey messages, and this kind of attention is very useful for language learning. This kind of repeated attention with a change of focus is also worth doing while listening, such as when watching a recorded TV program or a movie. Activity 5.4: Delayed copying Choose a useful and relevant text around 200 words long (about 20 lines). Read to understand it with the help of a dictionary if necessary. Then look at the first four or five words in the text, try to hold them in your memory, and then copy them down onto a piece of paper without looking back at the text. As you work your way through the text copying it, try to hold longer sequences in your head. The benefit of the activity comes from trying to hold longer and longer phrases in your head before you write them down. This deliberate learning activity improves handwriting skills and memory for phrases. Chapter 5 / 33  Activity 5.5: Spelling practice If the language you are learning uses a writing system or a spelling system that is very different from that of your first language, it is worth giving some deliberate attention to the writing system. An effective way to do this is to write the words or phrases you want to practice in a list down the left hand side of a lined page. If the writing system uses letters of the alphabet (unlike Chinese), write the first letter of each word after the end of each word. rhythm r agree a common c Fold the paper so you can only see the first letters, and then try to write the words from memory. rhythm rhythm agree agree common common Unfold the paper and check your work. Write the first letter of each word again, fold the paper, and write the words again. Do this until each line is filled. How do you learn pronunciation? Learning to pronounce the language in a clear way is a very important learning goal. Clear pronunciation will help you to be better understood by native speakers, and they will also appreciate your efforts. Like other aspects of language knowledge, it is helped if there is the opportunity to listen to the language (meaning-focused input), to speak (meaning-focused output), to study aspects of pronunciation (language-focused learning), and to get fluent in listening to and speaking about easy familiar topics (fluency development). Young children seem to have little need for language-focused learning to develop their pronunciation of another language, and rely on the three meaning-focused strands. Older learners are much less likely to develop a native-like pronunciation, although some do. Most older learners may need to be satisfied with a comprehensible accented pronunciation, although extra effort can result in improvement. For older learners, the quality of their pronunciation is likely to depend on their opportunities to use the language, and the amount of time and effort they spend on the deliberate study of pronunciation. 34 The deliberate study of pronunciation should involve first of all finding out what the difficult sounds are. This will largely depend on the differences between your first language and the language you are learning. Secondly, the individual sounds that are difficult should be studied and practised in simple syllables. The study of how sounds are made is called articulatory phonetics. For example, for learners of English, the sound at the beginning of the, this, there, and that is often a problem. Knowing whether it is voiced or voiceless, whether it is a stop or fricative, and what parts of the mouth are used to make the sound can help in learning to pronounce the sound. The sound in the is a voiced (using your vocal cords), fricative (using top teeth and tip of the tongue). Once a difficult sound can be made in an isolated syllable, it needs to be practised in the most common words that it appears in, and should be also practised in phrases and short sentences. It is not a good idea to practice such sounds in tongue twisters as these are often too difficult even for native speakers. A well-informed teacher is particularly helpful when learning individual sounds. Practice in words and phrases can be done using a computer-based audio editor which can slow speech down. The freely available program Audacity is a good choice. Also, repeatedly imitating clips from movies can help with pronunciation. It is worth spending time on pronunciation early in the learning of a language because later remedial work on pronunciation requires much more effort. How do you learn grammar (or anything)? A large part of this book focuses on the principle of the four strands. This principle says that in order to have a proper balance of opportunities for learning, we need to spend about one quarter of our time learning through input, about one quarter of our time learning through output, about one quarter of our time doing deliberate learning, and about one quarter of our time working with easy input and output in order to develop fluency. The principle of the four strands is a very powerful principle because it allows us to answer questions like How do we learn grammar?, How do we learn vocabulary?, How do we learn to speak in another language? and so on. Let us look at an example of this by addressing the question How do we learn grammar?. Typically, people think of the learning of grammar as involving learning the names of parts of speech, learning to describe grammatical constructions, and learning how to correct errors. However, these are all ways of doing deliberate learning, and most of the learning of grammar needs to involve using the language. Chapter 5 / 35  We can learn grammar through listening and reading. When we repeatedly meet grammatical constructions in our reading and listening, we learn them without having to give them much, if any, deliberate attention. This is partly because a lot of grammar learning occurs through learning phrases, that is, we learn what words go with other words. The more we read and listen, the more we have a chance to increase our receptive grammatical knowledge. We can also learn grammar through speaking and writing. When we speak and write, we notice gaps in our knowledge, and this noticing increases the chances that we will give attention to these gaps when we listen and read. That is, having to speak and write can improve the chances of learning through listening and reading. We can also learn grammar through speaking and writing by taking chances. That is, we try out phrases and constructions that we are unsure about to see if they work. Often this trying out makes use of patterns from our first language. So this trying out can be a risky business which may result in error, but it is an important way of learning. We can learn grammar deliberately, by studying it and by memorizing useful phrases and sentences but deliberate study of the grammar should make up much less than one quarter of your language learning time. Useful grammar study activities include using substitution tables if they are available, getting feedback on spoken and written production (correcting errors), doing dictation activities, and having small amounts of clear simple explanations of important grammatical features. Just as we can learn grammar through meaning-focused input and meaning-focused output, we can also learn grammar incidentally through fluency development. Fluency development involves working with very easy familiar material with some encouragement to go faster. Fluency development activities can provide large amounts of input and output, and because of this increased exposure to the language, fluency development activities can add to and strengthen grammatical knowledge both receptively and productively. How do you learn vocabulary? The four strands principle applies to the learning of vocabulary in the same way that it applies to the learning of grammar, and to the learning of the skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. We need to learn vocabulary through meaning- focused input, through meaning-focused output, through language-focused learning, and through fluency development. Meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, and fluency development activities are all communicative activities where we are 36 involved in understanding and producing messages. The basic requirement of these communicative activities is that we are working at a level of difficulty which is suitable for our present level of proficiency. The deliberate learning of vocabulary involves deliberately studying unknown words (preferably through the use of bilingual word cards), deliberately focusing on vocabulary with the help of a teacher or a dictionary as when doing intensive reading, getting feedback on our spoken and written production, and deliberately learning strategies such as guessing from context, using word cards, analysing words into word parts, and dictionary use. We can apply the four strands in the same way to the learning of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Because three of the strands involve communicative activities, the major differences between the learning of listening, speaking, reading and writing come from the focus on input (listening and reading) or output (speaking and writing), and particularly on the ways of doing deliberate learning for each of the four language skills. Deliberate learning activities are typically the kinds of activities we think about when we think of how to learn another language. However, deliberate learning is only one strand of a well-balanced course and should take up no more than one-quarter of the total time in a course. In the next chapter we look at the fourth strand of a course–fluency development. Chapter 5 / 37