Fitness Notes PDF

CARDIO AND CORE What is aerobic endurance training? Also known as: aerobic exercise, cardiovascular exercise or cardio-respiratory exercise. Involves Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems: Aerobic endurance training engages the heart, blood vessels, and lung...

CARDIO AND CORE What is aerobic endurance training? Also known as: aerobic exercise, cardiovascular exercise or cardio-respiratory exercise. Involves Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems: Aerobic endurance training engages the heart, blood vessels, and lungs. Design Considerations: Designing a program involves assessing the participant's current fitness level, exercise history, and fitness goals. Common Fitness Goals: One of the primary goals is often weight or fat loss, achievable through a well-designed aerobic endurance training program. What does the specificity of aerobic training mean? The specificity of aerobic training refers to the idea that the training e ects are specific to the type of training performed. This means that training in a particular way will produce specific changes or results that are directly related to that type of training. For example, if you engage in a running-focused aerobic training program, you are likely to see improvements in your running performance. However, these improvements may not necessarily translate to other forms of aerobic exercise, such as cycling or swimming. Therefore, if you want to improve in a specific aerobic exercise mode, it's important to train using that mode to achieve the desired results. Name and explain the components of an aerobic endurance training program Frequency (F): Refers to how often you engage in aerobic endurance training. It answers the question, "How often?" Intensity (I): Indicates how hard you are working during the training session. It answers the question, "How hard?" Time (T): Represents the duration of each training session. It answers the question, "How long?" Type (T): Refers to the mode or type of aerobic exercise you are performing. It answers the question, "What kind?" Considering each component (FITT) is crucial for aligning the training program with your goals and ensuring each component complements the others for optimal results. Explain aerobic training workouts Frequency: 3-5 days per week Intensity: Determined by HR zone and RPE values Target workout time: 20-60 minutes (Depending on intensity) Aerobic training in a single session: ± 10 min or more US Health Department Statistics:  150 minutes per week of moderate intensity (Walking)  75 minutes per week of vigorous-intensity (Jogging) What is training dependent on?  Participants’ goals, current fitness level, medical history, results of testing, recovery, etc. Heart rate and oxygen consumption (VO2) are closely related during exercise, explain. As workload increases during exercise, heart rate increases. This increase in heart rate corresponds to an increase in oxygen consumption (VO2), as the body requires more oxygen to meet the demands of the increased workload. Maximal Heart Rate (MHR): As the heart rate approaches the participant's maximal heart rate (MHR), a greater percentage of their VO2 max is being utilized. This means that the body is working at a higher intensity and consuming more oxygen to sustain the increased workload. How to determine Target Heart Rate (HR) - The most commonly used method to estimate Age-Predicted Maximal Heart Rate (APMHR) is: APMHR = 220 – age Formula for athletes = 210 – (age x 0.65)  However, this is only an estimate and has an error range of ± 10 to 15 beats per minute.  APMHR can be maximal for some, unattainable for others, and sub-maximal for the rest.  Once APMHR is calculated, an appropriate exercise intensity training zone can be determined for the individual. Once the Age-Predicted Maximal Heart Rate (APMHR) is known, exercise intensities can be determined based on established relationships between percentages of the APMHR and VO2 max. For apparently healthy adults:  55 to 75% of VO2 max approximates 70 to 85% of the APMHR.  This intensity range provides the appropriate stimulus to improve aerobic function. How to monitor Heart Rate (HR): Heart Rate Monitor: Use a heart rate monitor, which provides real-time HR data during exercise. These devices come in various forms, including chest straps and wrist-worn devices. Resting Heart Rate (RHR): A cheaper method is to measure Resting Heart Rate (RHR). To do this, place your index finger on the radial artery on the wrist or the carotid artery in the neck and hold for 10 seconds. Repeat this 6 times and calculate the average to determine your RHR. Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE): Along with heart rate calculation methods, RPE is designed to help participants monitor their exercise intensities. It uses a rating system that accounts for all of the body’s responses to a particular exercise intensity. - Drawbacks/Considerations for Using RPE:  1. Subjectivity: RPE is subjective and can vary among individuals based on factors like fitness level, mood, and pain tolerance. 2. Lack of Accuracy: It may not always accurately reflect the actual physiological responses occurring in the body. 4. Experience Level: Individuals with less experience may find it challenging to accurately gauge their exertion levels. What is VO2 max? VO2 max (also maximal oxygen consumption, maximal oxygen uptake, peak oxygen uptake or maximal aerobic capacity) is the maximum rate of oxygen consumption as measured during incremental exercise, most typically on a motorized treadmill. V= Volume 02= Oxygen Tests for VO2 max 2.4km run 1 mile walk test Bleep test Step test, astrand-rhyming test 12-minute swim test Types of aerobic training Long Slow Distance (LSD):  In LSD training, exercise can continue as long as the participant maintains their heart rate (HR) within the prescribed training zone (TZ).  Fatigue follows when HR exceeds the TZ or when HR increases without an increase in workload.  Beginners may reach fatigue after a brief period of 10-15 minutes.  Subsequent sessions allow for increased exercise duration as cardio-respiratory improvements allow for greater oxygen perfusion and energy substrate delivery. Pace/Tempo Running:  For participants who can work at a high percentage of their heart rate range.  Sessions typically last between 20 and 30 minutes, requiring exercise at lactate threshold or slightly below.   Workouts can be performed intermittently or steadily, involving work bouts of 3 to 5 minutes with rest periods of 30 to 90 seconds until the desired pace cannot be maintained. Interval Training:  Alternates high and low-intensity exercise periods.  Involves short periods of exercise intensities at or above VO2 max and lactate threshold, alternated with longer periods of lesser intensities.  May include high-intensity exercise (90-100% HRmax) with rest periods in between, allowing participants to accomplish significant work with correct work-rest spacing. Circuit Training:  Combines resistance training with cardiovascular training.  Participants perform short intervals of cardiovascular training between resistance training sets.  Goal is to increase HR to a training zone and maintain it for the duration of the session, improving cardio-respiratory and muscular endurance simultaneously. Cross Training:  Combines several exercise modes for aerobic endurance training.  Requires planning the duration and intensity of each mode individually while keeping the combined volume within the participant’s capabilities.  Distributes physical stress to di erent muscle groups and increases adaptation. Core training (local muscular endurance) The core muscles include those in the abdomen, pelvic floor, sides of the trunk, back, buttocks, hip and pelvis There are 29 muscles in total attaching to the ribs, hips and spinal column The core muscles stabilize the spine and assist in transferring force between the upper and lower sections of the body They stabilise the mid-section when you walk, jump, twist, squat, bend or throw In addition, the muscles of your trunk support your spine when seated and fixate your midsection as you use your legs to stand up. Local (deep) stabilisers Global (superficial) stabilisers Global movers What to consider Balanced Core Development: Overdeveloping one core muscle at the expense of others can be detrimental to overall core strength and stability. Training Core Muscles Together: Since core muscles work in unison to stabilize the body, it's advisable to train them as a group rather than trying to isolate them individually. Functional Training with Free Weights: Many traditional exercises using free weights, especially when performed in a standing position, can e ectively strengthen the core muscles. Versatility of Free Weights: Exercises with free weights are more adaptable and mimic real- world movements, making them essential for functional training. In contrast, weight machines often train muscles in isolation. What are the benefits of training abdominals?  Improves functional fitness  Improves postural imbalances  Provides a stronger base for executing sporting movements successfully  Thus, improves overall athletic performance  Reduce the risk for low back pain  Reduce the risk for various health problems in older individuals Training principles Intensity Level: Training Execution: Frequency: 3-5 times a Moderate to high Train various muscles week (Depending on intensity for each during each session activity & sporting level) session Duration of Exercise: Implementation: Can In accordance with the be done during or at the intensity of the overall end of a training session workout What is RPE? - Rate of Perceived Exhaustion Explain responders vs non responders The same training programme leads to di erent physiological responses in everyone Hereditary/genetics play a role in people’s responses to training (muscle fibre composition) Fitness related parameters vary among individuals (eg. aerobic capacity, agility) What is the latest trend in team sports like rugby? Moving from a general training programs to an individualised training programme What is VO2 max? 1. Also called maximal oxygen uptake. A measure of the maximum amount of oxygen your body can utilize during intense exercise. Often used as an indicator of aerobic fitness and endurance. Let's consider two people, Alex and Jamie, who both start a new running program aimed at improving their fitness levels. After several weeks of training, they both undergo a VO2max test to measure their aerobic capacity. Alex is classified as a responder and Jamie as a non- responder. Explain the results. ALEX: Despite starting with a relatively low fitness level, Alex's VO2max significantly increases after training. This means Alex's body has adapted well to the training program, e iciently utilizing oxygen during exercise, resulting in improved endurance. JAMIE: Despite completing the same training program as Alex, Jamie's VO2max remains relatively unchanged. This suggests that Jamie's body hasn't adapted as much to the training, and Jamie may not experience the same improvements in endurance despite the e ort put into the program. - In summary, VO2max reflects how e ectively your body uses oxygen during exercise. Responders experience significant improvements in VO2max with training, while non-responders may see minimal changes despite similar training e orts. SPEED Tabulate di erences between speed, speed-strength and speed-endurance Define How to improve Speed Application of maximal force One must explode o the in minimum amount of time mark when your feet are in contact with the ground (maximal force) to move very quickly in the shortest amount of time (minimal time).  Speed-strength Application of maximum Exercise prescription should force at high velocities rely on powerful exercises (speeds). and avoid those requiring slow movement. Speed-endurance Maintaining running speed Incorporate interval training for an extended period. Benefit of speed endurance? The development of speed endurance helps prevent a client/athlete from slowing down during a repeated maximal speed e ort. What form or faults usually need correcting in order to optimize sprint action? 1. Body posture 2. Arm and leg action Name common errors in foot placement and correct positions Flat Foot Placement: Most common error is placing the foot completely flat when in contact with the ground while running. This can lead to ine icient movement and increased risk of injury. Correct Position: Aim for a middle foot contact, where the foot lands between the heel and the toes. Imagine the motion of swiping a card with your foot, ensuring su icient contact with the ground for stability and power. Running on the Toes: Running on the balls of your feet can increase pressure on the lower extremities and lead to injury. Correct Approach: Find a balance between running on the balls of your feet and using the entire foot for a more stable and e icient stride. Explain technique Hip Position: The height of the hip a ects the stability and e iciency of your running technique. Track athletes often maintain a higher hip position, which helps in achieving a longer stride length and maximizing speed. In contrast, footballers, tend to have a lower hip height, which allows for quick changes in direction and agility. Knee Drive: During sprinting, the knee drive is essential for generating force to propel the body forward. It's important to drive the knee up and forward, but not higher than hip height. If the knee drives too high, it can cause the body to lean back, which decreases running speed and e iciency. Upper Body Posture: The position of your upper body a ects where your foot will land. Track athletes typically maintain a straight, upright posture, which helps in achieving optimal stride length and e icient forward propulsion. In contrast, team sport athletes often have a more forward-leaning posture, which can aid in quick changes in direction and agility required in sports like rugby, football, and cricket. Arm Drive: The arms play a crucial role in generating force to move the body forward. The faster your arms move, the quicker your legs move, leading to better propulsion (arm pump). Optimal movement is achieved by keeping the arm action strong and executing a smooth rhythmical, balanced posture while sprinting. Explain this statement: The mode of speed training is determined by the speed characteristics that the given exercise is designed to improve. The type of training an athlete undertakes to improve their speed should align with the specific aspects of speed they want to enhance. For example, if an athlete wants to improve their ability to cover more ground with each step (stride length), they would focus on exercises and drills that target this aspect, such as explosive jumping exercises or hill sprints. On the other hand, if the goal is to increase the number of steps taken in a given time (stride frequency), the training would involve drills that improve leg turnover rate, like sprinting drills with a focus on quick foot turnover. By understanding the components of speed (stride length and stride frequency) and how di erent exercises a ect these components, athletes and coaches can design training programs that e ectively target their specific speed goals. Formula for velocity? VELOCITY = SL (Stride length) X SF (Stride frequency) How can one train stride frequency (SF)?  Assisted sprinting  Involves running at speeds greater than one can achieve independently, often with the help of external assistance such as a towing system  May cause athletes to alter their technique, which can a ect running without assistance How can one train stride length (SL)? Resisted sprinting 1. Sprint while being resisted by a sled, elastic tubing, hill sprints or a parachute 2. This type of training should not increase external resistance by more than 10% Interval training (more general mode of speed training that most people can easily perform) 3. Sprint as fast as possible over a given distance or pre-determined amount of time, rest then repeat - Individuals are able to maintain a higher intensity work period by interspersing it with rest times Speed training must follow the principles of progressive overload, explain. 4. As the intensity increases, the volume decreases. Explain how the intensity of programmes should progress: Low to moderate volume of low-intensity speed drills Low to moderate volumes of moderate intensity Low to moderate volumes of moderate to high intensity Should athlete’s always train on a track? 5. To optimize training, it's important to replicate competition surfaces as closely as possible. However, varying surfaces occasionally can provide a variety and prevent monotony. Name some other considerations  Athletes must execute drills at full speed to achieve optimal results. When fatigue sets in, technique deteriorates, and movement patterns become poor. If observing loss of good posture or improper positioning of the feet, the corrective measures must be taken to modify the training session. Often coaches continue training when athletes are overly fatigued which essentially turns the session into conditioning. Give examples of speed drills Bow down alternate hamstring stretches Glute kick ups Hamstring kick ups Running BWDS Butt kicks Straight leg runs A skip A skip + Ankling In between High knees and ankling High knees Reactive foot high knees alternating Full out sprint Name and explain exercises you could use in a speed training session Agility ladders: Develops fast feet movements, speed, agility and co-ordination. Gets the nerves to fire the muscles as quickly as possible by using dance- like patterns. Idea is to speed up the running technique without compromising the quality of the mechanics. Progression of drills consists of: Changing foot work Add a sprint out Change length of ladder or add more ladders Adding cones Mini hurdle training  Develops the required quick knee-lift action and promotion of the correct foot placement. Gives the player a physical barrier to work over to encourage high knees, fast foot action and arm swing. If the athlete does not employ the correct technique there is a strong chance the hurdle will be kicked over. If 2 or 3 hurdles are disturbed in sequence it is a clear indicator of poor technique. Cone based drills Correctly administered it aids in developing; Multi-directional explosive speed Controlled turning velocity Improved running balance Increased body co-ordination Advisable to start with simple short angles and then to progress to more complex drills. Name some important things to consider in terms of speed training 6. Speed training should be placed at the START of a session 7. Good, thorough warm up before, always! 8. Keep intensity high 9. Su icient rest between runs (Central nervous fatigue) 10. Specific to sport and goal in the di erent parts of the season 11. Sprint Phases VS acceleration training 12. Good cool down Name and explain the 2 aspects of velocity in speed training (4) 1. Stride Length: Refers to the distance covered by one complete stride, from the moment one foot touches the ground to the next time the same foot touches the ground. In speed training, increasing stride length involves improving the ability to cover more ground with each stride while maintaining optimal running mechanics. This can be achieved through strength and power training, plyometrics, and drills that focus on improving hip flexibility and stride extension. 2. Stride Frequency: Also known as cadence, refers to the number of strides taken in a given amount of time, usually measured in strides per minute. In speed training, increasing stride frequency involves improving the rate at which the legs turn over during sprinting. This can be achieved through drills that focus on quick foot turnover, such as fast leg drills and sprinting at high cadences. Improving overall running mechanics and e iciency can also contribute to an increase in stride frequency.  FITNESS TESTING AND ASSESSMENTS What is the purpose? 13. Gather baseline data 14. Identify strengths relevant to sport/client 15. Talent identification 16. Identify weaknesses (Imbalances with muscles, bones etc.) a ecting the athletes/clients 17. Monitor progress (Provide incentives) 18. Monitoring the e ectiveness of the training programs given (Periodisation of training) 19. Identify weak players in a team context (Game strategies) What is baseline data? The data collected provides: Baseline for future comparisons, improvement or rate of progress Identification of current strengths and weaknesses that may a ect the design of the training program Assistance in establishing appropriate intensities and volumes of exercise Clarification of short, intermediate and long-term goals. Identification of contraindications before program initiation How to select a test? Experienced Individuals: Choose a test that closely matches their mode of exercise or sport. This ensures that the test reflects the specific demands of their activity and provides relevant feedback. Specificity: Select tests that align with the individual's training and competition goals. For example, if the goal is to improve endurance for a marathon, a test like the VO2 max test would be appropriate. Average or De-conditioned Individuals: Consider their needs and capabilities. Choose tests that are suitable for their fitness level and goals, and that can provide meaningful and actionable results. Provide characteristics of a holistic athlete Strong Explosive Flexible Speed Endurance Agile Ask these questions How reliable and objective is the test/assessment?  Is it valid? Past tense: Was the equipment checked/calibrated and did it produce accurate results? Was the individual/athlete physically or emotionally influenced by anything before or during the test that could have a ected the results? Was the test protocol followed carefully and was the data collected done so accurately? Reliability vs Validity Define When considered How Example RELIABILITY Reliability is an If a measurement Test-retest Are the results expression of the of the same trait method. Test is repeatable? repeatability of a under the same repeated with Consistent? Can you conditions yields the same obtain the same test or the the same results individual or results? consistency of from one trial to group. repeated another, the test is observations. reliable. VALIDITY Validity means A test that is not Clearly define When selecting a that a test does reliable cannot be what you are test for aerobic measure what it valid, but simply measuring, capacity, choose a claims to being repeatable consider the test that is long measure: i.e., that does not make a context enough & intensity the test score is a test valid. su icient to require truthful score. aerobic system to be primary energy system activated. Explain errors of measurement Observational error (or measurement error) is the di erence between a measured value of quantity and its true value. In statistics, an error is not a "mistake". Variability is an inherent part of things being measured and of the measurement process. Conceptually, the standard error of measurement is related to test reliability in that it provides an indication of the dispersion of the measurement errors when you are trying to estimate students' true scores from their observed test score All tests have a standard error of measurement. Di erence between the individual’s observed score – actual result – and that individuals true score, a theoretically errorless score. (True- meaning the average score that would be obtained if the measurements were performed an infinite number of times, consistency of the score)  All test results contain the true factor being measured as well as the errors associated with the test itself. (Athlete injured, heat, fatigue, Non calibrated test equipment etc) The error may be constant or random and may be influenced by the client, the personal trainer, the equipment or the environment. The interpretation of fitness assessment results depends on several factors: Specific Purpose and Goals: The interpretation should align with the specific purpose of the assessment and the goals of the individual or population being assessed. For example, the interpretation may di er for someone training for a marathon compared to someone aiming to improve overall health. Norm-Referenced Standards: This involves comparing test scores with established normative age and gender-related data to evaluate performance. This comparison is often presented as a percentile ranking, indicating how an individual's score compares to others in the same demographic group. Criterion-Referenced Standards: Here, the data collected is used as a marker to assess present health risks and determine the changes necessary to achieve healthy standards. This approach focuses on specific criteria or benchmarks rather than comparisons to a normative group. Name and explain measurement errors The level of experience and training of the assessor/tester has an impact on the selection of assessments. Testing protocols that require adept (expert/proficient) testing skills need to match the abilities of the assessor/tester. Errors can be further compounded by failure to follow a protocol or inaccurate identification of measurement sites. To develop consistency, an assessor/tester must therefore perform the tests numerous times to acquire the necessary skills. Aerobic Fitness Tests - VO2 Max Test in a Lab: Measures the maximum amount of oxygen an individual can utilize during intense exercise. Conducted in a controlled laboratory setting with specialized equipment. - Bleep Test: Also known as the Multi-Stage Fitness Test, involves running shuttles between two points at increasing speeds. Participants must reach the end of the shuttle before the next beep. - Yo-Yo Intermittent Tests (Level 1 & 2): Measures an individual's ability to repeatedly perform high-intensity aerobic work. Level 1 is less intense and Level 2 is more intense. The test involves running between markers at increasing speeds, with a set rest period.  - Cooper 1.5 Mile Run (2.4km Run): Measures aerobic endurance by running as far as possible in 12 minutes. The distance covered is an indicator of aerobic fitness. - Cooper 12 Min Run/Walk: Similar to the 1.5 mile run, this test measures aerobic endurance by running or walking as far as possible in 12 minutes. - Rockport Fitness Walking Test: Assesses aerobic fitness by measuring the time it takes to walk one mile at a brisk pace. Age, weight, heart rate, and gender are considered in the calculation. - YMCA Cycle Ergometer Test: Measures aerobic capacity by pedaling a stationary bike at a set workload while heart rate is monitored. The test continues until the participant reaches a predetermined heart rate. - Astrand Rhyming Cycle Ergometer Test: Estimates VO2 max by cycling at a set workload for a specified time. Heart rate is monitored during the test. - YMCA Step Test: Assesses aerobic fitness by stepping up and down on a bench or step at a set pace for a specified time. Heart rate is measured immediately after completion to determine fitness level. Anaerobic Capacity Tests RAST Test (Running-based Anaerobic Sprint Test): Measures anaerobic power and capacity by sprinting over short distances (eg. 35m, 50m) with brief rest intervals. Wingate Test: Assesses peak anaerobic power and anaerobic capacity by pedaling as fast as possible against a high resistance on a stationary bike for a short duration (typically 30 seconds). Multi-Stage Shuttle Run: Also known as the Beep Test, assesses anaerobic endurance by running between two points at increasing speeds with brief rest intervals. Anaerobic Speed Tests - 10m, 20m, 40m, 60m: Measure sprint speed over various distances. - Fast Feet Test: Assesses foot speed and agility through rapid foot movements. - Hexagon Test: Measures agility by moving in a hexagonal pattern around cones. - Edgren Side-Step Test: Assesses agility and speed by side-stepping over a series of obstacles in a specific pattern. Muscular Strength Tests - 1RM Bench Press: Determines the maximum weight a person can lift in a single repetition of a bench press exercise. - 1RM Squat Test: Determines the maximum weight a person can lift in a single repetition of a squat exercise. - Abdominal 7-Stage Test: Measures abdominal strength and endurance through a series of progressively challenging sit-up variations. - Handgrip Strength Test: Measures the maximum force exerted by the hand muscles. - Isokinetic Tests: Measures muscle strength through a range of motion at a constant speed. - 6RM Leg Press: Determines the maximum weight a person can lift for six repetitions in a leg press exercise. - 6RM Squat Test: Determines the maximum weight a person can lift for six repetitions in a squat exercise. Body Composition Tests Skinfolds: Measures body fat percentage by pinching skin at various locations. Girth Measurements: Measures the circumference of various body parts. BMI: Calculates body mass index based on height and weight. Waist to Hip Ratio: Compares the circumference of the waist to that of the hips. Body Weight: Measures the total weight of the body. Hydrostatic Weighing: Measures body density by weighing a person underwater. Local (muscular) endurance tests evaluate how long a muscle can endure against the onset of fatigue. These tests include: - Pull-Up Test: Measures the number of pull-ups a person can perform without rest. - Curl-Up Test (2-Minute Sit-Ups): Measures the number of sit-ups a person can complete in two minutes. - 1-Minute Push-Up Test: Measures the number of push-ups a person can complete in one minute. Flexibility tests assess if a joint can move through a full range of motion. These tests include: - Modified Sit and Reach Test: Measures flexibility of the lower back and hamstrings. - Straight Leg Hamstring Test (Hip Flexion): Measures hamstring flexibility. - Shoulder Flexibility Test: Measures shoulder flexibility. - Modified Thomas Test: Measures hip flexor and quadriceps flexibility. - Back Scratch Test: Measures shoulder and triceps flexibility. Power tests assess upper body (UB) and lower body (LB) explosive power. These tests include: - Vertical Jump: Measures the height a person can jump vertically. - Standing Long Jump or Broad Jump: Measures the distance a person can jump from a standing position. - Medicine Ball Seated Chest Throw: Measures upper body power by throwing a medicine ball from a seated position. - Medicine Ball Overhead Pass: Measures upper body power by throwing a medicine ball overhead for distance. Agility tests assess agility and change of direction. These tests include: - Agility 505 Test: Measures agility by running a specific course. - Illinois Agility Run: Measures agility by running a timed agility course. - T-Test: Measures agility and change of direction by running a T-shaped course Baseline testing Based on the needs and performance analysis Implementation of tests Determine the Sequence of Assessments  Identify and determine the proper order of the testing process to assure optimal performance and adequate rest & recovery. Test order is influenced by many factors Number of individuals to be tested Components to be evaluated Skill involved Energy system demand Time available Specific goals Steps to follow when testing Performance/client needs analysis Test selection Baseline testing Data analysis (compare to norms, reporting) Program design Reassessment What does reassessment refer to? Once the assessments are complete and the results reviewed, the program is designed and implemented based on desired goals A time frame for accomplishing goals is set, and post-tests are scheduled for that time frame This date may be 6 – 12 weeks from program initiation Scheduled to discuss the client’s degree of achievement, review the strengths and weaknesses of the initial program, set new goals, and modify the program where appropriate ORDER OF TESTS FOR GENERAL POPULATION o Resting tests (HR, BP, Height, Weight, Skin folds) o Non-fatiguing tests (Flexibility, Balance) o Muscular strength tests (1Rmax) o Local muscular endurance tests (1-min sit-up and push up tests) o Sub-maximal aerobic capacity tests (step test, cycle ergometer, 12 min run) ORDER OF TESTS FOR PERFORMANCE POPULATION - Resting (HR, BP, Skin folds, Height, Weight) - Non-fatiguing tests (Flexibility, Vertical jump) - Agility tests (T-test, Illinois test)  - Maximum power and strength test (Power clean, 1RM test) - Sprint tests (10,20,40m sprints) - Local muscular endurance tests (20min sit up, pull up tests) - Anaerobic capacity tests (intermittent endurance) - Maximal or sub-maximal aerobic tests (Multi-stage shuttle run) What is anthropometry? Includes measuring aspects of the human body: height, weight, skin folds, circumferences. FLEXIBILITY What is flexibility? Flexibility refers to the range of motion (ROM) of a joint or group of joints. It is the ability of a joint to move freely and easily through its full, normal range without any discomfort or restriction. Warming up and stretching = not the same thing! Although every training session should begin with a warm-up, not every activity needs to be preceded by flexibility training. Benefits of flexibility training Flexibility is a crucial component of any training program, with its importance varying based on the primary activity. Optimal flexibility can eliminate ine icient movement patterns and reduce the risk of muscle injuries. It also enhances the ability to perform various movement skills related to sports. The goal of training should be to combine strength with flexibility, as seen in sports like rugby. Benefits of flexibility training Prevention of low back pain and injuries (Contradicting research) Good hip/knee flexibility protects the spine from excessive motion during daily tasks Attain normal flexibility (> or < is not good) Beneficial for older adults, athletes, children etc Relief of aches and pains (Relieve tension and joint sti ness) Relief of muscle pains Improved body position and strength (Swimmers: ROM  Strength) Maintenance of good posture and balance Explain 2 processes of muscle lengthening Process 1: a) Muscle stretched (Wave like elastin fibers straighten) b) When stretch is relieved (The fibers rapidly snap back to resting position) This is called elastic elongation (Temporary change in the length of the muscles, tendons and supporting connective tissues) Process 2: If stretched regularly and gently connective tissue may lengthen and flexibility may improve This is called plastic elongation (Long term change in the length of muscles, tendons, and supporting connective tissues) Without regular stretching process is reversed (Tissues shorten = less flexibility) Explain hyperlaxity Allows the body to achieve a ROM that exceeds the normal ROM. Caution when implementing this type of stretching program as it is important to not over stretch the individual. Poor selection of stretching exercises can cause even more problems for these types of individuals. The case in most gymnasts (> normal ROM) What biological factors a ect flexibility? Joint Structure: The primary limiting factor in range of motion (ROM) is the structure of the joint itself. This structure varies between individuals, requiring trainers to consider this variation when evaluating flexibility. Flexibility should be viewed as specific to a particular joint and joint action, not as a general characteristic. Being flexible in one joint does not guarantee a high degree of flexibility in another joint. Examples include hinge joints (e.g., fingers, knees) allowing limited forward and backward movement, and ball and socket joints (e.g., hip, shoulder) enabling movement in many directions, influencing ROM. Joint Capsules: All major joints are surrounded by a joint capsule, a semi-elastic structure providing strength and stability but limiting movement. Soft Tissues (Muscles and Connective Tissue): Muscle connective tissue is the focus during ROM exercises, as it can be lengthened with proper stretching.  The connective tissue surrounding and enveloping muscle tissue is crucial for flexibility, with elastin and collagen providing resistance to stretch. Thus, connective tissue is the major structure limiting joint ROM, and improvements in ROM from stretching primarily result from connective tissue adaptations. Individual di erences in flexibility are due to the elastic properties of muscles and tendons, with "sti " muscles reducing ROM and "compliant" muscles increasing ROM. Flexibility training improves the capacity of muscle fibers to lengthen. What are the 2 types of connective tissue? Collagen (White fibers providing structure and support) Elastin (Yellow fibers that are elastic and flexible) Muscle fibers contain both above mentioned properties - A recently discovered structural protein in muscles called titin also has elastic properties and contributes towards flexibility. Name and explain other factors a ecting flexibility Age Kids become less flexible with age, most flexible at 4-8, with lowered flexibility seen at 10-12. Normally improves after this point, but never again reaches the level seen during early childhood. Decrease in flexibility is due to a gradual loss of elasticity in the muscle. Older persons < flexible than young individuals Gender - Females are more flexible than males and this is attributable to anatomical variations in joint structures (Muscles are longer and more elastic than men) - Biggest di erences are seen in the trunk, hips, and ankles. - The decrease in flexibility in males is due to the increase in muscle size, stature, and muscle strength. Activity level Physically active tend to be more flexible than inactive individuals Inactive individuals are less flexible because of limited ROM exposure. Resistance training Well designed, correctly executed resistance training can increase flexibility. A decrease in flexibility occurs because of the improper development of a muscle or a group of muscles around a joint. Name methods of flexibility training Static stretching Dynamic stretching techniques Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) stretching Ballistic stretching Combination stretching Explain static stretching Is the most widely and commonly used method of increasing flexibility. A slow constant speed is used during static stretching, with the stretch position generally held for 15-30 seconds. It involves relaxing and the simultaneous lengthening of the stretched muscle. (Stretch till the pull is felt, not pain) Opportunity for injury is lower than during ballistic stretching. No real disadvantages to static stretching in terms of injury potential as long as the correct technique is used. Normally used in cool down and stretching programs. Explain ballistic stretching Muscles are stretched suddenly in a forceful bouncing movement. Eg. Touching toes repeatedly in a rapid succession- ballistic stretches for hamstrings According to the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons; "Do not bounce your stretches. Ballistic (bouncy) stretching can cause injury." WHY? Heightened activity of proprioceptors caused by the rapid stretches, over a period of time can cause injury during exercise Triggering strong responses from nerves can cause reflex muscle contraction that makes it harder to stretch Explain dynamic stretching Dynamic stretching is emphasized on functionally based movements Dynamic stretching and ballistic stretching are similar in that both allow faster movements to occur during training. However, dynamic stretching avoids the bouncing aspect and includes movements specific to a sport or movement pattern in a controlled manner (Movements are fluent rather than jerky) As the client becomes better able to perform each drill or stretch, he or she can perform the exercises faster and in combinations. Trainers who wish to implement dynamic training should begin with low volume, low intensity exercises. (Used during warm up) Requires balance and co-ordination, therefore you may experience muscle soreness for a short period of time during the introduction of dynamic flexibility training NB! Dynamic stretches are more beneficial for warm-ups because they help increase blood flow and prepare the muscles for activity. They also improve flexibility and range of motion, which can enhance performance. Explain PNF stretching Uses reflexes initiated by both muscles and joint nerves to cause > training e ects 2 METHODS: a) Technique used to relax muscles with increased tone or activity. (Contract- Relax method- Muscle is contracted [Activating proprioceptors] before it is stretched) b) Most common method involves taking the muscle or joint into a static stretch position while keeping the muscle relaxed. After this static position is held for about 10sec, muscle contracts for 6sec with a strong isometric contraction against an external fixed object acting in the direction of the stretch. Trainer/Partner should not allow the individual stretching to have any movement in the joint. Following a very brief rest (2-3sec), another 30sec passive stretch is performed, potentially resulting in a greater stretch. Explain combination stretching Has two primary advantages: First, provides greater variety so that the flexibility training program does not become monotonous to the client. Second, becomes a more time-e icient way to train as a large number of muscle groups are stretched during a combination of stretch. BALANCE AGILITY REACTION TIME Define agility Agility exercise/training is the ability to change the direction of the body rapidly which is a result of a combination of strength, speed, balance, and coordination Some agility tests (Illinois Run), correlate strongly with velocity whereas others correlate well with acceleration (505 and T-test). These di erent relationships influence the type of agility test chosen for inclusion in a test battery (series of tests) & that are aimed at profiling performance. As a result, the type of agility exercises that will be adopted in training should adequately reflect the physical requirements demanded by the individual’s performance and thus their sport. Considerations To obtain specific information which will assist with agility training, the trainer should consider the following when designing the program: At what level is your athlete/team competing? Does your athlete/team have any prior experience with regards to structured agility training? What are the specific movement patterns of the sport that are/need to be addressed via the training? Is the agility training to be undertaken team or individual specific? How important is agility training for goal attainment/success in the athlete’s chosen sport? Factors to consider Placed at the start of the season Specific to sport movement Integrate into sport skills Good warm up Good solid base of speed for beginners SAQ training (Speed, Agility and Quickness) Define reaction time Reaction time is the interval time between the presentation of a stimulus and the initiation of the muscular response to that stimulus. If there is only one possible response (simple reaction time) it will only take a short time to react. If there are several possible responses (choice reaction time) then it will take longer to determine which response to carry out. Reaction time factors Response time is the sum of reaction time plus movement time. Factors that may influence the performer's response are: Gender and age Stage of learning  Psychological state Level of fitness Number of possible responses Time available Intensity of the stimuli Anticipation Experience Health Body Temperature - colder the slower Personality - extroverts react quicker State of alertness Length of neural pathways Define specificity training for the particular demands of the sport by simulating all or parts of the performance during a training session. Define transfer of training refers to the amount of improvement that can be directly carried over to competition. Thus the more specificity in training, the greater the transfer of learning will be. Tennis players who take up squash or cricketers who take up golf. Are relatively successful without prior training as the movement or techniques needed are similar enough to those used in their sport. S&A drills teach the brain how to control the body when reacting to a stimulus. By focusing on specific cues, S&A help improve and correct body position, balance, coordination, and competitive explosive patterns. The degree of specificity used when designing drills will depend on competitive level, age, fitness level, body control, and athleticism. Criteria of specificity - Similarity in MUSCLE ACTION - Similarity in EXTERNAL STRUCTURE of the movement - Similarity in SENSORY INFORMATION - Similarity in DOMINANT ENERGY SYSTEM - Similarity in MOVEMENT RESULT Agility and reaction time  Agility and Quickness training should have a purpose and specific path towards achieving set goals.   It is neither e ective nor smart to randomly assign training drills in the hope that agility and quickness will improve.  It is essential to progressively incorporate the correct and proper exercises/drills into an athlete’s training program.  The exercises selected should ensure a specific adaptation, keeping in mind the current abilities of the athlete, injury history, the environment as well as the recovery time needed. Drills  Athletes should aim to complete drills faster over time, indicating improved speed.  Heart rate should spike during drills lasting 6 seconds or longer, reflecting the intensity of the exercise.  Faster recovery of heart rate indicates positive training adaptations. For footwork and body position  Starting with good body control and mechanics is crucial for all speed and agility (S&A) work.  Initial drills should focus on teaching basic movement skills like forward, backward, and lateral movements, starts, stops, turns, corners, and cuts.  This phase requires intensive coaching and frequent feedback to ensure correct biomechanics for more complex drills later on.  Implement-specific drills can enhance basic movement skills and balance, improving quickness and the ability to change direction. Skilled agility drills  These drills require a higher level of sports-specific knowledge, thought, imagination, and planning.  Advantages include greater control over training volume, the use of game-like situations for higher intensity training, and improved reactive performances.  Agility involves perceptual factors such as anticipation and reaction to stimuli.  Emphasize correct body position and footwork before progressing to sport-specific drills with external stimuli. Name the 2 types of balance: Static - Static balance is maintaining equilibrium when stationary Dynamic - Dynamic balance is maintaining equilibrium when moving. We use our eyes, ears and 'body sense' to help retain our balance. Coordination is a complex skill that requires not only good balance, but good levels of other fitness components such strength and agility.  Balance and coordination can be improved through practice and training within specific sports. A great way to improve your balance is to work on the core muscle groups that help to maintain your posture. Eg. Pilates and yoga. Name balance tests Stork standing test (Requires an athlete to stand on the balls of the foot) Y balance test (Reaching whilst on one leg) Flamingo test (Standing on beam with one leg and then move the other upwards like a flamingo) Beam test (Walking on a beam) Name coordination test Wall toss test Explain balance and coordination Balance and Coordination is one of the main fitness components, a factor for success in many sports. In certain sports, such as gymnastics and surfing, balance is one of the most important physical attributes. Good coordination is also vital for sports involving hitting objects. In many other sports, including team sports, good balance and coordination is an important part of skill development and the overall fitness See PowerPoint for plyometrics PAST PAPER QUESTIONS  Provide 2 types of training techniques/ exercises you would implement for each of the two aspects you mentioned above  For these questions, state yes or no and provide 2 scientific reasons to motivate your answer  Is it good to sprint under fatigue?  When doing maximal sprint training is rest very important?  A client comes to you and wants to get fit for a 10km run. He is a beginner and has never run before. State which aerobic training types you would use first in your training with him in order to train his base and motivate why from a scientific perspective.  Provide one example of an upper body resistance training exercise and one example of a lower body resistance training exercise where the focus is on the eccentric contraction of the muscle.  Provide one example of an upper body resistance training exercise and one example of a lower body resistance training exercise where the focus is on the concentric contraction of the muscle.  Is there a di erence between specific muscular endurance exercises and endurance exercises and general. State yes or no and motivate the di erences or lack thereof. Provide at least 2 examples.  Before starting with a plyometric training program, what other trainings should the athlete have done a base of before commencing with the plyometric program? Name and explain why you state these two training techniques are necessary to lay down the foundation before the initiation of a plyometric training program  Why is safety in terms of landing technique in plyometrics so important?  In terms of dynamic and static stretches. State which of the two flexibility training types would be more beneficial to sporting performance when added to the warmup of an athlete and motivate with two reasons why you support this statement.  Name two physiological structures in the body that contributes towards flexibility in the human body  Name three critical aspects which could negatively influence data collection during tests, which largely is contributed by the tester. (The person doing the tests)  You are a Sport Scientist of a football team and you need to make a decision on how the tests will be executed on testing day in terms of the scientific order. Place the tests below in the scientific order in which they should be executed. List them in the order of occurrence (1 to 7).  Agility t test  Pull up test  Blood pressure test  Skinfold tests  Bleep test  40m sprint  Standing vertical jump test