Chemistry Finals Reviewer PDF

Chemistry Functional Groups: 1.​ Carboxylic acid (-COOH) 2.​ Alcohol (-OH) 3.​ Esters (-COOR) 4.​ Ethers (-O-) 5.​ Amides 6.​ Aldehydes (-CHO) 7.​ Ketones (-C=O) 8.​ Amines (-RNH2)  CARBOXYLIC ACID (-COOH)​ ​ Soluble in water if the carbon chain is short.(They are pol...

Chemistry Functional Groups: 1.​ Carboxylic acid (-COOH) 2.​ Alcohol (-OH) 3.​ Esters (-COOR) 4.​ Ethers (-O-) 5.​ Amides 6.​ Aldehydes (-CHO) 7.​ Ketones (-C=O) 8.​ Amines (-RNH2)  CARBOXYLIC ACID (-COOH)​ ​ Soluble in water if the carbon chain is short.(They are polar) ​ Have higher boiling points due to hydrogen bonding. ​ Present in substances like vinegar (acetic acid) ​ -oic acid, dioic acid, tricarboxylic acid ​ Numbering begins at the carbon of the carboxyl group. Carboxyl group - combination of two functional groups, carbonyl (C=O) and hydroxyl (OH) Prefix: Carboxyl- Suffix: -oic acid ex: Formic Acid Methanoic acid Acetic acid Ethanoic acid Butyric acid Butanoic acid ALCOHOL (-OH) ​ hydroxy functional group (-OH) ​ -ol, -diol Prefix: hydroxy- Suffix: -ol 3 classifications of Alcohol: ​ Primary ​ Secondary ​ Tertiary AMIDES (- CONH2​) ​ Carbonyl connected to amine group ​ Polar, capable of forming hydrogen bonds ​ High boiling points. ​ Found in proteins (peptide bonds are amide linkages). Prefix: Carbamoyl- Suffix: -amide Ex: N,N - Dimethyl methanamide AMINES (-NH2) ​ Amino group ​ Basic in nature ​ Distinct fishy odor. ​ Derivative of ammonia (NH3) ​ Amino acids are amine Prefix Amino- Suffix -amine 3 classifications of Alcohol: ​ Primary ​ Secondary ​ Tertiary ALDEHYDES (-CHO) ​ Polar but cannot form hydrogen bonds with themselves. ​ Lower boiling points than alcohols. ​ Pleasant odors in small amounts. ​ Key intermediate in organic synthesis. Prefix formyl- Suffix -al KETONES Chemistry Lab CHEMISTRY LABORATORY TEST FOR FUNCTIONAL GROUPS ​ 1.​ Test for hydrocarbons 2.​ Test for alcohols 3.​ Test for phenols 4.​ Test for Aldehydes 5.​ Test for Ketones 6.​ Test for Carboxylic acid TEST FOR HYDROCARBONS ​ Bromine test ​ Baeyers test ​ Ammoniacal cuprous chloride ​ Ignition test KEY TERMS:​ Potassium permanganate - a very strong oxidizing agent Terminal Alkynes - there is atleast one hydrogen molecule in the triple bond. Contain acidic hydrogen Non-terminal alkynes - there is no hydrogen bonded to the triple bond (bonded with other carbon) Combustion/Burning - high temperature exothermic reaction Bromine Test addition ​ Alkene and alkyne react because of the presence of double and triple bond ​ causing to decolorize Baeyer's Test oxidation ​ KMnO4 React with alkene and alkyne due to double and triple bond ​ causing to purple color discharge Ammoniacal Cuprous Chloride Test ​ React with alkynes and terminal alkynes ​ Produce red brown precipitate Combustion/Ignition Test ​ Alkane = no soot (complete combustion) ​ Alkene = soot formed ​ Alkyne = more soot formed TEST FOR ALCOHOL 1.​ Sodium Metal Test 2.​ Ester Test 3.​ Ceric Ammonium Nitrate test 4.​ Acetyl chloride test 5.​ Iodoform test 6.​ Lucas Test KEY TERMS:​ ​ Solubility - of alcohol of water increase with increasing hydroxyl group, longer alkyl chain make it less soluble Branched Isomers - are more soluble that straight chain Reactions of alcohol - They are group to three: ​ Reaction of hydroxyl group ​ Oxidation reactions ​ Elimination reactions Brisk Effervescence - the rapid release of gas bubbles during chemical reaction Classifications of alcohol (alcohol in a benzene) ​ Monohydric ​ Dihydric ​ Trihydric Sodium Metal Test ​ Appearance of brisk effervescence due to liberation of hydrogen gas ​ brisk effervescence indicates presence of alcohol ​ Alcohol should be dried (water reacts with sodium) ​ This test is favorable if phenyl and carboxyl group is absent Ester Test ​ Carboxylic acid react with alcohols forming fruit smelling esters. This reaction is called esterification ​ Carboxylic + alcohols = ester + water ​ A sweet smell indicates the presence of alcohol Ceric Ammonium Nitrate Test ​ When exposed to alcohol, forms a red or pink color precipitate due to the formation of ammonium nitrate. ​ Acetyl Chloride Test ​ Formation of white fumes  ​ Acylation: Alcohol + acetyl chloride = ester + hydrochloric acid ​ HCL + ammonium hydroxide = ammonium chloride + water (white fumes) Iodoform Test ​ Test is given to secondary alcohols, ketones, acetaldehyde ​ Compounds are heated with sodium hydroxide and iodine. ​ Formation of yellow precipitate shows the presence of alcohol Lucas Test ​ Zinc chloride and HCl are the reagents of lucas solution ​ Reacts with primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohol and form cloudiness ○​ Primary - cloudiness appear only when heated ○​ Secondary - cloudiness appear after a few minutes ○​ Tertiary - cloudiness form immediately ​ Switch the (OH) with (Cl) in the carbon chain TEST FOR PHENOL 1.​ Litmus Test 2.​ Ferric Chloride Test 3.​ Libermann’s test 4.​ Bromine water test 5.​ Phthalein dye test KEY TERMS: Most phenol give dark coloured solution Types of Phenol: ​ Phenol (carbolic acid) ​ Catechol ​ Resorcinol ​ m -cresol ​ Hydroquinone  M-cresol Litmus Test: ​ Phenol are naturally acidic so it turn blue litmus paper to red ​ Phenol are weaker than carboxylic acid Ferric Chloride Test ​ Aqueous solution of phenol react to it and give Violet or blue colouration ​ M-cresol give green coloration Libermann’s test ​ sulfuric acid and sodium nitrite ​ React with phenol and forms a yellow colour quinone monoxime complex. ​ On dilution a red colour indophenol is formed which turns to deep blue colour Bromine Water Test ​ Phenol undergoes electrophilic substitution reaction with bromine. (substitute hydrogen with Br) ​ aqueous solution of phenol the brown colour of bromine disappears and a white precipitate of tribromophenol is formed. Phthalein dye Test ​ Phenol on heating with phthalic anhydride in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid forms a colourless condensation compound called phenolphthalein. ​ On further reaction with dilute sodium hydroxide solution gives a pink colour or magenta fluorescent compound called fluorescein. ​ colours are produced by different phenolic compounds ○​ m-cresol: blue or violet blue ○​ Resorcinol: yellow-green  ○​ Hydroquinone: deep purple TEST FOR ALDEHYDES AND KETONES ​ 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine Test ​ Sodium Bisulfite Test Aldehyde ​ Schiff’s Test ​ Tollen’s Test ​ Fehling’s Test Ketone ​ Meta-Dinitrobenzene Test ​ Sodium Nitroprusside Test KEY TERMS: ​ aldehydes are oxidized readily, while ketones are not. ​ Sodium potassium tartrate is called Rochelle’s salt. (base) ​ Fehling’s A: (Copper(II) sulfate); Fehling’s B: Rochelle’s salt. ​ Aldehyde and ketone (carbonyl group) ​ Both react with benedict’s solution ​ Ethanol of about 95 percent purity is known as rectified spirit ​ 2,4 Dinitrophenyl Hydrazine ​ Formation of orange-yellow crystals indicates the presence of carbonyl group Sodium Bisulfite ​ Formation of crystalline precipitate confirms carbonyl group ​ Produce products known as “aldehyde bisulfite” and “ketone bisulfite”. Schiff's Test (ALDEHYDE) ​ aldehydes restores the pink colour (light pink colour formation is not a positive test.) ​ ideally red or magenta ​ prepared by passing sulfur dioxide into a solution of the dye fuchsin. Fehling’s Test: (Aldehyde) ​ formation of a brick-red precipitate ​ Fehlings A and Fehlings B Tollen’s Test (Aldehyde) ​ Silver mirror test ​ Tollens reagent consists of silver ammonia complex in ammonia solution ​ : The appearance of shiny silver mirror confirms the presence of aldehydes ​ Oxidation of hexanal to form hexanoic acid using Tollens Reagent Sodium Nitroprusside Test (Ketone) ​ The appearance of red colouration shows the presence of ketone. Meta-Dinitrobenzene Test (Ketone) ​ Ketones react with m-dinitrobenzene to give a violet colouration. Carboxylic Acid ​ Litmus Test  ​ Sodium Bicarbonate Test ​ EsterTest ​ Fluorescein Test: Key Terms sodium salts - has been used as a basis for the specific test for acetic acid and benzoic acid. react with FeCl3 Acid in nature (donate proton) Litmus Test ​ turns blue litmus red Sodium Bicarbonate Test ​ produce carbon dioxide gas which appears as brisk effervescence. along with sodium acetate Ester Test ​ produce a fruity smelling compound called ester ​ ethyl alcohol into the test tube - few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid - Heat the reaction mixture - pour the reaction mixture into distilled water Fluorescein test ​ 100mg of resorcinol, concentrated sulfuric acid, Heat, Pour the mixture into a beaker containing dilute sodium hydroxide solution. ​ Appearance of green colour fluorescent solution ​ given by dicarboxylic acid Microbiology  Microbial Growth Key Concepts:​ Microbial Growth - an increase of population of microbes Discrete Colony - aggregation of cells arising from single parent cell Sexual Reproduction ​ Conjugation Asexual Reproduction ​ Budding ​ Binary fission Steps in Binary Fission 1.​ The Cell wall starts to rupture 2.​ The cell makes copy of the circular chromosomes 3.​ The chromosomes move to opposite poles and the cell membrane starts to pinch inward 4.​ The cytoplasm cleaved into two and new cell wall is synthesize 5.​ Cytokinesis occurs and two identical bacterium exist THE POPULATION GROWTH CURVE Stages in the normal growth curve: 1.​ Lag Phase - period of adjustment, little growth 2.​ Log Phase - period of maximum and accelerated growth rate 3.​ Stationary Phase - rate of cell growth is equal to rate of death caused by depleted nutrients, O2, environment. 4.​ Death phase - cells die exponentially MOISTURE AND WATER ACTIVITY Moisture - The total amount of water (both free and bound) present in a substance, expressed as a percentage of its weight. Reflects the water quantity but doesn't directly indicate microbial growth potential. (water presence) ​ Ex: Honey has high moisture content but low water activity due to sugar binding most of the water. Water activity (Aw) - availability of free water in a substance, it determines microbial growth potential as microbes require certain Aw to grow. expressed as a ratio (1.0 = pure water). ​ EX: Marshmallows are relatively dry, containing a small percentage of moisture. Despite low moisture, the free water within marshmallows is not bound tightly to other components like sugars, allowing microbes to utilize it. ​ Bacteria > yeast > mold FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MICROBIAL GROWTH 1.​ Moisture 2.​ Water Activity (Aw) 3.​ pH - mold 2.0 - 8.5 ph level; Bacteria 6.0 - 8.5; Yeast 5.5 - 6.5. (acidophiles, neutrophils, alkalophiles) 4.​ Temperature 5.​ Oxygen - (aerobes, anaerobes, obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative aerobes, aerotolerant, microaerophiles) 6.​ Nutrients 7.​ Inhibitory Substances ​ Microbial Metabolism It deals to all chemical reactions/processes that occur in microbes KEY CONCEPTS:​ ATP - The primary energy currency of cells, providing energy for various biochemical processes.​ Nitrogen Cycle - convert nitrogen between atmospheric, organic, and inorganic forms, essential for ecosystems.​ Glycolysis - A metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH.​ Electron Transport Chain - A series of redox reactions in a membrane that generate a proton gradient for ATP synthesis during respiration or photosynthesis.​ Redox Reaction - A chemical reaction involving the transfer of electrons, with one substance oxidized and another reduced.​ Metabolic pathways - Organized processes that convert substrates into products for cellular functions. Enzymes - catalysts that speed up chemical reactions, made up of proteins​ NAD, NADH, NADPH - Coenzymes ​ Endergonic reaction - A reaction that absorbs energy Exergonic reaction - reaction that releases energy, spontaneous ​ Substrate - A molecule upon which an enzyme acts, converting it into a specific product in a biochemical reaction. It is related to thermodynamics of energy production and utilization. Redox reaction is also the core of microbial metabolism. Types of metabolic pathways: ​ Linear ​ Cyclic AEROBIC METABOLISM (Respiration) 1.​ Glycolysis (occur in cytoplasm) 2.​ Krebs Cycle (occur in mitochondria) 3.​ Electron transport (occur in mitochondria) ANAEROBIC METABOLISM (Fermentation) ​ Produce lactic acid as byproduct NOTE: aerobic produce more ATP than Anaerobic ​ Microbial Genetics Microbial Examination Microscopy comes from the greek word “mikros” means small; “skopein” means to see VARIABLES USED IN MICROSCOPY: 1.​ magnification 2.​ Resolution (distinguish two closely spaced as separate) 3.​ Contrast (difference in brightness & color) 4.​ Numerical Aperture (ability to gather light) 5.​ Definition (Render the outline of the image) 6.​ Aberration (red, green, blue wavelength) 7.​ Working distance TYPES OF MICROSCOPES: ​ Electron Microscope  ​ Stereo Microscope ​ Compound Microscope ​ Light Microscope PREPARATION OF SPECIMEN ​ Fixation ​ Dehydration ​ Embedding ​ Sectioning ​ Common Types of Staining ​ Capsule staining ​ Gram staining ​ Acid-fast staining ​ Endospore staining Microlab STS SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY Human Flourishing Key Concepts​ Human being - A Homo sapiens, can think rationally Society - A group of people living together with common interest or activity Happiness - a good/positive mental state Well - being - The state of being happy, healthy ​ rational choice theory - assumes people make decisions based on rational analysis to maximize their self-interest.​ ​ Characteristics of Human over Time 1.​ Walking Upright 2.​ Use of Different Tools 3.​ Domestication of Animals 4.​ Changes in human body (short bodies long guts, tall bodies short guts, compact bodies short guts, bones were sleeker and weaker) 5.​ Complexity of the brains 6.​ Social Life 7.​ Use of language and symbols Society - derivation of the french word “societe” greek word “societas” means friendly association with others. ​ ​ Human Flourishing - an effort to achieve self-actualization and fulfilment within the context of a larger community. (eudaimonia, flourishing, happiness) Flourishing - the highest good Martin Saligman - formulated the Well Being Theory. Well Being Theory - where human flourishing is not only focused on the happiness of individual alone but also in psychological well being. Five Pillars of human Flourishing: (denoted by mnemonic PERMA) ​ Positive Emotion ​ Engagement ​ Relationship ​ Meaning ​ Accomplishment ​ The Good Life Key Concepts:​ Virtue - trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good Pleasure - enjoyable, worth seeking mental state Ethics - concept of human morality such as good and evil Good - product that is useful Common Good - shared and beneficial to community v Key Features of Intellectual Virtues: 1.​ They are acquired 2.​ Excellent Character traits 3.​ Involve human emotion, motivation, values 4.​ Aimed at cognitive goods 5.​ Means between two extreme (temperance generosity)​ ​ What does it mean to live a good life?​ For Aristotle good life is have 3 main components of highest good: ​ Wealth (to attain things) ​ Honor (respect from other people) ​ Pleasure Things that separate human being from animals is the capacity of human to think rationally (to reason) Intellectual virtue = scientific knowledge CourageTemperance generosity - Balance/Moderate Why should we become a virtuous person? -​ because living virtuously leads to eudaimonia Types of Knowledge: ​ Knowledge of first principles: Fundamental truths of nature. ​ Knowledge through inference/demonstration: Applying these principles logically. Eudaimonia - is a Greek term often translated as "happiness" or "flourishing," though it more accurately means "living well" or "a life of fulfillment." eudaimonia is the highest good and the ultimate purpose of human life Virtue enables us to fulfill our purpose as rational beings Technology and the Evolution of Human Society Key Concepts: 4 main evolution of Human Society ​ hunters and gatherers ​ shifters and farmers ​ manufacturing & processing ​ Future man-made world 3 Classification of Society based on concept of waves (Alvin Toffler) ​ First wave (one that replaced hunters/gatherers) ​ Second wave (flourished during the period of industrial revolution until the end of World War II.) ​ Third Wave (post-industrialized society after World War II.) 5 Classification of Technology according to process ​ Energy technology ​ Equipment technology ​ Information Technology ​ Life Technology ​ Material Technology Substitution - replacement of technology Diffusion - transfer of technology, adaptation ​ WHEN TECHNOLOGY AND HUMANITY CROSS Importance of technology to human society ​ Technology started as human civilization develop tools need for their survival ​ Application if scientific knowledge to make life easier ​ Have advantages and disadvantages Advantages of Technology ​ Improved communication, easy access to information ​ Improved housing, lifestyle, entertainment ​ Convenience in education ​ Convenience in traveling ​ Change in health industry ​ Efficiency and productivity ​ Initiate Creativity and innovation ​ UTS The Self From The Perspective of Psychology Derived from the greek word “pysche” means soul; greek word “logos” means the study of GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY ​ Describe (by systematic observations) ​ Explain (knowledge of the condition that reliably reproduce the occurrence of the behaviour) ​ Predict (knowing in advance the possible triggers) ​ Control (application, medicine) Nature vs Nurture Nature refers to the genetic and biological factors that influence an individual's traits, such as DNA. Nurture involves the environmental influences, including experiences, and social interactions, that shape the person Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1955)​ ​ Analytical Psychology – a theory which assumes that occult phenomena (ex: dreams) can and do influence the lives of everyone ​ Collective Unconscious - it refers to the idea that a segment of the deepest unconscious mind is genetically inherited and is not shaped by personal experience. ​ Archetypes - ancient or archaic images that derive from the collective unconscious 8 ARCHETYPES: ​ Persona - represents the side of personality that people show to the rest of the world. ​ Shadow - represents those qualities we do not wish to acknowledge but attempt to hide from ourselves and others. (repressed) ​ Anima - the feminine side of men and is responsible for many of their irrational moods and feelings. ​ Animus - the masculine side of women, is responsible for irrational thinking and illogical opinions in women. ​ The Great Mother - the archetype of fertility and destruction. ​ The wise old man - – Represents wisdom and guidance often appearing as a mentor or advisor. ​ Hero - unconscious image of a person who conquers an evil foe but who also has a tragic flaw ​ Self - symbolizing wholeness and unity. William James (1842-1910) ​ First educator to offer Psychology in the United States (Father of American Psychology)  ​ Theory of the Self – an individual’s mental picture of the self is divided into two categories: the “Me” and the “I” ​ "I" self - active, subjective, and reflective aspect of the self (ex: I feel proud of myself for working hard and achieving my goals)​ ​ “me “ self - self is the objective, social, and perceived version of oneself​ (ex: "People see me as a responsible and dependable person.") Global self - it represents the overall value that a person places upon himself Self-Differentiation (Murray Bowen) - the process of freeing yourself from your family's processes to define yourself Carl Rogers ​ Self Concept - how a person thinks about or perceives himself/herself ​ “Person-Centered Theory” ​ Real Self Concept - all information and perception the person has about himself ​ Ideal self concept - model version the person has of himself/herself Edward Tory Higgins Self-Discrepancy Theory - suggests that individuals experience emotional discomfort when there is a misalignment between their different self-concepts 1.​ Actual Self – Who a person believes they currently are. 2.​ Ideal Self – Who a person aspires to be, based on personal goals and desires. 3.​ Ought Self – Who a person believes they should be, based on obligations or societal expectations. Donald Woods Winnicott True Self - a sense of being alive and real in one's mind and body, having feelings that are spontaneous and unforced False Self - a defense, a kind of mask of behavior that complies with others' expectations Albert Bandura “Social Cognitive Theory” - emphasizes that people can learn by observing others' behaviors without directly performing them (observational learning) Modeling – the core of observational learning; it involves adding and subtracting from the observed behavior and generalizing from one observation to another. Self regulation - can occur when a person attempts to minimize the discrepancies between what a person already accomplished and what the person still wants to achieve The Self In Western and Eastern Thoughts Individualism (Western) ​ Definition: emphasizes the primacy of the individual and his or her rights, independence, and relationships with other individuals. Focus on self Collectivism (Eastern) ​ Definition: emphasizes the primacy of the group or community over each individual person.Groups and social relations are given more importance Ecological Self ​ Definition: A broad, expansive sense of self that is related not only to other humans but also to our home—the living Earth—and the nonhuman others that co-inhabit it. Confucius (551-479 BC) Confucianism - a system of social and ethical philosophy rather than a religion. (not religion) Ren: Humanity, humaneness, human goodness, or love. It is the core value of Confucian philosophy and represents moral excellence. ​ Li (礼): It’s about following the right rules and showing respect to others to keep things peaceful. ​ Xiao (孝): It’s about honoring, respect and taking care of your parents, grandparents, and elders. ​ Yi (义): It’s about doing what’s right and standing up for justice, even when it’s hard. Confucian Golden Rule Quote: "Do not impose on others what you do not wish for yourself." Chun-Tzu: A man of virtue or noble character,. Self Cultivation - personal goals are suppressed for the good of many TAOISM ​ prefer a simple life and its teaching aims how to attain that life ​ Self is also part of the universe, equality with other beings ​ The ideal self is selfless BUDDHISM ​ The self is the source of suffering, self is illusion ​ Nirvana - a state of peace and freedom from suffering ​ Attaining nirvana: ○​ Forget about the self ○​ Forget cravings ○​ Break attachment of the world ○​ Renounce the self The Physical Self Self- Understanding: awareness Physical Self - refers to the body Puberty - process of physical changes through which a child's body matures into an adult body capable of sexual reproduction Pituitary Gland- Also known as the hypophysis, it is considered the "master gland" of the endocrine system. controls hormone production ​ Testosterone - male sex hormone ​ Androgen - group of hormones that play a role in the development of male traits and reproduction ​ Estrogen - female sex hormone ​ Progesterone - produced mainly in the ovaries after ovulation each month. Crucial for pregnancy Menarche - The first occurrence of menstruation in a female Semenarche - The first ejaculation of semen in a male Primary Sexual Characteristics  ​ changes in the sexual organs themselves, such as the uterus, vagina, penis, and testes. Secondary Sexual Characteristics ​ other visible changes that mark adult maturation, such as changes in height and body shape. Body Image ​ The perception a person has of their physical self, Imaginary Audience ​ A state where an individual believes that many people are watching or listening to them, as if they are the center of attention. Spotlight Effect ​ The tendency to think that more people notice something about you than they actually do. Factors that Affect Perception of the Physical Self ​ Introspection ​ Self-Perception Theory ​ Self-Concept ​ Personal Identity ​ Attachment Process and Social Appraisal ​ Looking Glass Self-Theory ​ Social Comparison ​ Social Identity Theory Beauty The quality or combination of qualities in a person or thing that pleases the senses or elevates the mind or spirit. Eurocentrism Colorism:​ Self-Esteem - An individual's subjective evaluation of their own worth. FITT STATS STATISTICS Introduction to inferential statistics - Hypothesis Testing Hypothesis Testing - statistical method that is used in making decisions using experimental data. Statistical Hypothesis - An assumption or claim about a characteristic of the population ​ Null Hypothesis (Ho) - A statement that assumes no effect, relationship, or difference exists in the population being studied. ​ Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) - A statement that suggests there is an effect, relationship, or difference in the population Level of Significance - ( alpha 𝛼) degree of significance used to determine whether to reject or accept the null hypothesis Critical Value - values that separate critical region from the non critical region Critical/Rejection Region - range of values of the test value that indicates that there is significant difference. One-tailed/one sided test ​ Ha: 𝜇1 > 𝜇2 or 𝜇1 < 𝜇2 Two tailed test/two-sided test ​ Ha: 𝜇1 ≠ 𝜇2 Type 1 Error - Rejecting Ho when its true Type 2 Error - Accepting Ho when its false STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING: 1.​ State the null (Ho) and Alternative (Ha) hypothesis 2.​ Choose the level of significance (𝛼) sample size (n) and degree of freedom (df) 3.​ Determine the test statistics 4.​ State the rejection region and critical value 5.​ Collect the data and compute 6.​ Make a statistical decision (reject or accept Ho) 7.​ State the conclusion Ex: HYPOTHESIS TESTING on Independent and dependent samples Independent samples - used when comparing two separate groups that are not related to each other. ​ Ex: (H₀): The average scores of School A and School B are equal.​ Dependent Samples - used when comparing two related groups ​ Ex: (Ho): The participants' weights before and after the program are the same. FORMULAS: (independent, dependent) Ex:​ ​ Pearson product Correlation Pearson's correlation measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. It tells you how closely two things are related Ex: You want to see if the number of study hours is related to exam scores: Linear Correlation ​ A direct or positive relationship between two variables implies that an increase in value of one of the variables corresponds to increase in the value of the other variable. ​ An indirect or negative relationship between two variables implies that an increase in value of one of the variables corresponds to decrease in the value of the other variable. ​ A zero relationship exists between two variables if an increase in one is not accompanied by either an increase or decrease in another. FORMULA: Examples:​ Analysis of Variance used to compare the means of three or more groups to determine if there are significant differences between them ​ one-way classification ​ two-way classification Example: Comparing test scores of students in 3 different teaching methods Formula: MMW