Short African History PDF

Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 Short African History Professor Khalid Chegraoui The Races of Africa When we deal with African countries we may say that there is no civilisation … Hegel in t...

Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 Short African History Professor Khalid Chegraoui The Races of Africa When we deal with African countries we may say that there is no civilisation … Hegel in the 18th century he said that Africa never participated in history and so many africans were choked that Sarkozy in regela in 2006 said these terms in a way. President Macron didn’t take into account the difference between European and African crowd , they didn’t take into consideration that they talk not only to civilians but for a whole culture a whole complex relationship between Europe and Africa, with diverse culture , backgrounds The Apartheid means people who can develop themselves alone and other people who need more help. So the people that are not white they are very different, not totally human. This is what apartheid have done to this country they treat them not like humans but as animals as people that can use their hands but not their brain. And it’s a big challenge to work through that trauma to shift from a traumatic to an inclusive society. Why all the people respect Mandela ? It’s about his social identity and ethnic appartenance, he knows about that moment that without social majority he cannot become on top of governance so he gives around him more freedom in governance, management… Zuma ( the former president ) is from a tribe the Zulu tribe which is very close to white people during apartheid, but Zulu consider themselves more able to control people and contact them and see themselves as the heritage of the dutch. And in south Africa you have the issue of community, the white people impose a narrative that this land was terra-nullius and the black people came here but did not originate from this land and the Afrikaners yes they were europeans but they were legitimate to take control of the land. There was no genocide in Rwanda between Tutsi and Hutu there was a war, there was problems and ethnical problems but a genocide imply the fact that one group completely decimate the other. For instance there was a genocide in Rwanda between the tutsi and Hutu against a minority group called Twa. There is regional rivalry and external rivalry and we have to understand each case in each context. East Africa the Namibian ( numibia ) , considered the rising of civilisation we could observe the rst Pharos and the physiognomy of women and their hair and why do we claim that pharaonic is a white civilisation ? Egyptians are not white like Libya, Tunisia,Morocco… it’s a mixité because there is a lot of migration between northern Africa and Europe. In North Africa the problem of color was not a problem until the arrival of colonialism, Even the issue of slavery it could be also white ( if your health is not good , not t for work…), Africa is very complex it’s not only badly known by foreigners but by africans themselves. Habib Bourguiba created something which uni ed Tunisian between them and he gave an identity to Tunisians. It was very huge before colonialism, but this is something after independence governments have to do and be in very good term with the colonial period not like Algeria where there was a clash between the two periods. In the 70’s when Gadda ( who wanted to create a united Arab identity even arrived to Syria without Egypt without succeeding ) he then met with Bourguiba fi fi … fi fi  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 ( a lawyer who mastered dialectic rhetoric ) and he knows that Gadda was not very normal guy and Tunisia is a small country and he wants to protect it so he stalled him ( and he knew that Gadda loves to talk to the mass ) , and Gadda sends a real message of unity and what Bourguiba said is that he spent 40 years creating Tunisian identity so he will need another 40 to convince them that they are half Tunisian and half Libyan. It’s not a problem by ethnicity it’s a problem about interest , history is simple but it’s so complicated Countries of north Africa can be the mediator between African countries and sub Saharan Africa, and when the French colonizes territories they talk about them as empty spaces without any real culture in them Never engage in a war that you will loose , the politician declare war but in the military choosing the moment is very important we need to count what we will win and what we will loose. Energy Transition Professor Rim Berahab How to de ne energy ? Ressources that can be harvested to produced energy commodities, that simply means to provide energy services for human activities ( propane , diesel … ) Primary energy means energy that was harvested but hasn’t gone any transformation. There is also something called energy economics is a branch of applied economics it was born in the 70’s as a necessity and it evolved throughout the years depending on the different crisis it went through. Energy is a multidimensional sector and there is also interlinkage to different types of countries each with their speci c demands and costs. What is Energy transitions and why ? It’s de ned as the charge of composition off energy supply it is of course not a sudden shift or change it may take time and indeed there have been multiple energy transitions ( from coal to oil ) , but what are the goals , why do we transition ? There are numerous changes why , rst to modernize and diversify the economy , reduce the energy system and reduce independency. And it takes time for two main reasons , infrastructure as it’s very costly and it take time , the second is the human factor ( we are habit animals and we need time to change ) , so there is the need of incentives for people to change their consumer habits. We cannot speak about energy transition without taking into fact the impact on the economy. Addressing climate change it requires the shift of the energy system to a transition to a more sustainable approach , that means the needs of present without compromising the future generations needs. This relationship between energy and sustainable development has been the main discussion during the last decades. What re the drivers of energy transitions ? fi fi fi fi fi fi fi  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 Green hydrogen, it’s a clean alternative to methane that is also known as natural gas it needs a transformation by separating the water molecules to clean electricity to become gas and usable. We need to be cautious but it’s part of an energy mix but it’ not the ultimate solution. Hydrogen can be used to decarbonize some aspects of societal consumption ( like transport ). Levelized cost of energy , we cannot compare between oil and coal for instance without a standardized calculation base need a common base to accurately calculate the value and cost ion different power-plants it measures the present value of the total cost of building and operating power plants to help decision. Makers and investors Green hydrogen is an expensive technology and it’s not cost competitive so unless there is a technological breakthrough it will not be widely used ,so innovation , technology and research centers have a big role to play to bring down those costs. We have seen the falling cost of solar and renewable energy the more there are used and employed the more they fall down in price due to economy of scale. The other driver is not only cost it’s also policy and sometimes it plays the bigger role , to encourage these types of energy there will not be adopted so this is why legal framework are prerequisites to lay the bases of renewable energy transition. What are the Challenges of Energy transitions? 1. Energy Storage: Developing cost-effective and ef cient storage solutions is crucial to manage the intermittency of renewables like solar and wind, ensuring a stable energy supply. 2. Grid Integration: Upgrading existing grids to handle decentralized and variable renewable energy sources while maintaining reliability and preventing overloads. 3. Electri cation: Expanding electri cation in sectors like transport and heating requires signi cant infrastructure investments and policy support to meet rising electricity demands sustainably. We also have policy and regulatory challenges like Inconsistent policies , market Barries and grid access for instance ( Carbon pricing , carbon border adjustments , carbon taxes ) 4. Inconsistent Policies: The lack of long-term, stable policies and varying regulations across regions can create uncertainty for investors and slow down the adoption of renewable energy technologies. 5. Market Barriers: Existing energy markets often favor established fossil fuel industries, making it dif cult for renewable energy sources to compete without policy support or nancial incentives. 6. Grid Access: Limited or unequal access to modern grid infrastructure can prevent renewable energy projects from connecting ef ciently, particularly in remote or underserved areas. fi fi fi fi fi fi. fi  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 There is a wide difference between developed and developing countries and the question to asked is why should a country embark on an energy transition is it the right time , and does it have the abilities to do so ? 7. Energy Access De cit: Many regions, especially in developing countries, still lack reliable access to modern energy services, posing a challenge for inclusive energy transitions. 8. Diverse Energy Mixes: Balancing various energy sources, including renewables, nuclear, and cleaner fossil fuels, is essential to ensure energy security while transitioning away from high-emission sources. 9. Economic Diversi cation: Regions dependent on fossil fuel revenues face challenges in diversifying their economies and creating alternative income sources while transitioning to cleaner energy. 10. Challenges in Policy Formulation and Financing: Designing effective policies and securing adequate funding for energy transitions can be complex, requiring collaboration between governments, private sectors, and international bodies. 11. Financial Challenges: ◦ Investment Uncertainty: Unpredictable policy shifts and evolving technologies can discourage long-term investments ◦ Subsidies and Incentives: Uneven or insuf cient nancial support for renewables compared to fossil fuels can hinder progress ◦ Risk Management: Managing nancial risks related to project viability, currency uctuations, and market stability remains a barrier to large-scale clean energy adoption Current challenges of Energy transition ? High geographic concentration for production and processing , if we need to achieve a wide energy transition we will need a lot more ressource with a lot transformation to increase the added value of the minerals , but there are also opportunities for energy transition for instance : 12. Opportunities for Leapfrogging: Developing countries can bypass traditional fossil fuel dependency by directly adopting modern renewable technologies, accelerating sustainable development. 13. Job Creation and Economic Growth: The energy transition can drive signi cant employment opportunities in renewable energy sectors while fostering new industries and economic resilience. fl. fi fi fi.. fi fi fi  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 14. Technology Transfer and Capacity Building: Sharing advanced clean energy technologies and providing technical training can empower regions with limited expertise to adopt and sustain renewable energy systems. 15. Policy Support and Investment: Strong regulatory frameworks, incentives, and public- private partnerships can accelerate clean energy adoption by reducing barriers and attracting long-term investments. Case of Morocco’s Energy Transition Roadmap Morocco is expericenign a growing energy demand , fueled buy economic and demographic growth , and it is expected ( the demand ) to triple by 2030 , the structure has not changed regarding the total nal consumption ( TTC) , Morocco primary energy supply is mainly still dominated by oil coherent with it’s level of development. Morocco has very little fossil fuel reserves so it imports most of it’s energy from the outside although there was a small improvement but it’s still highly dependent, the energy bill is still high and very volatile depending mainly on the market Amid this development there has been an improvement , and there was a growing share of renewable energy in Electricity generation despite an electricity mix still dominated by coal. Morocco Energy strategy which was a breakthrough from previous strategy (2009) : Morocco’s new green hydrogen strategy ( export oriented ) : Morocco is actively advancing its green hydrogen strategy, aiming to position itself as a key exporter of this clean energy source fi.  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 Morocco's Potential: The nation boasts signi cant renewable energy resources, particularly in solar and wind power, making it well-suited for large-scale green hydrogen production.The government has allocated approximately 300,000 hectares of public land for green hydrogen and renewable energy projects, demonstrating its commitment to this sector. Green Hydrogen Applications Green hydrogen offers versatile applications, including Decarbonizing Hard-to-Electrify Sectors: Industries such as aviation, shipping, and steel production can utilize green hydrogen to reduce carbon emissions. Ammonia Production: Green hydrogen can serve as a feedstock for producing green ammonia, essential for fertilizers, potentially replacing imports and boosting local production Action Plan: Morocco's National Hydrogen Strategy outlines a phased approach Short Term (2020-2030): Focus on using hydrogen for local green ammonia production and initiating exports to countries with ambitious decarbonization goals. Mid Term (2030-2040): Expand production and export of green hydrogen and its derivatives, such as synthetic fuels, and integrate hydrogen as an energy storage vector and transport fuel domestically. Long Term (2040-2050): Aim for a global expansion of hydrogen trade and its widespread use across various sectors within the country. To support these goals, Morocco is fostering international partnerships.Notably, in June 2024, Germany and Morocco established a climate and energy alliance to promote renewable energy and green hydrogen production in Morocco, aiming to support Germany's emission reduction targets and energy transition Through these strategic initiatives, Morocco is positioning itself as a signi cant player in the global green hydrogen market, leveraging its renewable energy potential to drive economic growth and contribute to global decarbonization efforts Dynamics of Power in Africa Professor Kidane Kiros In terms of landmass size , Africa is not small , so it needs to be taken seriously this is the message sent to the world. This continent has major African river systems it starts from the nile ( the longest river in the world ), and more than 2000 ethnics groups... fi :. : : fi  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 Several large but non hegemonic civilisations arose and disappeared in Africa before Africa fell under European colonialists. Pre-colonial Africa did not have a permanent, precisely delineated boundaries. Africa History did not provide a rm tradition of state borders upon which to set the arbitrary lines of colonial demarcation , so in this case we should keep in mind there was no permanent demarcated borders. The modern political landscape of Africa consists of several types of government , some of them are unitary in terms of structure, others have a federal type of structure ( Nigeria / Somalia… ) In terms of population density we can observe that in the northern part ( Morocco , Libya , Egypt… ), in the case of Egypt more than 100 million people are concentrated on the shores of the nile, 90% of the population is reliant on this fresh water source. The Nile can be a source of tension and a source of power sometimes it’s not about the scarcity of water but it’s about the scarcity and shift of power. The nile river shared by ( Tanzania , Uganda and Kenya ) is considered the source of the nile it’s clear water then when it rains it erodes the soil then when it reaches Khartoum in Sudan it causes oods, but if a dam is constructed there will be no oods during the rainy season in the summer but the issue is that if you don’t have that ow of water then the white nile cannot reach Egypt. This is called Transboundary water whether it’s Ethiopia or Sudan they have the right to use the source , whether a country is small of big in this part of the world and someone uses the same water for production or domestic use or any other use so you would say he or she is from my river , but when politics get involved it’s all about distribution. The Sahara desert ( it doesn’t mean it doesn’t have any settlements ) but most people in Africa lives in the middle and south east of Africa, in terms of diversi cation of language ten degrees north of the equator is a highly populated dense mountainous area, and because of the fresh water we can see that this population is concentrated in this section of the continent Historical context of power structur Historical context of power structure, there were three distinct historical periods that shaped the geopolitically states of North Africa Slavery : In pre-colonial North Africa, slavery played a signi cant role in shaping the region's power dynamics. Enslaved individuals were often obtained through wars, raids, or trade, and they formed a key labor force in agricultural, domestic, and military sectors. The trans-Saharan slave trade linked North Africa to sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, and the Middle East, embedding slavery into the regional economy and social hierarchy Colonialism : During the 19th and 20th centuries, European powers, particularly France, Britain, and Italy, colonized North Africa. This period was marked by the extraction of resources, forced labor, and the imposition of European political and cultural systems. Colonial powers dismantled local governance structures, redrew borders, and exploited divisions to maintain control, fundamentally altering the region's social and economic fabric Neo colonialism : Post-independence, North African states faced neo-colonial in uences through economic dependency, foreign intervention, and political alliances. Former colonial powers and global superpowers maintained control through trade agreements, resource extraction, and support for authoritarian regimes. These dynamics have perpetuated unequal power relations and hindered true sovereignty in the region. fl e fi. fl fi. fl fi. fl Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 The triangular trade The triangular trade was the sailing route taken by British traders in enslaved African people. It was a journey of three stages : The manufactured run, the middle passage, and nally the home run. Transatlantic triangular trade, starting 15th century, the europeans are engaging in west.east and middle east African parts , when we say engagements after the discovery of the new lands or the new world ( which they called India ) , we can observe a triangle from Europe ( they bring guns clothes and beer which they exchange with local traders in exchange of people which formed the transatlantic slave trade ) notably from west Africa ( but also east and middle east ) then to America, from the Americas you have different types of materials and goods ( Whale oil, furs, rice, silk, indigo, tobacco) which were transported to Europe. What scholars are saying is that this trade has shaped the overall geopolitical landscape of Africa as well as the contemporary social, economic and political stance. 18 million people were taken into the slave trade, out of the 18 million ( only transatlantic slave trade ) 6 million of them died when they were captured or/and during transportation. Effect of slave trade on African societies ( BBC Bitesize history, 2025 ) -18 million African people taken captive - 6 million Africans died during and after their capture and transportation - 12 million Africans forced to work on plantations in the Americas - As a result, a large drop of population of west Africa - Agriculture suffered from a lack of farmers and abatement of farmland near the coast - Rivalry b/n African societies grew, made worse by the introduction of guns The Impact of colonizatio The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 marked a turning point in the Scramble for Africa, a process that had already begun in the 19th century. Before the conference, European powers were penetrating Africa through exploration, trade, and diplomacy, but there was no consensus on territorial claims. Competition among nations was erce, driven by military ambitions, ideological motives, and the desire to expand religious in uence, particularly Christianity. By the late 1870s, the race for African territories intensi ed, with European nations exerting pressure and in uence to stake their claims At the Berlin Conference, European powers formalized the division of Africa, carving it up like a cake without considering the continent's established cultural, linguistic, or ethnic boundaries. This arbitrary division prioritized European interests and leverage determined by factors such as military strength, political in uence, and economic ambitions while completely disregarding the perspectives and sovereignty of African societies. The outcomes of the conference solidi ed colonization across the continent, with European nations imposing arti cial borders that have had enduring political and social consequences. This disregard for Africa’s internal diversity sowed the seeds for future con icts and challenges in the post-colonial era. fl fl n fi fl fi. fi fi fl fi  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 The Scramble for Africa saw European powers aggressively colonizing the continent, dividing territories with little regard for existing cultural and ethnic boundaries. Among the notable events was Italy’s colonization of Eritrea and its failed attempt to conquer Ethiopia. Italy formally declared Eritrea a colony in 1890, establishing control after years of gradual expansion along the Red Sea coast. Eritrea became a strategic location, serving as a base for Italy's ambitions in the region. However, when Italy attempted to expand further into Ethiopia, they faced strong resistance under Emperor Menelik II A few bene ts of colonisation is the infrastructure left behind, for instance Italy built a road from Asmara to Addis Ababa that is still used to this day ( of course while being maintained ) , in the mountainous regions tunnels and more assets have continued to serve practical purposes in the region. The Heartland Theory and the Rimland Theory are two geopolitical concepts that explain global power dynamics. The Heartland Theory, proposed by Sir Halford Mackinder in 1904, argues that control of the "Heartland," a central region encompassing Eastern Europe, Russia, and Central Asia, is key to global dominance due to its vast resources and strategic position. Mackinder famously stated, "Who rules the Heartland commands the World Island; who rules the World Island commands the world. In contrast, the Rimland Theory, introduced by Nicholas Spykman in 1942, emphasizes the importance of controlling the coastal fringes, or "Rimland," surrounding the Heartland. Spykman argued that the Rimland stretching from Western Europe through the Middle East and South Asia to East Asia holds greater signi cance due to its access to trade routes, maritime dominance, and population centers. While Mackinder viewed the Heartland as the geopolitical pivot, Spykman saw the Rimland as the key to containing Heartland powers and maintaining global balance. Both theories highlight the strategic importance of geography in shaping global power Post-Colonial Features of Afric Fragmentation and Disparities: Africa remains fragmented, with signi cant economic and developmental disparities both between sub-regions and individual countries, as well as within different zones of the same country. These imbalances stem from colonial-era borders and uneven resource distribution. Inter/Intra-State Con icts: Many African states face ongoing con icts, both between countries and within their borders. These con icts often arise from colonial boundaries that disregarded ethnic and cultural divisions, leading to tensions and rivalries. Foreign Greediness: Despite achieving independence, African countries still face exploitation from foreign powers seeking to extract resources and exert economic and political in uence, perpetuating neo-colonial dynamics. Integration and Cooperation: African nations continuously strive for greater unity through regional and continental fl fi " fl. fi a fl fi fl.  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 initiatives such as the African Union (AU) and ECOWAS, aiming to strengthen economic ties, political stability, and collective development across the continent. North Afric Population and Identity ◦ Dominated by Arabs and Amazigh (Berbers), forming a culturally rich and historically signi cant population ◦ Linguistically diverse, with Arabic as the main language alongside Berber dialects and French in uence in many countries Political and Cultural Connections ◦Strong ties to the Middle East due to shared history, religion (Islam), and political cooperation ◦ Frequently categorized as part of the MENA region, re ecting its integration into Middle Eastern affairs Natural Resources ◦ A global powerhouse in oil and gas production, particularly Algeria and Libya ◦ Morocco is a leading exporter of phosphates, vital for global agriculture ◦ The Nile River supports agriculture in Egypt, while parts of the Atlas Mountains foster diverse ecosystems and farming Economic and Strategic Importance ◦Acts as a critical trade and migration bridge between Africa, Europe, and the Middle East ◦ The Mediterranean coastline offers access to key shipping routes and ports Challenges ◦ Political instability in parts of the region, including Libya and Tunisia ◦ Environmental concerns such as water scarcity and deserti cation, exacerbated by climate change Sahel Regio Geographic and Cultural Signi cance ◦ Located between the Sahara Desert and Sub-Saharan Africa, stretching from Senegal in the west to Sudan in the east ◦ Home to diverse ethnic groups like Fulani, Tuareg, Hausa, and Songhai, with Islam as the predominant religion Economic and Resource Potential ◦Rich in minerals such as gold, uranium, and oil, making it a target for international investments ◦ Agricultural potential exists but is limited by unpredictable rainfall and overgrazing ◦ Livestock herding is a vital livelihood, but it faces challenges from land degradation Environmental Vulnerabilities. :.. fl a n. fi :. :.. : fi. : :. :. : fl fi......  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 ◦ Severely affected by deserti cation, deforestation, and the shrinking of water bodies like Lake Chad ◦ Prolonged droughts and climate change worsen food insecurity and displacement Security Concerns ◦A hotspot for con icts, including the rise of terrorist groups like Boko Haram and Al-Qaeda af liates ◦ Arms traf cking, human smuggling, and organized crime exacerbate instability Geopolitical and Global Focus ◦ Increasingly viewed as a critical region for counterterrorism and migration control ◦ Draws signi cant international attention, with peacekeeping missions and aid initiatives to address security and development challenges Social and Development Challenges ◦ High levels of poverty, low literacy rates, and limited access to healthcare ◦ Rapid population growth places additional strain on already scarce resources Political Geoeconomics of climate change Professor Paul Isbell Geoeconomics can be seen as the use of economic policies and tools to gain access to market ressources and in uence over the rules in which the market takes place , geopolitics can be used to describe the use of political tools to achieve the goals and interests we want to achieve Climate change The Greenhouse Effect refers to the warming and cooling dynamics of Earth's atmosphere, driven by both human and natural factors. The atmosphere traps solar radiation, with the process in uenced by how much sunlight is absorbed or re ected back into space a phenomenon known as the "albedo effect." This effect is linked to surface color; lighter surfaces, like ice, re ect more sunlight, while darker surfaces absorb more, affecting Earth's heat balance. When greenhouse gases increase, they disrupt this equilibrium, reducing the amount of heat re ected and contributing to phenomena like rising sea levels Among greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most signi cant. Over recent decades, atmospheric CO2 concentrations have risen far beyond the stable natural uctuations observed in past eras. These increases have driven changes such as glacier retreat, which historically remained balanced. Other greenhouse gases, though less prevalent, have substantial impacts due to their molecular properties and heat-trapping potential. For instance, methane a product of livestock farming has a shorter lifespan but a much stronger warming effect than CO2. Many of these gases are linked to human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels, which further accelerates the greenhouse effect Stocks Vs. Flows Stocks represent the cumulative amount of greenhouse gases (GHGs) already in the atmosphere, while ows refer to the annual emissions added to the atmosphere each year. Flows are critical because they determine how quickly stocks increase, exacerbating climate change. For decades, the fl fl fi fi fi. fl. fl. : fi :. : fl. fi fl. fl.... fl  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 United States was the world's largest emitter of annual ows, but China surpassed it around 15 years ago as its industrial activity expanded rapidly. The European Union and other Western nations, having reached their peak emissions, have started to reduce their annual ows, re ecting efforts to transition to cleaner energy. However, global ows remain on an upward trajectory due to rapid industrialization in developing regions, posing signi cant challenges for equitable burden- sharing in reducing emissions. Historically, industrialized nations hold the largest stocks, as they have emitted greenhouse gases for centuries, while newly industrialized countries contribute increasingly to current ows Non-fossil fuel emissions, such as those from agriculture and deforestation, are less signi cant but still contribute to the problem. Encouragingly, these emissions have shown a slight downward trend, re ecting advancements in agricultural practices and reforestation efforts Sources versus sinks Sources are processes or activities that release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, such as burning fossil fuels, industrial processes, and deforestation. Sinks, on the other hand, are natural or arti cial systems that absorb more carbon dioxide than they release, helping to mitigate climate change. Examples of sinks include forests, which absorb CO2 through photosynthesis, and oceans, which take up carbon and heat Maintaining a balance between sources and sinks is critical to stabilizing atmospheric greenhouse gas levels. However, deforestation and ocean acidi cation are weakening these vital sinks, further exacerbating the climate crisis. Strengthening natural sinks through reforestation, wetland restoration, and carbon capture technologies offers a key strategy for mitigating emissions and addressing the global imbalance between stocks and ows For a long time, the oceans have acted as Earth's primary shock absorber, absorbing about 95% of the excess heat generated by greenhouse gas emissions. This immense heat absorption has helped to delay the full impact of climate change on the atmosphere. However, the oceans are now heating at an alarming rate, pushing their capacity to act as a buffer to its limits Additionally, increasing levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are driving ocean acidi cation, a process where CO2 dissolves into seawater and lowers its pH. This change in acidity has severe consequences for many marine ecosystems, particularly coral reefs, which are highly sensitive to even slight shifts in pH. Coral reefs, often referred to as the "rainforests of the sea," are vital for biodiversity, supporting a vast array of marine species. Acidi cation weakens their ability to build calcium carbonate skeletons, leading to bleaching and eventual collapse The combined effects of ocean heating and acidi cation are creating a deadly feedback loop, disrupting marine ecosystems, sheries, and the livelihoods of millions who depend on them. Without urgent action to reduce emissions and mitigate these impacts, the damage to ocean ecosystems and their critical role as climate shock absorbers could become irreversible Impacts of Climate change Most notably : Global warming , Migration of plants and species , sea level rise , Increased ocean temperatures ( acidi cation of the seas ) , reduction of fresh water supplies, reduction in food supply, economic and nancial loss ( estimated 5% to 20% of the global GDP by mid-century ) fl fi fi fi fl.. fi fi fi fl fl. fl fi fi... fl. fi fi fl  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 Permafrost and Arctic Warmin Permafrost, the permanently frozen ground found in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, is undergoing rapid thawing due to climate change. The Arctic itself is warming at three times or more the global average rate, which has profound implications for ecosystems, infrastructure, and global climate systems. From a geopolitical perspective, countries like Russia and Canada may see warming in the Arctic as an opportunity, as it opens new shipping routes, exposes untapped natural resources, and makes vast areas more accessible for economic development. However, this "renaissance" in the Arctic comes at a high cost. The continuation of global temperature increases threatens to destabilize permafrost, releasing large amounts of methane and CO2 stored within it. This creates a dangerous feedback loop, accelerating climate change further The political economy of the Arctic re ects these tensions. While some countries may view the thawing Arctic as a pathway to economic growth, others recognize the risks of perpetuating reliance on fossil fuels. The shift in fossil fuel dynamics, particularly since the shale revolution in the United States, has added complexity to this issue. The U.S , once a declining oil producer and a major importer, has ipped its position to become the largest oil producer and a potential leading exporter. This shift has signi cant implications for climate policy, as it underscores the tension between short-term economic interests and long-term climate commitments. While U.S. energy policies often con ict with climate goals, the full effects of this contradiction may only manifest in the future Fossil Fuels: Negative Externalitie The continued reliance on fossil fuels carries signi cant negative externalities, including environmental degradation, health impacts, and the economic costs of climate inaction. The nancial burden of addressing these consequences, combined with the losses from "business as usual," is staggering, amounting to trillions of dollars globally. The Stern Report estimated that the costs of climate change could reach 5% to 20% of global GDP by mid-century, depending on the severity of warming Incorporating the true costs of fossil fuel consumption into economic systems is essential. This includes considering not only the direct nancial impacts but also the cascading effects on infrastructure, agriculture, and human health. A transition to sustainable energy sources is critical to mitigating these costs and avoiding the catastrophic consequences of unrestrained global warming Political Economy International Political Economy (IPE) examines the interplay between politics and the global economy, focusing on how political forces shape economic structures and how economic developments, in turn, in uence political systems. A key aspect of IPE is understanding the power dynamics among various actors, including nation-states, international organizations, and multinational corporations, particularly in shaping global energy policies and transitions Currently, fossil fuels dominate approximately 80% of the global energy mix, consisting of coal, oil, and gas. However, there is growing momentum to replace this reliance with modern renewable energy sources. These include hydroelectric energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, and biomass energy, all of which offer sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels. Despite this progress, renewables still face signi cant challenges The primary argument against renewable energy has historically been its high costs, both in terms of initial capital investment and ongoing production. Critics often pointed to the nancial fi. fl fl fi. fi fl. g fl s fi fi.. fi.  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 infeasibility of scaling renewables to meet global energy demands. However, advances in technology and economies of scale are steadily lowering these costs, making renewables more competitive. Concepts like the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) a measure of the average cost of producing electricity over the lifetime of a facility highlight how renewables are increasingly viable alternatives In addition to economic feasibility, renewable energy offers substantial co-bene ts. These include the creation of employment opportunities across various sectors, from manufacturing to maintenance, and signi cant reductions in air pollution. The avoided health and environmental costs associated with cleaner energy sources provide further justi cation for accelerating the transition to renewables The global energy transition represents not only a technical challenge but also a political and economic one. Nation-states and international organizations must navigate competing interests and economic dependencies to shift the energy mix. The interplay of these factors makes energy policy a central focus in the study of IPE, as the world moves toward a more sustainable and equitable energy future The transition to safe and clean energy sources, such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, and geothermal energy, is critical for addressing climate change while ensuring long-term energy security. These sources are not only sustainable but also reduce harmful emissions and health risks associated with fossil fuels. However, achieving this transition requires strategic climate economics and effective policy instruments A key element of climate economics is creating incentives to encourage the adoption of clean energy. This can be done through regulatory incentives or subsidies, which lower the cost of clean energy technologies or penalize high-emission energy sources. These measures help balance the nancial burden of transitioning to renewables, making them more competitive in the market Policy Instruments for Climate Actio One commonly used policy instrument is the command-and-control approach, which involves government regulations to manage energy use and emissions. This includes 1. Emission Standards: Setting limits on the amount of pollution that can be released by speci c sources 2. Energy Ef ciency Mandates: Requiring the use of energy-ef cient appliances, buildings, and industrial processes 3. Renewable Energy Targets: Mandating that a certain percentage of energy production comes from renewables Pros and Cons of the Regulatory Approac Pros ◦ Clear and enforceable standards ensure compliance ◦ Rapid impact on emissions and energy use ◦ Promotes technological innovation by requiring industries to meet stricter standards Cons ◦ Compliance costs can be high for businesses and consumers ◦ Regulatory measures may face resistance from stakeholders fi : fi : fi..... fi... n. h. fi. fi : fi..  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 ◦ Risk of economic inef ciencies if not well-designed While the regulatory approach has its challenges, it can be effective when combined with other measures, such as carbon pricing or market-based incentives. These complementary tools provide exibility, allowing businesses to choose the most cost-effective way to reduce emissions The Pigovian tax, introduced by economist Arthur Cecil Pigou in his work "The Economics of Welfare", is a market-based instrument designed to address negative externalities, such as pollution. It imposes a tax equal to the external cost caused by an activity, aligning private costs with societal costs For example, a carbon tax charges emitters based on the amount of CO2 they release, incentivizing cleaner production methods. By internalizing environmental costs, the Pigovian tax encourages behavior that reduces harm while maintaining economic ef ciency Negative Externalities: The use of fossil fuels generates signi cant external costs, including environmental pollution, health impacts, and climate change. These unaccounted costs burden society, with estimates like the Stern Report predicting climate change costs of 5% to 20% of global GDP by mid-century Oil Price Cycles and Shocks: The oil market is highly volatile, with prices in uenced by geopolitical tensions, supply disruptions, and demand uctuations. Oil shocks, such as the 1973 OPEC embargo or the 2020 pandemic-induced crash, destabilize economies by causing in ation, unemployment, and scal de cits, underscoring the need to reduce reliance on fossil fuels Incumbency and regime resistance ( fossil fuel dominance / Path dependency : applies to consumers as well / Path dependence : The tendency of institutions or technologies to become committed to develop in certain ways as a result of their structural properties or their beliefs and values. Protagonists of Regime Resistance : ( Global Private sector , Fossil Fuel ( producing and exporting states as well as Fossil-fuel dependent states ) , Related Infrastructure and service sectors , Resources at stake, the fossil fuel nexus ( US and European private, Russian and Saudi State companies )… a tacit strategic alliance… ? This “fossil-fuel nexus” could be the most signi cant geostrategic barrier to successful global decarbonization. Community Resilience Professor Omar Laafoura The de ning factor driving immigration is often poverty and the lack of access to economic opportunities. Most individuals do not willingly leave their families or comfort zones unless compelled by necessity. Migration is typically fueled by the search for better livelihoods, creating a movement of young, ambitious individuals seeking opportunities elsewhere There is a duality in the way immigration is perceived: on one hand, it is viewed with apprehension, often described as an "invasion," while on the other hand, there are perspectives that advocate for welcoming immigrants and recognizing their potential contributions fl. fi fi fi. fi fi. fl fi. fi.. fl.. fl  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 The roots of contemporary migration patterns can be traced back to colonial histories, where exploitation and uneven development shaped global inequalities. Similar narratives emerge in post- slavery North America, illustrating how historical structures in uence modern migration. While simplistic, this perspective highlights the economic roots of migration, framing it as an economic issue rather than solely a political or social one Africa stands out as a continent with a rapidly growing and youthful population. Currently, 48% of Africa's population depends on agriculture, compared to the global average of 26%, re ecting a predominantly rural demographic. However, urbanization is accelerating. By 2100, Kinshasa, Lagos, and Dar es Salaam are projected to be among the world’s three largest cities, reshaping migration patterns and economic dynamics Migration is a multi-faceted issue driven by poverty, economic disparity, historical inequities, and demographic shifts. Addressing these underlying forces requires nuanced and sustainable solutions that go beyond simplistic narratives, recognizing both the challenges and opportunities of migration Emerging Global Security Governance Professor Norman Sempijja State security has historically been foundational to the understanding of political science and international relations, particularly in the context of power politics. During the Cold War, strength and state sovereignty were seen as essential to ensuring security. The role of the state as a central actor in maintaining international peace and stability is further reinforced by the UN Charter, which seeks to reduce interstate con icts and maintain a balance of power. This balance often involves interest-based con icts, which, when internationalized, highlight the signi cance of state authority. Traditionally, the state has been regarded as having a monopoly on the legitimate use of violence— or at least the belief that it should. However, this notion, along with the broader concept of security, has faced increasing contestation over time The de nition of security has evolved far beyond the traditional Cold War-era focus on state-centric security. Contemporary challenges, such as brain drain, human traf cking, and other transnational issues, complicate this understanding. These challenges have broadened the concept to include human security, which prioritizes development, welfare, and societal well-being. Additionally, security now transcends violent con icts and encompasses structural issues such as gender equality, intersectionality (faith, racial, and identity-based factors), and climate change. These dimensions emphasize that security is not limited to military or political stability but is deeply interconnected with socio-economic and environmental factors Poverty and inequality further illustrate the expanded notion of security. Poverty can be understood as the lack of resources or the inability to make meaningful choices, which can lead to violence and insecurity. For example, in South Africa, widespread inequality has exacerbated violence and heightened tensions, showcasing how socio-economic disparities directly contribute to insecurity. Ultimately, there is no singular, universally accepted de nition of security. To address the complex and multidimensional challenges of the modern world, it is essential to move beyond the traditional state-centric framework and adopt a broader, more inclusive perspective fi fl fl fl.... fi fl fi. fi fl.  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 Climate change is increasingly linked to security, particularly as a human security issue. One of the clearest examples is the emergence of climate refugees—individuals and communities forced to leave their environments due to climate-related factors such as droughts, rising sea levels, and natural disasters. This phenomenon is evident in regions such as Somalia, Sudan, and the Sahel. Traditionally, the concept of refugees has been tied to contexts like war, gender-based persecution, or political instability. However, the growing number of climate-induced displacements highlights the inadequacy of current frameworks to address this issue. The governance structures around security have struggled to adapt to this new dimension of human insecurity, revealing limitations in how we de ne and respond to emerging threats The concept of security governance offers a lens to understand these evolving challenges. It emerged prominently at the start of the 21st century, with scholars like Kohnmann framing it within the context of regional and sub-regional organizations. Security governance re ects the proliferation of actors—both public and private—participating in security-related activities. States increasingly rely on cooperation with non-state actors and their resources, leading to a more complex and decentralized approach to addressing security issues. This shift marked a signi cant change in international relations, as the traditional state-centric model gave way to a multi-actor landscape Since 1945, there has been an ongoing ambiguity about the role of various actors in security. In the post-Cold War period, this ambiguity has only deepened with the rise of regional and sub-regional organizations like the European Union (EU) and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Initially an economic alliance, ECOWAS expanded its scope to include security engagements during the con icts in Liberia and Sierra Leone, re ecting a broader trend of cooperation-driven security initiatives. Similarly, NATO evolved beyond its original purpose to address new security challenges in collaboration with diverse actors. This multiplicity of actors and their cooperative engagements underscore how security governance has become a de ning feature of modern international relations, responding to complex, interconnected threats like climate change, regional instability, and non-traditional forms of insecurity What is the difference between governance and government ? The distinction between governance and government lies primarily in their scope, structure, and the way authority is exercised Government refers to formal institutions and structures of centralized authority, typically associated with a state. It is a hierarchical system that exercises power and enforces policies, laws, and decisions through established entities such as legislatures, executives, and judicial systems. Governments are bound by territorial boundaries and are characterized by their monopoly on legitimate force to maintain order and security Governance, on the other hand, is a broader and more decentralized concept. It refers to the processes, structures, and interactions that enable a diverse set of actors—both public (e.g., states, regional organizations) and private (e.g., NGOs, corporations, civil society)—to coordinate their interdependent interests and needs. Governance does not necessarily rely on a central political authority but instead focuses on collective decision-making and policy implementation. It is less about command-and-control and more about negotiation, cooperation, and shared responsibility across multiple levels of authority Security Governance, therefore, emerges as a concept tied to this decentralized and inclusive approach. It is concerned with the structures and processes that enable various actors—state and fi. fl.... fl fl fi fi.  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 non-state alike—to address complex security challenges. Unlike traditional state-centric security models, security governance re ects an open and dynamic framework that allows for exibility and coordination among different stakeholders to create and implement binding policies in an interconnected and interdependent global environment Key driver of governance Key drivers of governance can be understood as the factors that compel the development of governance structures, processes, and mechanisms to address complex, interconnected challenges. These drivers include 1. Emergence of New Security Threats: Modern security challenges, such as drone warfare, hybrid warfare, and cyber threats, have introduced grey areas in international law. For instance, the Russia-Ukraine war highlighted the complexities of protecting civilians from drone warfare and raised questions about how to classify drone operators—whether as combatants, technicians, or something else. These challenges have underscored the need for governance frameworks to address these ambiguities and establish international guidelines. 2. Budgetary Pressures: The growing costs of addressing security threats have placed signi cant strain on national budgets. In some cases, security functions have been privatized, leading to challenges in accountability and oversight. For example, in Iraq, the U.S. employed private contractors like Blackwater, which raised questions about governance, transparency, and ethical responsibilities in privatized security operations. 3. Globalization and Transnational Challenges: The interconnected nature of global issues, such as climate change, human traf cking, maritime piracy, and money laundering, has necessitated coordinated governance efforts. These problems often transcend national borders, requiring international cooperation and shared governance mechanisms to address their root causes and mitigate their impacts. 4. Regional Spillovers of Con ict: Con icts within states often spill over into neighboring countries due to porous borders, regional geopolitical interests, and external in uences from both state and non-state actors. In Africa, for example, transnational security issues are exacerbated by private illicit business interests, weak governance, and external meddling. Governance structures are needed to address these cross-border dynamics effectively. 5. Limited Resources: The scarcity of resources to tackle global and regional problems has driven the need for more ef cient and collaborative governance models. This includes leveraging public-private partnerships, regional organizations, and international institutions to pool resources and expertise. 6. Growing Awareness of Global Problems: The increasing recognition of issues such as climate change, inequality, and human rights violations has spurred efforts to develop governance mechanisms that are inclusive and adaptable to these emerging challenges. The effects of climate change in the Sahel region of West Africa have far-reaching implications, particularly in exacerbating violence and instability. The region faces a unique governance fi : fi fl fl fi fl. fl fl  Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 conundrum, characterized by weak state presence, transnational threats, and an interplay of security and development challenges. Key factors contributing to this instability include Effects of Climate Change and Their Link to Violence 1. Migration: Worsening droughts and deserti cation have displaced communities, forcing them to migrate in search of arable land and water. This has led to tensions between host communities and migrants, often sparking violent clashes over resources. 2. Extremism: Climate-induced poverty and food insecurity have created fertile ground for extremist groups to recruit disenfranchised individuals. Groups such as Boko Haram and al- Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb exploit the vulnerabilities caused by environmental degradation to gain support and territory. 3. Drought: Prolonged periods of drought have devastated agricultural livelihoods, increased competition for scarce resources, and intensi ed communal con icts over land and water access. 4. Clan Wars: Climate stress has heightened existing tensions between clans and ethnic groups, leading to violent disputes over grazing lands and water rights, particularly among nomadic and agrarian communities. 5. Poverty: Climate change has exacerbated economic hardships, reducing access to food, jobs, and basic services. This entrenched poverty fuels cycles of violence and instability, as individuals turn to illicit activities or join armed groups to survive. 6. Lack of State Presence: Weak governance and limited state capacity to provide security, infrastructure, and services have left vast areas vulnerable to exploitation by criminal networks, armed groups, and extremists. Governance Conundrum in the Sahel The governance structures in West Africa, particularly in the Sahel, face signi cant challenges in addressing these interconnected issues. Porous borders, regional geopolitical interests, and the in uence of non-state actors hinder efforts to stabilize the region. Governance mechanisms often lack the capacity, resources, and legitimacy to effectively address the root causes of instability, leaving gaps for transnational threats to thrive Transnational Threats and Africa’s Security Challenges The Sahel’s security issues are not con ned to national boundaries; they have a transnational dimension that complicates governance. Issues such as human traf cking, arms smuggling, and the spread of extremist ideologies cut across borders, making regional and international cooperation fl fi fi fi. : fl : fi : : fi Zak Fawaz UM6P - LUISS January 2025 essential. However, the "security governance condominium" in Africa—a reliance on multiple actors, including states, regional organizations, and international entities—has struggled to provide cohesive and effective responses Security-Development Nexus Approach The security-development nexus emphasizes the interconnectedness of security and development, recognizing that lasting peace and stability in the Sahel require addressing both immediate security threats and the underlying development challenges. Key elements of this approach include Investing in Resilient Livelihoods: Supporting agriculture, water management, and economic diversi cation to reduce the vulnerabilities caused by climate change Strengthening Governance: Enhancing state presence, building institutional capacity, and fostering trust between governments and communities Regional Cooperation: Promoting collaboration among Sahelian states and regional bodies like ECOWAS to tackle transnational threats collectively Integrating Security and Development: Aligning military and security operations with long-term development goals to address the root causes of instability fi. :.... :