FINAL NOTES 1.PDF

Muscles ▪ Myofibers-cells of muscle tissues o Properties: ▪ Contractility- generate muscle tension (harder & shorter) ▪ Excitability- responsiveness to stimuli (known as Reflex) ▪ Conductivity- conduct electronic signals ▪ Extensibility- hav...

Muscles ▪ Myofibers-cells of muscle tissues o Properties: ▪ Contractility- generate muscle tension (harder & shorter) ▪ Excitability- responsiveness to stimuli (known as Reflex) ▪ Conductivity- conduct electronic signals ▪ Extensibility- have elasticity (stretch) ▪ Elasticity- recoil o 3 Types of Muscle Tissue ▪ Skeletal Muscle: attached to bones, consists of long cylindrical striated fibers, organized in parallel bundles, multi nucleated (many nuclei) o Ex: railroad tracks Voluntary control can stop from contracting for a short moment due to body needing oxygen o Ex: diaphragm ▪ Cardiac Muscle: produce to pump blood around the heart. o Ex: found in the heart wall Involuntary control, short, branched fibers, striated, length of the fiber is determined by the discs (intercalated discs) 1-2 nuclei o Ex: heart ▪ Smooth Muscle: small, short muscles, UNSTRIATED, fuse form or spindle shaped, 1 central nucleus, found in the walls of hollow organs, some could be small or large (Involuntary Control) o Ex: stomach, uterus o Hollow walls: blood vessel walls (adjust blood pressure), eyeballs (size pupil adjust shape) Connective Tissue Sheets o Endomysium: wraps every myofiber (tendon) o Perimysium: wraps a bundle of myofibers (large) which is called a fascicle (tendon) o Epimysium: much larger & wider, thin connective sheet, wraps each muscle (tendon) o Fascicle: wraps a group of muscles (tendon) ▪ Ex: arm “bicep,” leg “thigh” o Tendon: bundle of connective tissue sheet  Ultra Structure of Myofiber o Multiple nuclei o Sarcolemma- cell membrane of myofiber (sarco-muscle) o Sarcoplasm- cytoplasm of myofiber o Myofibrils- cylindrical shaped organelles o Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (S.R)- type of Endoplasmic reticulum (muscle) ▪ Found surrounding the myofibrils ▪ Main Role: store calcium (Ca2+) o Terminal Cisternae TCs- store most of the calcium (2 of them) o Transverse (T) Tubercle- enters from surface from muscle fibers, in between Terminal Cisternae (1 of them) o Triad- formed by Terminal Cisternae & Transverse Tubercle (make up 3 of them) Myofibrils o Myofilaments- protein filaments in muscle cells that are responsible for muscle contraction ▪ 1. Thick Filaments- Thick Dark Red Line (looks like bundle of golf clubs), made of many bundles of myosin (contractile protein) ▪ 2. Think Filaments- Actin molecules (contractile protein), (string of beads) A. Actin Active Site- has holes covered by cordlike structures B. Tropomyosin- covers active sites & will expose the active site C. Troponin- attached to cord (tropomyosin) & pull the cord & uncover myosins ▪ 3. Elastic Filaments- spring like structures, gives support A. Titan- made up of, structural protein B. Dystrophin- supports/maintains myofibrils in place under sarcolemma (ankers) (cords anchored to wall) Muscular Dystrophy- distraction of the Dystrophin o Sarcomere- the functional units of contraction, extends from one zigzag line (Z disc) to the next Z disc o Z Disc- protein that ankers the think filaments & the elastic filaments o Dark Band (A Band)- mostly thick filaments parts overlap with think filaments  ▪ Striations are made of overlapping o H Zone- (center of the A-Band) where there is ONLY THICK FILAMENTS (NO OVERLAPPING) o M Line- protein, anker the thick filaments o I-Band (Light Band)- portion where there is ONLY THIN FILAMENTS, with NO OVER LAPPING Muscle Cells require energy (ATP) o ATP- energy produced in Mitochondria using O2 (oxygen to produce energy) Oxygen Debt- repaid by Hyper Ventilation (solution for oxygen debt) using too much oxygen o Ex: exercise, sports, going up & down the stairs o Muscles use up a lot of oxygen to create energy o Obesity & Asthma: walking is extreme physical activity Motor Unit o Motor Neuron- sends signals for your muscles to work (very long axon) ▪ Motor Neuron + All myofibers that innervates (supplies) Myofiber- Sarcolemma o Neuromuscular Junction: ▪ Button shaped thing of the axon make contact with the sarcolemma of the myofiber Ex: plug of electronic device to an outlet ▪ Axon Terminals = Synaptic Knobs: button shaped thing ▪ Synaptic Cleft: gap between Axon Terminal & Myofiber Sarcolemma of Myofiber o Synaptic: were things Muscle Contraction- 3 Phrases o Excitation Phase: excite the myofiber through ▪ Action Potential (Nerve Impulses) comes down the axon to the axon terminal & triggers opening of these calcium voltage gated channels to allow calcium to come into synaptic ▪ Calcium drives pushes synptic vesicles towards the surface & triggers exocytosis & releases ACh (Acetylcholine)  Important neurotransmitter ▪ Synaptic vesicles release ACh into synaptic cleft ▪ ACh bind to (chemically) ligand-gated ions channels in the motor end plate ▪ Ion channels open & sodium (Na+) enter the muscle fiber ▪ Entry of sodium (Na+) depolarizes (local depolarization low grade) the sarcolemma, producing an end plate potential o Excitation Contraction Coupling: group of events between Excitation & Contraction ▪ Action Potential- group of steps ▪ Depolarization- Massive entry of sodium ions through voltage gated channels (positive) ▪ K+ (potassium) voltage channels open & cause massive efflux of K+ ions ▪ Potassium channels close very slowly, allows potassium to keep leaking out ▪ RMP- Resting Membrane Potential ▪ Purpose: many action potential will enter the T-tubule & opens calcium voltage channels, calcium enter Terminal Cisterna, calcium stored in Terminal Cisterna, calcium leaks into the cytoplasm. o Contraction Phase: ▪ 1. To prepare for contraction, the calcium binds with troponin, Tropomyosin moves away & active site is exposed ▪ 2. Cross Bridge Cycle A. ATP breaks apart -> ADP + P (Inorganic Phosphate), ATP hydrolysis “cocks” the myosin head B. Myosin head can now insert into the actin sites C. Power stroke occurs when the phosphate & ADP detach from the myosin head, myosin in relax position bends/flexes again, that pulls the action molecule to the center (sliding filament process) causing muscle fiber to shorten D. ATP binds to myosin head again & pulls it off then a whole new cycle forms again Leverage (Lever) System ▪ Rigid structures that move on a pivot ▪ To produce movement (muscles & bones) ▪ In the body the bones are the levers (levers=bones) o Fulcrum- site along which the lever moves, joints are the pivot that causes movement o Effort- forced produced by the muscle o Load- resistance, opposing weight of a body part your body will overcome ▪ Ex: dumbbell will cause resistance on arm  Classes of Lever System (F.L.E/F.R.E) o A. First class lever system- fulcrum is the middle component ▪ Ex: seesaw, neck o B. Second class lever system- load (resistance) is the middle component ▪ Ex: joint between phalange & metatarsals, hand truck o C. Third class lever system- effort is the middle component ▪ Ex: biceps brachii muscle exerts the force Different Functional Groups of muscles o 1. Agonist Muscle- provides most of the force for a given movement ▪ Ex: brachialis (primer mover) o 2. Antagonist Muscle- opposes the action of the agonist ▪ Ex: triceps brachii o 3. Synergistic Muscle- helps & supplement the agonist movements ▪ Ex: biceps brachii o 4. Fixation Muscle- holds the bone in place, to allow agonist to move ▪ Ex: supraspinatus (no fixator arm would just go up, no bending) Types of Muscle Contraction o Movement ▪ Isotonic Contractions- the same tension is maintained but the muscle length changes The same tension o No Movement ▪ Isometric Contraction- muscle maintain the same length but muscle tension changes Same length Blood o Consist of Cellular like structures “Formed Elements,” E.C.M called “Blood Plasma” o Location (Blood) (Interstitial Fluid “Extra Cellular Fluid”) (Lymph) ▪ Blood- Blood Vessels ▪ E.C.F- Surrounds the cells ▪ Lymph- Lymphatic Vessels o Consists (Blood) (Interstitial Fluid “Extra Cellular Fluid”) (Lymph ▪ Blood- Blood Plasma (H2O + Solutes *proteins*) & Formed Elements (Some are cells, some are not) ▪ E.C.F- H2O + Solutes (Barely any proteins) ▪ Lymph- H2O + Lipids (Fatty acids, etc) (NO PROTEINS) (Oily yellowish color) + Leucocytes o Characteristics (Blood)  ▪ Blood- pH:7.4, Blood Temp: 37 C/98 F taking body temp, volume: 5 liters/5,000ml Components o 1. Blood Plasma: ▪ 55% of blood from a healthy adult ▪ Transparent honey color ▪ 90% H2O + 10% Solutes 9% plasma proteins (Albumin) 1% other solutes (oxygen, carbon dioxide o 2. Formed Elements: ▪ 45% of blood from a healthy adult 1% Buffy Coat made up of WBCs (Leukocytes) & Platelets 44% Hematocrit (Hct) % of blood made up of RBCs “Ertythrocytes” Ex: When menstruating less than 44%, athletes more than 44% o Different Formed Elements All Formed Elements come from “Hemopoietic Stem Cells” (Hematopoietic) ▪ A. Erythrocytes: (RBCs) Main Function: transports gases “oxygen” & “carbon dioxide” Depression in the center because it lacks a nucleus (Anucleate) o It did have a cell before enters blood flow ejects at nucleus, loses its nucleus then diffuses into blood flow Won’t live long only a few months 5,000,000 drop per blood Size: 7-8 micrometers in diameter Made up of a protein “Hemoglobin (Hgb)” (10-16) o Makes up most of our blood cells (looks like 4 leaf clover) Hemoglobin consists of 4 polypeptides o 2 alpha chains o 2 beta chains o Each has a heme group- in the center has an iron (Fe2+) (red dot) ▪ Every iron can carry 1 oxygen molecule (O2) (one gas molecule)  o Hemoglobin molecules have 4 irons, oxygen molecules/gas molecules o When oxidized turns into reddish color, oxygen rust most metals & irons ▪ A. 1. Erythropoiesis: production of RBCs Process takes about 5-7 days Lack of oxygen can affect process of Erythropoiesis o Erythropoietin (hormone that comes from kidneys) ▪ Stimulates process of production of RBCs ▪ Stimulates Red Bone Marrow maintains process of production of RBCs Cycle only lasts 90-120 days o Trapped & (hemolysis) broken down by organs (spleen: graveyard) Iron & hemes reused (recycled), goes back to bone marrow to be reused ▪ B. Leucocytes: WBCs 1. Granulocytes: WBCs typical & evenly spread-out granules o a. Neutrophils: ▪ Granules stain very pale color (not visible) ▪ Multi-lobed nucleus (1 nucleus:3-5 lobes) ▪ Make up about 60% of WBCs population (majority) ▪ Main Role: Release chemicals to fight off bacteria & eat them up “Phagocytes” o b. Eosinophils: ▪ Make up about 2-4% of WBCs population ▪ Cytoplasmic granules that have a red/orange color ▪ Bilobed nucleus in the shape of headphones, earmuffs ▪ Produce toxins to fight off parasitic worms o c. Basophils: ▪ Granules stain dark purple color hiding the nucleus  ▪ Nucleus is bilobed “S-shaped” ▪ 1% or less WBCs population ▪ Process chemical “Histamine” what it does: Vasodilator o Ex: greater blood flow, itchiness, waterier, swollen, reddish “Heparin” what it does: Anticoagulant 2. Agranulocytes: Lacks granules o a. Lymphocytes: 25% of WBCs population Smallest of ALL the Blood Cells 5-10 micrometers in diameter Large spherical nucleus, thin coat of cytoplasm ▪ T-Lymphocytes (cells) Destroys virally infected cells & cancer cells through chemical reaction ▪ B-Lymphocytes (cells) Produces antibodies (Abs) Structures that bind to foreign cells o Ex: antigens & diseases o b. Monocytes: ▪ 8% of WBCs population ▪ Largest: over 14 micrometers in diameter ▪ Typical “U shaped” or bean shaped nucleus ▪ Can go into other Connective Tissues, becomes Macrophages (cell) carries out: Phagocytosis (function) eats up things (big mouth) Platelets (Thrombocytes) ▪ No nucleus (ANUCLEATE) ▪ 150,000/ drop of blood ▪ Fragments of a huge cell, lives in bone matter ▪ Polygonal shape (sharp) ▪ Measures about 2-3 Micrometers in diameter o Hemostasis: to stop bleeding  o Megakaryocyte: Breaks off & we have PLATELETS ▪ Measures over 200 micrometers in diameter Hemostasis: o Vascular Spasm: ▪ Blood vessels affected by injury will try to tighten to reduce bleeding o Platelet Plug Formation: ▪ Where there’s an injury, there’s a Von Williebrand Factor (vWF) A factor that’s released, that attracts the PLATELETS, they come to the site of injury & form a PLATELET PLUG o Could take about 2-5 min effectively ▪ Bleeding time 2-5 minutes o Coagulation: Where the Protein Fibrin Threads tightly together hold the PLATELETS ▪ Pathways of Coagulation: chemical reactions (a-activate) 1. Intrinsic Pathway: Inside blood o Factors (chemicals involved in coagulation) found within the blood o First factor involved is XII (12) gets activated -> XIIa o Will then activate factor XI (11) -> XIa & IX (9) -> IXa o Factor IXa (9) from as a complex with VIIIa (8) & calcium to activate factor X (10) -> Xa 2. Extrinsic Pathway: Outside Blood o Factors come from outside of your blood o Tissue factor is exposed, activates factor VII (7) -> VIIa o Factor VII (7) come together with III (3) & Ca2+ (calcium ion) & forms a complex that activates factor X (10) -> Xa o Both pathways lead to Common Pathway 3. Common Pathway after both Factor X (10) o Factor Xa (10) & Va (5) & Ca2+ (calcium ion) form a complex: Prothrombin activator: which converts Prothrombin into Thrombin o Thrombin turns Fibrinogen (Protein) into Fibrin Protein Thread: that ties clots together, which “glues” platelets plug together o *Vitamin K: (green leafy veges) necessary so body can make important clotting factors: II, VII, IX, X  o Clot Retraction: ▪ The edges of wounded vessels come close because platelets contract because of MYOSIN & ACTIN protein, while process of repair continues. o Thrombolysis: ▪ Destruction of clot (when we don’t need it anymore) ▪ Endothelial Cells release tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) ▪ tPA activates plasminogen to form plasmin ▪ Plasmin degrades fibrin & clot dissolves What regulates clot formation? o We have chemicals that prevent it ▪ Prostacyclin: Comes from Endothelial Cells, inhibits platelets from aggregating (forming groups) ▪ Heparin: Anticoagulant (natural blood thinner) Thrombus: o A clot that can form & obstruct blood flow Embolus: o A clot that broke off & flows down stream ▪ Ex: brain embolus (stroke), pulmonary embolism Clotting time: o 8-15 mins, how long it takes Blood Types: o Determined by 2 different antigen groups Antigen (Ag): markers on cells (body & foreign) Antibody (Ab): protein that will bind to matching antigen, so any foreign cells can be destroyed ▪ Determines blood type: 1. Letter: o A, B, O 2. Symbol: o -&+ o ABO Group: ▪ A, B, O antigen factor on RBCs ▪ Type A has A antigen & B antibodies  ▪ Type B has B antigen & A antibodies ▪ AB has AB antigen & NO antibodies ▪ Type O has NO antigen & A+B antibodies o RH Group (D-antigen: Dag) ▪ ABO & RH group combine to create blood type ▪ Presence or absence of RH Factor +: Presence of RH -: Absence of RH ▪ *Important to know blood type & group for safe transfusions A mismatch for transfusion causes agulation which causes -> Hemolysis Type O- universal donor Type AB+ universal recipient Heart ▪ Made of Epithelial & Connective Tissue o Inner Layer: Endocardium- Epithelium o Middle Layer: Myocardium- Cardiac Muscle (Thickest Layer) o Outter Layer: Epicardium (Visceral Pericardium)- Epithelium & Connective Tissue o 4 Chambers: ▪ 2 Upper Chambers Right Atrium: o Has 2 Large openings to the 2 large veins ▪ Superior & Inferior Vena Cava (2 largest veins of the body) o Has dime size depression (Fossa Ovalis) o Has slit opening to the coronary sinus o Drains to the right ventricle Left Atrium: o Opening of the pulmonary vein from left to right lungs o 4 pulmonary veins go to the left atrium o 2 Lower Chambers ▪ Ventricles: Cavities at the bottom (ventricle are bigger than atria) Left ventricle has the thickest wall  ▪ Inter ventricular Septum: Wall between ventricles ▪ Papillary Muscle: Projection from the bottom that look like fingers sliding up that bond & attach to chords called Tendinous Chords ▪ Tendinous Chords: They attach to AV Valves Valves of Heart o AV Valves: ▪ Atrioventricular o Right AV Valve: ▪ Tricuspid/ 3 cups when cut transversely o Left AV Valve: ▪ Bicuspid/ 2 cups o Pulmonary Valve: Semi Lunar ▪ Blood can enter pulmonary trunk o Aortic Valve: Semi Lunar ▪ Blood enters aorta Deoxygenated Blood Flow: o Superior & Inferior Vena Cava-> Right Atrium-> Right Ventricle->Pulmonary Trunk-> Right & Left Pulmonary Arteries-> Right & Left Lungs-> Carbon Dioxide exchanges for Oxygen-> 4 Pulmonary Veins-> Left Atrium & Ventricle- > Aorta-> Body (Tissue)-> goes around all over again Coronary Circulation: o Needs Artery to diffuse into the muscle wall because its to thick ▪ Right Coronary Artery: Branches off Aorta Right marginal artery runs down the right & provides nutrients & electrolytes, etc Posterior Inter ventricular Artery supplies right side with Oxygen, nutrients, electrolytes ▪ Left Coronary Artery: Branches off the Aorta Short, covered by Pulmonary Trunk  Anterior Inter Ventricular branches from it & supplies left side with nutrients & Oxygen Location: Cram-flex Artery at the posterior of the left side Cardiac Veins: ▪ Great Cardiac: Large long vein on left & posterior surface ▪ Middle Cardiac: Beginning where Great Cardiac vein ends ▪ Small Cardiac: o ALL 3 end at the coronary sinus (venus like sac) o ALL 3 remove waste like Carbon Dioxide Intrinsic/Cardiac Conduction System o Nerve like structures & fibers that conduct/transport electrical signals to every corner of the heart, to maintain rhythm & heart rate ▪ Rhythm: Rythmia o SA/Sinoatrial Node: Right Atrium at the top, pacemaker of heart Sets at electrical signals which creates the pacemaker Potential signals which spread to both Atrias & another node at the Atrium & Ventricle (AV NODE) ▪ AV Node-> AV Bundle-> Bundle of His (yellow thick fibers)-> Conduct Impulses in the septum wall-> Splits right & left Bundle Branch-> When reached the end of septum goes through Ventricle Wall (Purkinje Fibers)-> To contractile cells of Ventricles Electrocardiogram (ECG) o A measurement/graph of electrical activity/events passing through the heart muscle o Deflection waves: represents the activity ▪ Measured with Electrodes (the wires placed on people) ▪ NOT MECHANICAL which is heart contracting/ not heartbeat ▪ Electrical Activity comes before Mechanical o P Wave:  ▪Beginnings of EKG, smaller bump, Atrial Depolarization, preparing for Atrial Contraction/ when it contracts it forces blood into ventricles o QRS Complex: ▪ Pointy, quick, short, Ventricular Depolarization (Atrial Repolarization) o ST Segment: ▪ Between S & T wave, nothing electrical happens (horizontal) ventricles mechanically, contracting = Systole o T Wave: ▪ Bigger Bump, Ventricular Repolarization, Relaxation = Diastole Mechanical Events of the Heart (Blood Pressure) o Only feel & hear with stethoscope o 2 important events: ▪ Systole=Contraction ▪ Diastole=Relaxation ▪ The muscle MUST be strong for both events o Heart Sounds: ▪ Are not measured but instead have a LUB-DUB sound (the valves shutting) ▪ Sound 1: AV Valves shut & produce a LUB sound ▪ Sound 2: Semilunar Valves shut & created a DUB sound o To prevent back-flow ▪ 60 times/min o Heart Murmur: ▪ When valves don’t close well/ Valve Deficiency Blood Flow Through Heart o For proper flow: ▪ Need a good valve Pressure gradients (difference)=how fluid flows ▪ Fluid Flow/high pressure & low pressure Heart Cardiac Cycle: different events that will occur within the heart chambers and will involve the heart valves 1. Ventricular Filling Phase- atrium contracting filling the ventricles with blood, might involve pressure and gravity. Ventricles are diastolic (diastole=relaxed) atria are systolic. Tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open to allow ventricles to fill. Semilunar valves are shut, if not shut the blood would go too quickly to the lungs. During this first phase, the ventricles fill with blood and reach a point where they are filled with blood to a maximum amount called “End Diastolic Volume” (EDV) = 120ml in each ventricle (healthy adult heart) (amount in the ventricles with every heart beat) 2. Isovolumetric Contraction Phase- Ventricle contraction begins, same amount of blood is maintained in the ventricle, all four valves are shut (AV & Semilunar valves), maintaining the volume of blood in the ventricles the same. Atrial diastole begins. 3. Ventricular Ejection Phase- Ventricles are contracted systole, AV valves are still closed, Atrial diastole continues, Semilunar valves open to eject blood into the pulmonary trunk and aorta, when this process occurs at the end we have “End Systolic Volume” (ESV) the blood amount left in the ventricles at the end of Ventricular Systole, ESV 50 ml healthy adult heart (amount in the ventricles with every heart beats) 4. Isovolumetric Relaxation Phase- same amount of blood maintained in the ventricles during ventricular diastole, the amount left in the ventricles will NOT change, will stay 50 ml, cause all four valves are shut once again, atrial diastole continues, atrium is filling to begin a new cycle again (cycles happened about 60 times a minute) Cardiac Output (C.O)- how much blood our hearts pump out in a fraction of time, the amount of blood that is pumped out of the ventricles in one minute. Average heart rate of an adult: 60-80 heart rate Factors that determine C.O: 1. Heart Rate (when we sleep our HR drops) (increases when doing exercise) a. Fitness, age, electrolytes (levels of sodium or calcium), medication (that stimulate sympathetic nervous system=speeds up heart rate), drugs 2. Stroke Volume  a. Contractility: Degree of strength of ventricles (weak heart ventricles are weak, stronger ventricles are stronger) (athletic don’t have that problem) Walking helps improve Contractility of your heart (cardiovascular exercise) b. Pre-Load: Degree of stretch of the cardiac muscle, will determine how forcefully it contracts (walking/exercise) c. After Load: Opposing force (Pressure) that the blood ventricles must overcome to eject blood (maintain blood pressure & monitor it) i. higher blood pressure the heart has to pump more forcefully Frank Starling Law (Starlings Law) o Came up with the idea, the relationship between preload and stroke volume. The more ventricles stretch the more forcefully they will contract How do we monitor & regulate contraction? o In our Aorta & Carotid arteries we have receptors that detect pressure & monitor and detect chemical differences ▪ Baroreceptors: monitor & detect your blood pressure ▪ Chemoreceptors: monitor & detect changes in your blood chemistry, particularly the gases (oxygen & carbon dioxide levels) & hydrogen ions When these receptors find changed that are not normal, they will send signals to the part of the brain (medulla). Medulla of the brain we have cardiovascular centers, if medulla detects blood pressure/chemistry to high or low, will then make adjustments. ▪ Sympathetic Nervous System, will stimulate & it triggers and helps to elevate your heart rate & heart Contractility ▪ Parasympathetic Nervous System- drops heart rate & heart Contractility symptoms Branches of ANS Formula: C.O = (Heart Rate) HR/min x Stroke Volume (SV) 4,900 ml/min = 70/min x 70ml The amount in our body is about 5,000 Stroke Volume- amount of blood our ventricles eject with each heartbeat How do we get stroke volume? Stroke Volume= EDV-ESV in ml Ex: 120ml – 50ml = 70 ml CIRCULATION Circulation: transfer of blood throughout the body o Blood Vessels: transports blood, to carry out circulation ▪ Artery: blood vessels that transports blood AWAY from the heart chambers (maintains circular round open shape) deep hidden in muscles Arteries DO NOT have valves Structure: o Tunica Intima- Inner most layer ▪ Endothelium-simple squamous epithelium ▪ Basal Lamina ▪ Subendothelial Connective Tissue ▪ Internal Elastic Lamina- (first layer of elastic fibers) thin connective tissue layer containing lots of elastic fibers (what gives arteries that elasticity) o Tunica Media- Middle layer ▪ Smooth Muscle Cells (thick layer of smooth muscle) (gives arteries circular shape) ▪ External Elastic Lamina (second layer of elastic fibers) o Tunica Externa- Outter most layer of the artery ▪ Made of Connective Tissue ▪ Tiny blood vessels & nerve fibers within the Tunica Externa Vasa Vasora & Vasomotor Nerves Ex: Pulmonary trunk, aorta, arms, legs, abdomen, Some arteries are blue, some have a reddish color NOT ALL ▪ Veins- superficial (under our skin), are blood vessels that transport blood TOWARDS the heart chambers Veins have NO ELASTIC LAMINA Veins HAVE valves (like stairways to go back to the heart) o Valves reinforce blood to go back to the heart Ex: Pulmonary veins, o Tunica Intima  o Tunica Media- is much thinner than an artery’s, lesser smooth muscle o Tunica Externa ▪ Capillary- tiny, thin blood vessels Thin and simple allows for exchange of things between blood flow & tissues around it o Ex: oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, electrolytes, waste, etc Structural Role: act like bridges, communicate your Arterial flow with your Venous flow Capillary beds form a network 8-10 micrometers One red blood cell at a time can pass through it You would need a microscope to see them, VERY TINY Structures: o Endothelial Cells (Endothelium) o Basal Lamina o Systemic Circuit (Circulation) ▪ Supply’s blood flow to most of the organs & tissues in your body, will provide Will provide oxygenated blood to the arteries & deoxygenated blood comes back to the heart through veins Factors: o Aorta & branches o Veins & Vena Cavae to the Right Atrium o Pulmonary Circuit (Circulation) ▪ Much smaller circuit, dedicated just for the lungs, ▪ Factors: Pulmonary trunk 2 Pulmonary Artery’s (right & left) 4 Pulmonary Veins: 2 from the right & 2 from the left from your lungs to the heart o Coronary Circulation- provides blood supply to your heart muscle  o Portal Circulation- Portal veins connecting 2 capillary beds ▪ Hepatic Portal Vein Fetal Circulation o Foramen Ovale: ▪ Lost after birth o Ductus Arteriosus ▪ After birth becomes Ligamentum Arteriosum o Umbilical Cord: ▪ Vessels: Umbilical Vein: transports rich oxygenated blood to the fetus body & heart, carries lots of oxygen and nutrients 2 Umbilical Arteries: transports blood from the fetus circulation towards the placenta and everything gets exchanged ▪ Measures about a meter long, gets and dries off falls off ▪ Communicates the placenta (nutrients, waste) between mother and fetus blood flow ▪ After birth its cut, after a week it becomes a belly button and becomes ligaments o Blood Flow: ▪ transport of blood through the vessels o Heart Efficiency: ▪ For having good blood flow o Pressure Gradients: ▪ o Resistance: ▪ Fatty plaque, clot, etc that will block blood flow o Resistance: o Reflected by blood pressure: ▪ When High greater resistance ▪ Normal little resistance ▪ Low: barely any resistance o Factors: ▪ Vessel Radius (Diameter of the Vessel: Full diameter) Length to one side of the wall of the vessel to the middle The greater it is the lesser resistance you have Inversely related to Vessel Radius  Lesser radius more resistance ▪ Blood Viscosity: Thickness o Ex: Ketchup thick/Water not thick The greater the blood viscosity will have greater resistance Directly related/Proportional to resistance ▪ Vessel Length The longer the vessel, the greater the resistance The shorter the vessel, the shorter the resistance o Ex: when swimming after a while you start slowing down Directly related/Proportional to resistance ▪ Obstructions in the Vessel: The greater the abstraction in the vessel the great the resistance Directly related/Proportional to resistance o Venous Return: o The return of blood flow through your veins back to your heart o Factors: ▪ Valves: Will reinforce blood flow back to your heart ▪ Strong Left Ventricle Contraction: Healthy & Strong Left Ventricle ▪ Pressure Gradients: To reinforce blood flow back to the heart Pressure greater toward the lower part of the heart ▪ Venous Smooth Muscle: Smooth muscle contraction ▪ Skeletal Muscle Pump: When contract it helps squeeze the blood back to the heart o Ex: Soldiers move their legs to squeeze blood ▪ Respiratory Pump: Can improve venous return by contracting the muscles from breathing Circulation Pulse:  o Expanding and recoiling of arteries with every heartbeat o Different area due to not knowing if you can take the pulse on certain people o Palpate: to feel the artery with your fingers Common Pulse Points: o Temporal Pulse: o Brachial Pulse: ▪ Most common area to take pulse o Carotid Pulse: ▪ Press too hard person can faint o Radial Pulse: o Ulnar Pulse: o Femoral Pulse: o Popliteal Pulse: ▪ Back of the knee ▪ Hard to take your own pulse Blood Flow Velocity: o how quickly the blood flows through your vessels o Factors that can affect (are the SAME factors as resistance): ▪ Diameter Greater diameter greater velocity Less diameter lesser velocity ▪ Total Cross-Sectional Area: As it branches and spreads out the total cross-sectional expands Greater flow to a greater area Lesser flow to lesser area More blood flow could reach more areas of the body At night, the T.C-S decreases How much blood is delivered to the area of the body The blood supply to a certain area (Total Cross- Sectional Area) is inversely proportional (related) to Velocity (Opposite what would happen to velocity) Increase total cross-sectional area than velocity decreases o Ex: train moving too fast less people will get on, slower train more people will get on  When velocity is less it allows for greater perfusion (delivering blood supply to a tissue or cells) Capillary Exchange: o Exchange of material through the capillary wall: Nutrients, waste, carbon dioxide o 3 methods: ▪ Diffusion through the endothelium (endothelial cells) ▪ Diffusion in between the gaps (Fenestrations) ▪ Transcytosis: combination of endocytosis followed by exocytosis through endothelial cells Blood Pressure (BP): o The outward force that blood exerts (forces) on the walls of your arteries o How is it measured? ▪ Millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) ▪ Sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff) (device put around your arm) & stethoscope and listening to the actual sound (most accurate) o Common Vessel to measure blood pressure: ▪ Brachial Artery o Two numbers that determine blood pressure ▪ Systolic Pressure: when the heart beats Average: 120 If between 100-130 still good ▪ Diastolic Pressure: when the heart relaxes Average: 80 If less than 80, concerning ▪ Might be different for a child or elderly person Ex: petite person (woman) 100/60 still normal, big athletic man 90/40 too low o Pulse Pressure: ▪ The difference between systolic & diastolic ▪ Pulse Pressure = Systolic – Diastolic Cardiovascular Activity: o Regulated, controlled, and maintained well o 1. Hormones for cardiac output: ▪ Epinephrine (adrenaline)  ▪Norepinephrine (identical to ^) ▪They play an important role in increasing heart rate & heart contractility o 2. Hormones that control resistance: ▪ Epinephrine & Norepinephrine Can produce vasoconstriction o Will help raise blood pressure ▪ Angiotensin 2 Produced by the liver Produces vasoconstriction o Helps elevate blood pressure ▪ Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) Heart (Atrium) produces this hormone Causes vasodilation (dilates) o To help lower blood pressure o Helps get rid of excess sodium (rid of salt) ▪ Helps reduce blood pressure ▪ Get rid of sodium by urinating it out ▪ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) Retains more water o Helps increase blood pressure ▪ Aldosterone: Sodium Retention o To increase blood pressure Respiratory System: ▪ Classification: 1. Anatomical Classification: o Upper respiratory tract: ▪ Nasal cavity through throat to the larynx (voice box) o Lower respiratory tract: ▪ Trachea (windpipe) into your lungs and then down to alveoli ▪ Diaphragm NOT INCLUDED (important skeletal muscle just for breathing) ▪ Functional Zones of Respiratory System: Classification:  o Conducting Zone: transport air ▪ Nasal cavity all the way down to terminal bronchioles (small air ways) o Respiratory Zone: Exchange of gases (oxygen & carbon dioxide) ▪ Respiratory bronchioles ▪ Alveolar ducts & sacs ▪ Alveoli ▪ Nasal Cavity: Better to breathe through nose than through mouth 1. Allows for entry of air into the respiratory system o When air comes into nasal cavity the conchae and nasal meatuses turbinates air ▪ To warm & humidify air ▪ Conchae (shelf) ▪ Nasal Meatuses (Groove under) 2. Produces lots of mucus o Sticky, helps trap foreign particles that we breathe in 3. Filter out air we breathe in 4. Olfactory Mucosa: o Nerve fibers o Sense of smell (detects) ▪ Pharynx (throat): Passage of air Consists of 3 different parts: o Nasopharynx: ▪ Behind nasal cavity o Oropharynx: ▪ Behind your mouth ▪ Behind punching bag ▪ Serves for passage of food o Laryngopharynx: ▪ Behind the Larynx Larynx: Transporting air (voice box) o Framework (structure) of cartilages ▪ Thyroid Cartilage (Hyaline) ▪ Cricoid Cartilage (Hyaline) Make up most of the framework ▪ Epiglottis  Made of Elastic Cartilage Opens when air goes into your lungs Closes off the opening into the trachea when you swallow food & drink (like a lid) to go into your stomach, prevent them from going down into your lungs When you chock a small piece of food or water went down into the epiglottis (wrong tube) ▪ Arytenoid Cartilage: Covered by epithelial cells Small cartilage Attaches & moves these two white chords called (True) Vocal cords (vocal folds) o Makes different sounds you make with your voice Voice production known as Phonation Vestibular Fold (false) does not make voice ▪ Trachea: Transport air down to the lungs Windpipe from the middle of your neck down Consists of rings on the surface known as Trachea Cartilages o An incomplete C shaped ring o Made of Hyaline Cartilage (protects the organ) Back of the Trachea (rings), there is an organ: Esophagus o Doesn’t have rings to allow expansion to allow food to go down. Bottom end of the trachea has an angle called “Carina” o Has receptors for the cough reflex o Then it splits “Trachea Bifurcates” Splits into the airways “Bronchial Tree” o First 2 largest airways of the Bronchial Tree ▪ Right Primary Bronchus (bronchi=single spelling) ▪ Left Primary Bronchus Only difference left is slightly longer  ▪ Split into secondary Bronchi o Right has 3 lobes & Left has 2 lobes ▪ Right Secondary Bronchi 3 secondary bronchi ▪ Left Secondary Bronchi 2 secondary bronchi o Branches of the secondary bronchi is Tertiary Bronchi ▪ Vary in number Average about 10 in each lungs o Splits into Bronchioles: Terminal Bronchioles o END OF CONDUCTING ZONE Gas Exchange occurs: o Respiratory Bronchioles o Alveolar Ducts/Sacs o Alveoli (alveolis) ▪ Respiratory Membrane: Includes 3 things: o Type 1 Alveolar Cell: ▪ From the Alveolar Wall o Fused Basal Lamina ▪ In the middle o Capillary Endothelial Cell ▪ Endothelial Cells of the Capillary Drops off Oxygen and takes back Carbon Dioxide ▪ Alveoli (Alveolar Wall) Type 1 Alveolar Cells o Structural Type 2 Alveolar Cells o Produces important substance call “Surfactant” ▪ ONLY PRODUCED ONCE 28 WEEKS OLD ▪ Decreases Surface Tension in the Alveoli to prevent collapse of the Alveoli ▪ Moist surfaces bind together more tightly Ex: Wet Paper towel Alveolar Macrophage:  o Eat up any foreign particles that they find o Carry out Phagocytosis ▪ Goblet Cells: Produce mucous o Found in the digestive tract, urinary system, trachea Pleura: o 2 Membrane that line and closed sealed off cavities Ex: lungs ▪ Parietal: Lines the wall all around the thoracic cavity ▪ Visceral: Above the surface of the lungs ▪ Both smooth, slimy, wet o Pleura Fluid: Sterile fluid ▪ To help reduce friction and protects lungs ▪ If contaminated causes sepsis Ex: Stab wound/ trauma/ gun shot wound/ rupture lung from tumor could contaminate Ventilation: (respiration exchanging gases) o Breathing in or out ▪ Ex: exercising bigger ventilation o Factors: ▪ Pressure Gradients Difference in pressure inside your lungs & your environment (Physics) ▪ Environmental Pressure: At sea level the environment (outside) pressure generally maintains around 760 mmHg (millimeters in mercury) (low altitude) mmHG how we measure pressure High altitude different mmHG ▪ Air moves from an area of high pressure to area of lower pressure Ex: smoking in car it moves out of the car ▪ Boyle’s Law (Professor/Scientist) At a constant temperature, the volume & pressure of a gas (air/oxygen) are inversely related o When volume goes up pressure goes down o When one increases the other decreases  o Ventilation at rest or relaxed (not sleeping) Over 60-70% time over the day ▪ Major Steps: Inspiration (Inhalation): Breathing in o Happen automatically o Active process (something that happens actively that cause changes to allow the air to come into your body) o In between every breathing cycle there’s a moment when your lungs are relaxed Inspiration: Breathing In o 1. Inspiration Muscles contract ▪ Ex: diaphragm & others o 2. Thoracic lung volumes increase o 3. Thoracic & inter-pulmonary pressure (pressure in lungs) decreases about 2 digits below the atmosphere pressure (758 mmHG) o 4. Air flows into your lungs ▪ Because there’s a difference in pressure ▪ 760 mmHG outside Expiration: Passive Process o 1. Muscles relax (diaphragm) o 2. Causes thoracic lung volumes to decrease o 3. As we decrease the volume the pressure in our lungs slightly increases about 2 digits above the atmosphere pressure (762 mmHg) o 4. Air flows out (762 mmHG to 760 mmHG) o Brief moment of relaxation Spirometer: ▪ Device used to measure amounts of air that we breathe in ▪ We can measure Pulmonary Volume & Pulmonary Capacity o Pulmonary Volume: Zero means no air at all o Ex: only from drowning People could reach 6,000 milliliters of air o Ex: Michael Phelps ▪ Tidal Volume (TV):  Lung volume: 2,500-3,000 o TV 500ml air breathing in relaxing ▪ Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Amount of air that we forcibly breath in above the Tidal Volume o Average: 3,000ml o Ex: exercising deep breaths ▪ Expiatory Reserve Volume (ERV): Amount of air that we forcibly breathed out AFTER a Tidal Volume o Average: 1,500ml o Ex: blowing candles out, party balloons ▪ Residual volume: Amount of air left in your lungs after forced Expiration o Average 1,000ml o Always have Residual Volume at the end o Pulmonary Capacity: Sum of the different (pulmonary) volumes Inspiratory Capacity= TV + IRV Functional Residual Capacity= ERV + RV Vidal Capacity= IRV + TV +ERV Total Lung Capacity= Sum of ALL four volumes o Compliance: ▪ Ability of your lungs to stretch out o Respiration: exchange of the gases 2 types of Respiration ▪ 1. External Respiration (Pulmonary Gas Exchange) Alveoli ▪ 2. Internal Respiration (Tissue Gas Exchange) Gas exchange between blood flow and tissues cells of your body RESPIRATORY DISORDERS COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder): a persistent airway obstruction not fully reversible. These include the following: 1. Emphysema: destruction of alveolar surface causing loss of elasticity and air getting trapped. Main cause is cigarette smoking. Signs and symptoms: dyspnea (difficulty breathing), coughing, barrel-chest shape.  2. Chronic Bronchitis: caused by excess mucus production in airways. Signs and symptoms: shortness of breath, coughing, cyanosis (greater deoxygenated blood causing bluish skin). Bronchial Asthma: often categorized as a COPD. Obstructive disease with hyperresponsive airways triggered by: mold, pollen, dust, mites, animal hair, stress, cold air, smoke, pollutants, infections, allergens, and drugs. Symptoms: a) Bronchoconstriction causes wheezing b) Airway inflammation causes dyspnea c) Excessive mucus production causes coughing Hay Fever: seasonal allergies to certain plant pollens, grasses, or trees that stimulate plasma cells to secrete the antibody IgE that binds to mast cells of respiratory mucosa and re-exposure to allergens causes mast cells to release histamine causing airway inflammation and vasodilation. Pneumonia: lung infection by virus or bacteria causes the alveoli to fill with fluid and thickens respiratory membrane to interfere with gas exchange. Signs and symptoms: Fluid accumulation causes cough reflex, fever, dyspnea. Tuberculosis: Contagious infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosa which invades lungs and forms fibrotic nodules. Signs and symptoms: fever, bloody phlegm, loss in weight, dyspnea. ❖ Lymphatic- Immune Systems o Spleen- largest organ of lymphatic immune system o Includes Lymphatic Vessels ▪ Transport (Carry) the important fluid that’s found in them LYMPH-found within lymphatic vessels o Consists of Water, Solutes (LIPIDS- gives it green/yellow oil color), White Blood Cells (defensive mechanisms: bacteria, viruses) o DOES NOT CONTAIN PROTEINS o Lymphatic Tissues & Organs ▪ 1. Primary Organs: places where your lymphocytes become functional (immunocompetent) trained & prepared to do different tasks Red Bone Marrow- found in epiphysis of the long bone  Thymus- organ in front of your neck, starts out as a large organ at birth (looks as big as a lung), as adults gets smaller & smaller (small tissue) ▪ 2. Secondary Organs: Includes all the other tissues & organs: Tonsils, Lymph Nodes, Spleen, Appendix, Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (scattered all throughout the intestine) Where mature lymphocytes migrate to o Migrate to & remain there until needed for action ▪ Basic Functions: Regulate Interstitial Fluid Volume Absorb Dietary Fats (why lymph has that color) Immune Roles: filters out pathogens (germs, bacteria, etc) o Maturation of Lymphocytes ▪ Lymph Circulation: Doesn’t have a pump Pressure Gradients- allows for fluid to flow in a certain direction Lymphatic Valves- helps prevent fluid buildup (edema) Smooth Muscle in Lymphatic Vessel Wall Skeletal Muscle Pump Lymphoid Tissues Cells o Include important cells: ▪ Lymphocytes: B-Lymphocytes T-Lymphocytes ▪ Phagocytic: cells that eat & swallow up Macrophages Cells Dendritic Cells Reticular Cells: Provide structure to Lymphoid Tissues o Nodules (Follicles) ▪ Group (rounded group many things like cells)  ▪Spherical Clusters of lymphocytes, macrophages, & dendritic cells ▪ Find them in tonsils, appendix (small tail like structure attached to intestine), Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue, Peyer’s Patches o Lymphatic Organs: ▪ Lymph Nodes: when you have an infection they swell, lymph nodes near the infection swell. Node (bulb like) structures, act like filters & filter out unwanted things (micro-organisms, germs, bacteria, foreign particles, to protect the lymphatic system & body (reticular tissue) Cervical Group Axillary Lymph Node Group: under the armpit o Breast Cancer Inguinal Lymph Node Group: Upper Groin Area o Urinary Tract, Reproductive Tract, STD could cause it to swell (Syphilis, Gonorrhea) Mesenteric Lymph Node Group: o Gastrointestinal infection, kidney infection, upper urinary tract infection ▪ Spleen: largest lymphatic organ Located UL Quad Dark purple/reddish wine color NO FOLLICLES Made of a framework of reticular tissue (net like) o Traps a lot of unwanted things 2 important regions: o 1. Red Pulp: Dark reddish color cause traps lots of macrophages that are getting rid of old red blood cells o 2. White Pulp: Lighter color because it will contain WBCs filtering (getting rid/destroying) pathogens out ▪ Thymus: organ found in front of chest above heart At birth looks large but with age starts to shrink (atrophies) o Thymus- 1 ary lymph organ o Red bone marrow- 2 ary lymph organ  Important for maturing functional T Cells (Solders fight chemicals they produce) NO FOLLICLES NOR B CELLS (produces antibodies) ▪ Lymphatic Vessels: 2 Ducts (greatest importance) o 1. Thoracic Duct: bring lymph flow from your lower body & upper left side, will continue & flow into left subclavian vein (venous flow) ▪ Larger one o 2. Right Lymphatic Duct: upper torso, head & arm, drains near right subclavian vein, supply UR side of our body ▪ Immune System: Are going to be organized in lines of defense 1st Line of Defense: CUTANEOUS/MUCOUS Membrane: o Skin o Mucous Membrane: nasal cavity, lining of the mouth, etc 2nd Line of Defense: Cells & Proteins play a part of your INNATE IMMUNITY: o Born with it (have at birth) ▪ Cells & proteins that will produce to protect you 3 Line of Defense: Cells & Protein- ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY rd o NOT BORN WITH IT (ACQUIRED) o Produce when exposed to foreign invaders ▪ Immunity: series of processes to protect the body from cell injury & Pathogens (germs, microorganisms) 2nd & 3rd Line of Defense have Immunity Classy Different Types of Immunity: o Innate Immunity: Born with (established at birth)/ Non-Specific Immunity meaning that it responses to all types of pathogens quickly within the first 12 hrs of exposure ▪ Bug Spray that can kill most bugs o Adaptive Immunity: Acquired & specific, much slower process, could take place within the first 3  days within exposure, responds individually to specific antigens Person on the train sneezing & coughing after a few days you start to feel a bit sick Vaccines a small dose to stimulate immune system for adaptive immunity ▪ 1. Cell-Mediated Type: carried out by T Cells (T-Lymphocytes), sprays that fire to specific microorganisms ▪ 2. Antibody-Mediated Immunity: Antibodies produced by the B Cells (stop invaders), stand behind the lines & produce Antibodies that arrest microorganisms and destroyed by other cells ▪ Exposure to pathogens to set off these important responses will also establish memory: Cell-Meditated Type & Antibody- Mediated Immunity Ex: once you have covid and are exposed again it won’t affect you too much due to memory depending on time frame Antibodies (Abs)/Immunoglobulins: o Protein molecules, some are complex protein o Looks like letters of the alphabet, some look larger & sophisticated o 5 important Immunoglobulins (IG) ▪ IgG: present at birth (born w/it to protect us) ▪ IgA: found & present in the Skin (sweat), Mucous (saliva) & Secretions ▪ IgM: first excreted at exposure to a pathogen ▪ IgE: produce when exposed to Parasites (organisms that feed off you) or Allergens (things that cause allergies) (levels will increase if person has any of these) ▪ IgD: Only activates the B Cells which produce more antibodies  T Cells (Lymphocytes) o TH (T Helper Cells): ▪ Stimulate macrophages & other types of Lymphocytes (T Cells) o Tc (T Cytotoxic Cells) ▪ Kill foreign cells through different chemicals they produce B Cells (Lymphocytes) o Produce antibodies Inflammation: Normal process of your immune system is active & carrying out different mechanisms o Clinical Signs: RESPONSE TO INJURY OR INFECTION ▪ Swelling ▪ Pain ▪ Heat ▪ Redness ▪ They ALL lead to LOSS OF FUNCTION