Final Exam Study Sheet PDF

Final Exam Introduction Why study animal behaviour? Animal behaviour can be studied for various reasons. 1. Interest in species/taxon ○ Example: studying the behaviour of specific animals like turtles and chipmunks 2. Interest in processes: ○ Ex...

Final Exam Introduction Why study animal behaviour? Animal behaviour can be studied for various reasons. 1. Interest in species/taxon ○ Example: studying the behaviour of specific animals like turtles and chipmunks 2. Interest in processes: ○ Example: investigating processes like theory of mind in apes, reproductive suppression in marmosets, or the fear/boldness trait in coyotes. 3. Interest in patterns: ○ Example: observing behavioural patterns such as preening sequences in birds, grooming behaviour in voles, or play behaviour in elephant nose fish. 4. Interest in broader questions ○ Example: exploring topics like conservation, evolution, parasitology, and the development of animal behaviours Approaches in Animal Behaviour Animal behaviour can be studied using two broad approaches: conceptual/therapeutical approaches: ○ Examples include kin selection vs. group selection and applying mathematical theory to foraging or aggression research Empirical/methodological approaches:  ○ Examples include experimental, observational, and correlational research methods Two Major Fields within the study of Animal Behaviour: Psychology (comparative psychology): ○ Focuses on the study of animal behaviour from a psychological perspective, often using laboratory-based methods Biology (behavioural biology) ○ Focuses on the study of animal behaviour from a biological perspective, including ethology, sociobiology, and behavioural ecology Areas with Peripheral Interest in Animal Behaviour Several fields intersect with the study of animal behaviour: Anthropology: ○ Includes fields like primatology (study of primates), and anthrozoology (study of human-animal relationships) Computer sciences: ○ Includes the study of artificial life (AL), artificial intelligence (AI), and robotics, which often draw on behavioural models Neurosciences and biomedical sciences: ○ Use animal models for understanding human diseases and disorders Model Systems and Animal Models Model systems: these are animals used to understand biological processes. For example, rodents (rats, mice) are commonly used in neuroscience and  endocrinology, despite having differences from humans in terms of ecological and physiological traits. Innovative model systems: for example, chipmunks and ground squirrels are studied as models for hibernation, and rams or woodpeckers are studied for concussion models Applications of Animal Behaviour Animal behaviour research has practical applications in: Behavioural technologies: training service animals Animal welfare: animal sciences, veterinary medicine, and aquaculture Therapeutic uses: pet-assisted therapy (zootherapy) and companionship programs Conservation and pest control: behavioural insights are used to develop strategies for species preservation and managing pests Comparative Psychology Definition: A subfield of psychology that focuses on understanding animal behaviour through the lens of psychological principles. It is closely related to biological psychology and often uses experimental methods. Historical context: comparative psychology has its roots in early experimental psychology and was a dominant force during the behaviourism era (e.g., figures like Watson and Skinner) Focus: primarily studies learning and acquired behaviours, often dismissing mental or internal processes (e.g., memory or thinking) Ethology Definition: the study of animal behaviour in natural settings, with an emphasis on innate behaviours (instincts) and species-specific behaviours Approach: ○ Focuses on observable behaviours and ecological validity (how behaviour functions in natural environments) ○ Traditionally used inductive methods and emphasized observations over experimental manipulation Key figures: Konrad Lorenz, Niko Tinbergen, and Karl von Frisch, who were awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine and Physiology in 1973 for their contributions to the field Comparative Psychology vs. Ethology Nature vs nurture debate: ○ Ethology is aligned with nature and focuses on innate, genetically determined behaviours ○ Comparative psychology is more aligned with nurture, studying learned behaviours Unification of the 1970s: ○ Robert Hinde worked to unify comparative psychology and ethology, suggesting that both perspectives could complement each other. Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology Sociobiology: ○ emerged from E.O. Wilson’s book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (1975) and focuses on evolutionary biology and genetics. Key figures include George Williams, Richard Dawkins, and Robert Trivers. Behavioural Ecology: ○ A branch of sociology that focuses on the interaction between behaviour and the environment, including social behaviour, mating systems, and foraging strategies. ○ Emphasizes the function of behaviour and how it relates to evolutionary fitness (survival and reproduction) Contrast between behavioural ecology and ethology Behavioural ecology: ○ Focuses on strategies and how behaviours enhance survival and reproduction. It often studies broader species-level patterns. Ethology: ○ Focuses on tactics and specific individual behaviours within ecological contexts, often studying immediate causes and mechanisms behind behaviours. Summary of the Historical Origins of Animal Behaviour Studies Ethology:  ○ Focused on species-specific behaviours, innate instincts, and observable behaviours. It is traditionally concerned with proximate causes (mechanisms of behaviour). Behavioural ecology and sociobiology: ○ Focused on ultimate causes (why behaviours evolve) and how behaviours function in ecological and evolutionary contexts Comparative psychology: ○ Focused on studying learned behaviours and often conducted in controlled laboratory settings Behavioural Classification Biases Ethology: focuses on forms (behavioural patterns), structures, and mechanisms Behavioural ecology: focuses on the functions of behaviours, often related to survival and reproduction Behavioural Patterns: Fixed Action Patterns (FAP) Characteristics of FAP: ○ Triggered by specific stimuli and executed in a consistent automatic way. These are stereotyped behaviours that are highly predictable and do not vary between individuals in a species ○ Example: the egg rolling behaviour in greylag geese Criticism: ○ That FAP concept is considered overly simplistic by some researchers who argue for more flexible and context-dependent patterns of behaviour,  leading to concepts like Modal Action Patterns (MAP) or Natural Action Sequences Animal Taxonomy and Diversity: An Overview Zoological Taxonomy: Basics Taxon (plural: taxa): a classification unit in biological taxonomy Taxonomy (or systematics): the science of naming, describing, and classifying organisms Hierarchy of Life Domains and Kingdoms 1. Domains (superregna): ○ Archaea ○ Bacteria ○ Eukaryota 2. Kingdoms within Eukaryota: ○ Protista: eukaryotic microorganisms ○ Fungi: studied in mycology ○ Plantae: studied in botany ○ Animalia: studied in zoology ○ Viruses: position in taxonomy debated Taxonomic Hierarchy: key levels and examples Taxonomic Humans Dogs Rats Ducks Bees Rank Kindom Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Animalia Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata Chordata Arthropoda Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia Aves Insecta Order Primates Carnivore Rodentia Anseriformes Hymenoptera Family Hominidae Canidae Muridae Anatidae Apidae Genus Homo Canis Rattus Anas Apis Species Sapiens Lupus Norvegicus Platyrhynchos Mellifera Vertabre Terminology Summary “Lower” Vertabres Agnatha (jawless fishes): lampreys, hagfishes Chrondrichthyes (cartilaginus): sharks, skates, rays Osteichthyes (bony fish): include ray-finned (teleosts, gars) and fleshy finned (lung fishes, coelacanths) fishes amphibians : frogs, salimanders, caecilians ○ Anamniota: vertabres with aquatic larval stages “Higher” Vertabres amniota : vertabres with an amniotic egg Reptiles: lizards, snakes, crocodiles, turtles Birds (aves): warm-blooded, feathered amniotes Mammals (mammalia): warm-blooded, milk-producing vertabres Key Concepts for Vertabres Characteristic “Lower” vertabres “Higher” vertabres Thermoregulation Poikilotherms/Ectothermy Homeotherms/Endothermy Reproductive strategy Anamniota Amniota Examples Fish, amphibians Birds, mammals DEFINITIONS: Birds (Aves) Classification: Paleognathae:  ○ Includes ratites: ostriches, rheas, emus, cassowaries, kiwis ○ Tinamous (only flying members) Neognathae: ○ Galliformes (landfowl): chicken, turkeys ○ Anseriformes (waterfowl): ducks, geese, swans ○ Neoaves: includes all other birds (e.g., passerines, raptors) Mammal Classification Overview Subclass Orders Examples Prototheria Monotremeta Platypus, echidnas Metatheria 7 orders Kangaroos, koalas, wombats, oppossums Eutheria 18 orders Most mammals, including rodents, primates Classification of Key Mammalian Orders Rodentia (Rodents): Former perspective: ○ Mouse-like (myomorpha) Current perspective: ○ squirrel-like (sciuromorpha) ○ porcupine - like (hystricomorpha) Primates: Suborders Families Examples Strepsirhini Lemuridae, lorisidae Lemurs, bush babies Haplorini hylobatidae , hominidae Gibbons, great apes,  humans Vertabre Evolutionary Tree 1. Agnathans: jawless vertabres 2. Chondrichthyes: cartilaginous fishes (sharks, rays) 3. Osteichthyes: ray-finned and fleshy-finned fishes 4. Tetrapods: amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals 5. Amniotes: includes reptiles, birds, and mammals Animal Kingdom Diversity Total species - 2.6 million ○ Insects: 1.05 million ○ Vertabres - 75,000 species Mustelids and Seasonal Adaptations Key mustelids species and characteristics 1. Species overview ○ Spotted skunk (eastern): spilogale putorius ○ American river mink: neovision vision ○ Wolverine: Gulo gulo ○ American badger: taxidea taxus ○ American pine marten: martes americana ○ Fisher: pekania pennanti (formely classified under martes) 2. Shared characteristics ○ Musk glands: located near the anus, used for scent marking and defense  ○ Solitary nature: most mustelids are solitary, with exceptions like the highly social otters and european badgers ○ Delayed implantation: embryo development is paused to optimize birth timing ○ Sexual dimorphism: males are generally larger than females, linked to polygnous mating systems ○ Behaviour: known as playful, intelligent, skilled hunters ○ Fur industry significance: Mink are farmed for their fur Domestication example: the domestic ferret (mustela putorius or polecat) has been used since roman times Notable Mustelids River otter (lutra canadensis) River mink (neovison vison, previously mustela vison) Pine marten (martes americana) short -tailed weasel (ermine) (mustela erminea) Season colour change Species that change colour in Winter: ○ Short-tailed weasel (ermine): changes to white in winter ○ Other species: Snowshoe hare (lepus americanus) Arctic hare (lepus arcticus) Tundra hare (lepus othus)  Artctic fox (vulpes lagopus): remains white year-round in the extreme north Endocrine Mechanisms of Seasonal Albinism 1. Physiological triggers: ○ Spring (Longer Days): Increased daylight suppresses melatonin Results in elevated MSH (melanocyte-stimulating hormone) and gonadotropins, leading to darker coloration (brown, gray, “blue”, or black) ○ Winter (Shorter Days): Reduced daylight increase melatonin levels Results in decreased MSH and gonadotropins, leading to white coloration 2. Hormonal Players: ○ Melatonin: produced by the pineal gland, influences seasonal colour changes based on light exposure ○ MSH (melanocyte-stimulating hormone) affects pigmentation ○ Gonadotropins: Estrogens (females) Androgens (males) 3. Key glands: ○ Pineal glands: regulates melatonin ○ Pituitary glands: produces trophic hormones, including gonadotropins Notes on arctic fox colouration “Blue fox” Phase: a common variation in the arctic fox, prized in the fur industry Natural Selection and Behaviour Evolution and Behaviour Definition of Evolution: A change in allele frequencies in a population over generations Example: ○ Alleles: A=tall ; a= short ○ Combinations: AA and aa is homozygous Aa is heterozygous Three foundations of Animal Behaviour (Dugatkin, 2008) 1. Natural Selection: ○ Adaptation at the species level (focuses on reproductive success) 2. Individual Learning: ○ Adaptation at the individual level based on experience 3. Cultural Transmission ○ Social learning becomes trans-generational (documented in cetaceans, primates and others) Foundation of Behaviour Framework Level Mechanism Effects Species-level Natural selection Between-generational effects Generational-level Cultural transmission Between-and-within generational effects Individual-level learning Within-generational effects Social learning /=/ cultural transmission Evidence for Evolution 1. Molecular genetics 2. Embryology (e.g., recapitulation hypothesis) 3. Anatomy and morphology 4. Biogeography 5. Paleontology American Popular Opinions on Evolution (Gallup, 2004) 45%: god created humans within the last 10,000 years 38%: human evolved, but god guided the process 13%: humans evolved from less advanced life forms Key Concepts in Genetics and Behaviour Population: members sharing a common gene pool Gene Pool: genes of all reproductive individuals in a population Genome: full set of genes in an organism’s cell Genotype: genetic makeup (individual or population level) Phenotype: observable traits (expression of the genotype)  ○ Includes: anatomy, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, behaviour, and mind Phenotypes Classification (Fuller, 1986) 1. Somatophenes: morphology and anatomy 2. Chemophenes: biochemical molecules 3. Physiophenes: physiological systems (immune, nervous, endocrine) 4. Ethophenes: observable behaviour patterns 5. Psychophenes: covert processes (intelligence, personality, emotionality) Four Forces of Evolutionary Change in Behaviour 1. Mutations and genetic recombination: ○ Mutations: alter genetic material; mostly neutral or detrimental in multicellular organisms ○ Genetic Recombination: increases variability via allele combinations (e.g., cross-over) 2. Gene Flow: ○ Exchange of genes between populations (e.g., immigration) ○ Stabilizes genetic variation 3. Genetic Drift: ○ Random gene frequency alterations; common in small populations ○ Examples: i. Founder effect: isolated population leads to new species ii. Bottleneck effect: population size drastically reduced (e.g., hunting) 4. Natural Selection:  ○ Fitness and functional adaptations: traits increasing survival and reproduction ○ Prerequisites: Trait variation Fitness consequences Mode of inheritance Limited resources Fitness and Selection Types Direct (Darwinian) Fitness: reproductive success (# of offspring) Indirect Fitness: kin interactions aiding survival (e.g., helping behaviour) Inclusive Fitness: direct + indirect fitness; key to kin selection Types of Selection 1. Artificial selection: human guided breeding 2. Natural selection: driven by nature ○ Subtypes: Kin selection Sexual selection 3. Group selection: behaviour benefits the species (e.g., reproductive restraint) Products of Evolution 1. Actual adaptation: via natural selection 2. By-products: traits carried along with adaptation (e.g., language as a by product of large brains) 3. Noise: random effects (mutations, environmental changes) Misconceptions about evolution Progressivism fallacy: traits do not necessarily head toward improvement or perfection Puposivism fallacy: evolution lacks goals or purposes Evolution may involve stasis (e.g., living fossils like sharks or squirrels) Cultural Transmission and Behaviour Animal cultures and micro cultures (e.g., primates, wolves) Examples of non-adaptive behaviours: ○ Play, alturism, symbiosis, adoption, same sex behaviour, risk-taking Felids (Felidae = the cat family) Origins of felids Order: carnivora Subgroup: cat-like carnivora (feliformia/feloidea/ailuroidea/ailuromorphs) Family: felidae (38 species across 4 genera) 1. Panthera: big cats (e.g., lions, tigers, leopards, jaguars) 2. Felis: small cats, lynxes, cougars 3. Acinonyx: cheetah 4. Neofelis: clouded leopard Felids in North America 1. US/Mexico Boarder Species: ○ Jaguar (panthera onca) ○ Ocelot (felis padalis) ○ Margay Cat (felis wiedii)  ○ Jaguarundi cat (felis yagouaroundi) 2. Canada Species: ○ cougar/puma/mountain lion (Felis concolor): found across Canada, including Atlantic regions ○ Bobcat (felis rufus): found in coastal areas, prefers proximity to humans ○ Canada lynx (felis canadensis): found in boreal forests; population closely linked to snowshoe hare cycles Specialists vs. Generalists Specialists (stenoecious): narrow diet, habitat, and behavioural adaptations ○ Example: canada lynx (specialists in diet - snowshoe hare - and boreal forest habitat) Generalists (euryoecious): broad adaptations, often synanthropic (live near humans) ○ Example: bobcat (diverse diet and habitat) Specialism in Birds (comparison) Specialists: adapted to specific diets, habitats, or nesting sites generalists: can thrive in a variety of environments, often in human-altered areas ○ Example: crows (generalists) vs. Great Grey Owl (specialists) Key North American Felids 1. Cougar (felis concolar) ○ Specialist diet (primarily snowshoe hare) and boreal forest habitat ○ Population fluctuates with the 10-year hare population cycle ○ Range includes cape breton highlands in nova scotia  2. Bobcat (felis rufus): ○ Generalist in diet and habitat ○ Feeds on cottontail rabbits and inhabits woody areas but isn't strictly wood-land based ○ Smaller body, legs, and feet compared to the Canada Lynx 3. Canada Lynx (Felis canadensis) ○ Boreal forest specialist, reliant on snowshoe hare ○ Lynx populations surge during hare population peaks Hybrids Lynx-bobcat hybrid: known as blynx ○ Evidence includes reports of interbreeding in overlapping ranges ○ Example: felis rufus (bobcat) x felis canadensis (canada lynx) Domestic Cat Origins Ancestry: ○ Likely from African wildcat (felis lybica) and possibly european wildcat (felis sylvestris) ○ Initial domestication in the middle east - 10,000 years ago, associated with agriculture and grain storage Species classification: originally classified as felis sylvestris catus, now recognized as felis catus Domestication Evidence: ○ Symbiotic triangle: mouse(prey), wild cat (predator), and humans (agriculturists)  ○ Earliest archeologists records: cyprus (evidence of training) and Egypt (evidence of full domestication) Hybridization potential: ○ Felinae sub-family (most small cat species, including domestic cats) has potential for hybridization ○ Less likely in panthera (big cats) Key Findings in Genetic Research African wild cat as ancestor: ○ Supported by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis European wild cat possibility: ○ Suggested by nuclear DNA (nDNA), though less accepted Geographic spread: ○ Introduced to islands like corsica and sardinia during early domestication Domestication Domestication Syndrome Definition: a set of phenotypic traits typical of domesticated species that are absent or rare in wild ancestors Examples: ○ Non-behavioural traits: reduced brain size, changes in reproductive cycles (e.g., increased breeding cycles), altered colouration patterns ○ Behavioural traits: increased tameness and docility Origins of traits:  ○ Selective breeding: intentional selection for desirable traits ○ Unintended traits: results from pleiotropy (one gene affects multiple traits) or genetic linkage Phenotypic Dimensions Affected by Domestication (Fuller, 1986) 1. Chemophenes: molecular changes in biochemistry (e.g., enzymes, hormones) 2. Somatophenes: alterations in body morphology and anatomy 3. Physiophenes: modifications to physiological systems (immune, nervous, endocrine) 4. Ethophenes: observable behavioural changes 5. Psychophenes: changes in internal processes (cognition, emotion) Domesticated Mammalian and Avian Taxa Mammals: ○ Equidae: horses, donkeys ○ Artiodactyla: pigs, camels, llamas, cattle, sheep, goats ○ Carnivora: dogs, cats, ferrets ○ Rodents and Lagomorphs: guinea pigs, rabbits, hamsters Birds: ○ Galliformes: chicken, quail, pheasants, turkeys ○ Anseriformes: ducks, geese, swans ○ Columbiformes: pigeons, doves ○ Others: emus, parrots, falcons Theories of Domestication The Pathways (Zeder, 2012)  ○ Commensal Pathway: initiated by the animal, subordinates at least. Dogs, cats, chickens, muscovy ducks, pigs (?) ○ Prey Pathway: initiated by humans. Sheep, goats, cattle. Former preys are “round-up” ○ Directed Pathway: initiated by humans for the explicit purpose of domestication, i.e., selective breeding (artificial selection). Species-specific pre-adaptations (predisposition) may be lacking here. Niche Construction Theory (NCT) ○ When a species modifies significantly its habitat. This is even at the individual level. E.g., beavers and their dams. ○ This is linked to Zeder’s view, and applies to all three pathways Example: wolves and the commensal pathway Commensals (wolves) were drawn to the niche created by humans This can lead to a co-evolutionary relationship Pre-adaptations: ○ Could there be behavioural pre-adaptations in un-domesticated species that explain why they “connected” easily with humans? ○ Hale (1969) is the first to tackle this problem. He identified 5 categories to investigate: Group structure: the social factor Sexual behaviour: the reproductive factor Parent-young interactions: the parental factor  Responses to humans: the anthropological factor Food and habitat: the ecological factor Developmental Factors in Domestication 1. Neoteny (paedomorphosis): ○ Retention of juvenile traits into adulthood ○ Examples: Dogs’ behaviour mirrors wolf pups Domestic foxes show juvenile-like friendliness (Belyaev studies) 2. Heterochrony: ○ Variations in developmental timing and rates ○ Paedomorphosis: slower development leads to juvenile traits persisting ○ Peramorphosis: faster development leads to exaggerated traits Domesticated Foxes (Belyaev studies) Selection for tameness led to rapid changes within 30 generations: ○ Social traits: sought human company, competed for attention ○ Physical traits: floppy ears, altered coat colours, and wagging tails Dog Domestication Changes in development compared to wolves: ○ Estrous cycles increased (1 to 2 per year) ○ Reduction in paternal behaviour ○ Morphological changes: smaller bodies, shorter heads and limbs  ○ Behavioural differences: submissiveness, high trainability Socialization Period: dogs have a longer sensitive period for socialization compared to their wild counterparts (8-12 weeks for dogs vs. 6 weeks for wild foxes) Neurochemical and Hormonal Changes in Domestication Neurochemical: domesticated foxes show increased serotonin and relaxed enzyme levels Hormonal: reduced stress response via changes in the hypothalmic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis Domestication of Fowl (Galliformes and Anseriformes) Landfowl: ○ Examples: chickens, turkeys, pheasants ○ Traits: ground dwelling, polygynous mating, strong imprinting Waterfowl: ○ Examples: ducks, geese, swans ○ Traits: precocial development, migratory behaviour, monogamous mating Facilitating factors: ○ Habitat and precocial development favoured domestication ○ Monogamy and migration were obstacles for waterfowl The Main Theories of Canine Domestication Scavenger theories (Zeuner; Coppinger & Coppinger; Serpell) ○ Extreme version: parasitism theories (Budiansky) Mutualism Theories (Lorenz; Pierotti & Fogg; Derr; Hall & Sharp)  ○ Extreme version: co-evolution theories (Schleidt) ○ Cynegentic theory: hunting partnership. Explains why it happened before farming Variant of this theory: Foraging association Ducks Mallard ducks (Anas platyrhinchos): farmed 2500+ years ago by the Romans, Malays, and potentially before in China Muscovy ducks (Cairina moschata): unknown for how long, but the Spanish and Portuguese settlers in south and central America documented their domestication Eider (Somateria Genus): farming in Iceland and Norway - 1000 years Greylag Goose (anser anser) domestication: up to 11 000 years ago but for sure 3000-5000 (depending on accounts) years ago with the Ancient Egyptians Behavioural Changes in Ducks During Domestication Less aggressive overall Not territorial (wild mallards aren’t either) Polygamous (monogamy or serial monogamy in the wild) Many are flightless, with some exceptions (Muscovy/Barbary ducks, Call ducks and other Bantam breeds). This is a side effect of the large size of many breeds Loss of broodiness Overview of Testudines (Turtles) Turtles vs. Tortoises Turtles: typically aquatic or semi-aquatic Tortoises: fully terrestrial; not found in nova scotia Nova Scotia Turtles 4 species: snapping turtles, painted turtle, blanding’s turtle, wood turtle All species listed under COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada) Active period: mid April to mid October (temperature-dependent) Hibernate in water during winter at a stable 4 degrees celsius Reproduction: ○ Temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) for all except wood turtles: High temps: >30 degrees celsius = females Low temps: males ○ Late sexual maturation: over 10 years ○ Hatchlings survive extreme cold (-11 degrees celsius) Families and Genera in Nova Scotia 1. Family: Chelydridae ○ Snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) 2. Family: Emydidae (Terrapins, Pond Turtles): ○ Painted turtle (Chrysemys picta) ○ Blanding’s turtle (Emys blandingii)  ○ Wood turtle (Glyptemys insculpta) General Characteristics of Nova Scotia Turtles Function temperatures: ○ Active at 20 degrees celsius internally, water at at least 15 Nesting: ○ May-july ○ Lay 5-20 eggs; sometimes two clutches in one season Longevity: ○ 30-40 years common, but some individuals live over 60 years Detailed Species Profiles Blanding’s Turtle (Emys blandingii) Size: 18-26cm Key features: ○ Yellow chin and throat with a distinctive “smile” ○ Shell covered with yellow spots Habitat: ○ Found in southern Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia (Keji area) Behaviour: ○ Active in the morning; basks in spring ○ Walks underwater instead of swimming Reproduction: ○ Sexual maturity: females 15-25 years ○ Nesting: mid-late june; 15 eggs  Longevity: up to 83 years Conservation status: endangered in Nova Scotia (COSEWIC) Wood Turtle (Glyptemys insculpta) Size: 16-25 cm Classification: ○ Family: emydidae; sub-family: emydinae ○ Formerly classified under Clemmys genus Unique traits: ○ Primarily terrestrial but hibernates in water ○ Non TSD species Sea Turtles All are vagrants in Nova Scotia except for the Leatherback Turtle Species: ○ Atlantic leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea coriacea): largest (1.3-2.4 meters) ○ Atlantic loggerhead turtle (caretta caretta): medium-sized (85cm-1.2m) ○ Kemp’s Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys kempi): smallest and most endangered (35-75cm) Reproduction: Sex Determination Mechanisms 1. Genotypic Sex Determination (GSD): ○ Fixed at fertilization by genetic chromosomes ○ Gonadal hormones influence differentiation after the gonad forms 2. Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination (TSD):  ○ Sex is determined by incubation temperature ○ Higher temperatures activate genes for enzymes and hormone receptors leading to female development Developmental Factors Neoteny (Paedomorphosis): ○ Retention of juvenile traits into adulthood ○ Example: hatchlings tolerate cold; juvenile like behaviour persists in adults Hibernation adaptations: ○ Hibernate in water with stable temps (4 degrees celsius) Key Conservation Links Nova scotia museum of natural history: resources on turtles Canadian sea turtle network: research and conservation of leatherbacks Species at risk: focus on Blanding’s turtles Sexual Selection and Courtship Key concepts: ○ Sexual selection: evolutionary mechanism where traits are favored because they enhance mating success Quality and quantity: Quantity: number of offspring contributes to reproductive success Quality: the health and reproductive potential of offspring depends on parental quality  Mate choice and competition: central to reproductive success Intra-sexual: competition within a sex (e.g., male-male competition in buffalo) Inter-sexual: mate choice (e.g., female deer selecting bucks with best feeding areas) Theories and Strategies Darwin’s and Triver’s Perspectives: Darwin (1871): males compete; females choose Trivers (1972): females are choosy due to: ○ Limited ova ○ Costly childbearing and lactation ○ Ovulating females are limited resources Predictions: Reproductive mistakes are costlier for females due to high parental investment (e.g., long inter-birth intervals in gorillas) Intra-sexual Selection Competition before mating: ○ Examples: male bucks fighting for feeding areas to secure mates Competition after mating: ○ Examples: Lions: pride takeovers result in infanticide, which resets female receptivity  Mice: The Bruce Effect (pheromonal-induced abortions upon arrival of strange males) Male-Male Competition Tactics: Aggression: physical or ritualized fights Sperm Competition: competing at the gametic level Kleptogamy: sneaky mating strategies (e.g., cuckoldry) Evaluations and Indicators “Genes = Currency” ○ Individuals assess each other for genetic quality (phenotype) ○ Static traits: antlers, horns, colours ○ Dynamic traits: pheromones, pupil dilation Ecological Factors and Reproductive Strategies R-selected vs. K-selected species: ○ r-Selected: fast reproduction, high offspring quantity, low parental care (e.g., rodents) ○ K-Selected: slow reproduction, high offspring quality, extensive parental care (e.g., elephants) ○ Overlap/Exceptions: species with scarce food sources (e.g., large carnivores) exhibit K-selected traits like prolonged dependency Reproductive Success Measures: 1. Number of offspring born 2. Number of weaned individuals 3. Number of individuals reaching reproductive age Sexual Dimorphism and Epigametic Traits Sexual Dimporphism: differences between sexes in traits related to mating ○ Stronger in polygamous species ○ Examples: Primates: Male howler monkeys: beards Male mandrills: bright faces Humans: musculature, height, facial hair ○ Weaker in monogamous species (e.g., gibbons) Epigenetic Traits Secondary sexual characteristics that influence mate choice (e.g., bright colours, antlers) Indicators of health and reproductive fitness Mate Choice Theories 1. Direct Benefits (Darwin): ○ Males offer tangible resources like food, shelter, or parental care 2. Good Genes Theory (Hamilton & Zuk): ○ Epigenetic traits signal immune system integrity and absence of parasites ○ Examples: MCH (Major Histocompatibility Complex): pheromonal cues for genetic compatibility Symmetry: indicates developmental stability and high genetic quality  3. Runaway Selection (Fisher): ○ Female preferences for exaggerated male traits evolve, leading to stronger preferences and more pronounced traits (e.g., peacock tails) 4. Handicap Theory (Zahavi) ○ Costly traits serve as honest signals of genetic quality because they are hard to fake Mating Systems and Implication Polygamy: strong sexual dimorphism and competitive traits (e.g., antlers) Monogamy: weaker dimorphism, more parental investment by both sexes Examples: ○ Polygamous: lions, peacocks ○ Monogamous: gibbons, marmosets Conflict and Fitness Conflicts in Mating Preferences: 1. Male desires vs. female preferences 2. Female preferences vs. actual fitness indicators 3. Male desires vs. actual fitness indicators Investment Disparities: Females generally invest more in progeny (gestation, lactation) than males, except in species like fish where male guard eggs Challenges in Theories Honest Indicators: costly to produce and challenging to confirm ○ Example: barn swallows with long tails might indicate parasite resistance (Moller, 1990) or aerodynamic advantage (Norberg, 1994) Impact of Mating System: Polygamous species: greater likelihood of traits evolving as “handicaps” Monogamous species: Less pronounced sexual selection Mating Systems I. Overview a. Focus: mating systems and connected phenomena: Modes of reproduction Reproductive effort, success, and investment Parental care and behaviour: Types: maternal, paternal, biparental, and alloparental care Mating systems: Monogamy (1-to-1) Polygamy (1-to-many: polygyny or polyandry) Polygynandry (some-to-some preferences) Promiscuity (true many-to-many) II. Modes of Reproduction 1. By Gamete Production: ○ Gonochoristic/Dioecious: separate sexes (common)  ○ hermaphroditic/ Monoecious: both egg and sperm production in one individual (e.g., slugs, snails) ○ Parthenogenetic: only eggs produced; no fertilization required (e.g., whiptails lizards) 2. By Fertilization: ○ Internal fertilization: common in caecilians, reptiles, birds, mammals ○ External fertilization: common in fish, amphibians 3. By Development Type: ○ Viviparity: live young ○ Oviparity: egg-laying ○ Ovoviviparity: eggs hatch inside the parent III. Parthenogenesis Reproduction without fertilization: ○ Examples: whiptail lizards, bonnethead sharks, komodo dragons ○ Can involve sperm without integrating its genome (e.g., amazon molly) IV. Reproductive Effort and Success Reproductive effort: time, energy, and risk for mating and rearing offspring Reproductive success: measured by: 1. Number of offspring born 2. Number of offspring weaned 3. Number of offspring available for mating V. Parental Behaviour 1. Definitions:  ○ Activities enhancing offspring survival (e.g., feeding, guarding) ○ Maternal: By mothers or stepmothers ○ Paternal: by father or stepfathers ○ Alloparental: by non-parents (e.g., siblings, aunts) 2. Parental Investment: ○ energy/time spent assisting current offspring reduces ability to produce more VI. Parental Care Theories 1. Parental Provision Model: ○ Parents unidirectionally provide for offspring 2. Conflict Model: ○ Trivers’ theory: Parent-offspring conflict arises due to differing interests 3. Symbiosis/Mutualism Model: ○ Bidirectional exchange benefits both (e.g., rats’ water/electrolyte exchange) VII. Male vs. Female Care Certainty of Paternity Hypothesis: High certainty increases paternal care Gamete Order Hypothesis: last parent to release gametes cares for offspring association/Proximity Hypothesis: Closeness to offspring drives caregiving VIII. Patterns of Parental Care 1. Mammals: ○ 3% show biparental care (e.g., primates, canids) 2. Birds:  ○ 70% exhibit biparental care (e.g., anseriformes) 3. Amphibians and Reptiles: ○ Most common in crocodylians (100%) IX. Alloparental Care Non-parents provide care: ○ Kin selection perspective: benefits relatives’ fitness ○ Parental Experience Perspective: prepares Individuals for future parenthood Example: red foxes (previous-year daughters assist mothers) X. Mating Systems in Species Mammals: ○ Polygyny is common Canids: ○ Monogamy or cooperative breeding (e.g., wolves in packs) Birds: ○ Monogamy predominates; exceptions like jacanas with female polyandry XI. Paternal Care Evaluation Criteria (Canids) 1. Grooming 2. Transporting young 3. Feeding (bringing or regurgitating food) 4. guarding/defending 5. Playing and nurturing behaviours XII. Examples of Unique Behaviours  Northern Jacana: ○ Males: nest building, incubation, chick defense ○ Females: territorial protection, courtship dominance Red foxes: ○ Last year’s daughters act as helpers due to dispersal risks XII. Key Points to Remember Modes of reproduction and parental care strategies can vary widely across taxa Investment in offspring reflects evolutionary trade-offs between survival and future reproduction Mating systems influence patterns of care (e.g., monogamy fosters biparental care) Canids: Emergent Social and Reproductive Characteristics Monogamy: common mating system Parental Care: includes significant paternal investment Alloparental Care: ○ Ranges from occasional helpers to true cooperative breeding Family Systems: 1. immediate/nuclear family: seen in foxes and coyotes 2. Extended family: characteristic of wolves and african wild dogs 3. Clan systems: found in dholes, representing congregations of families Overview of Monogamy in Mammals Monogamy is relatively rare among mammals but observed in:  ○ Marsupialia: a few marsupials ○ Macroscelidae: elephant shrews ○ Chiroptera: false vampire bats ○ Lagomorpha: select hares, rabbits, and pikas ○ Rodentia: certain species among squirrels, voles, mice, and beavers ○ Carnivora: most canids, except species like raccoon dogs and some south american canids ○ Cetacea: a few whales, dolphins, porpoises ○ Perissodactyla: includes some rhinos, horses, zebras ○ Artiodactyla: rare; seen in some deer, gazelles, and other ungulates ○ Primates: No great apes exhibit monogamy Lesser apes (e.g., gibbons) and certain monkeys like marmosets and titi monkeys do Rodentia: Myomorpha Monogamy Examples Peromycus (deer mice) ○ Common species: P. maniculatus and P. leucopus (not monogamous) ○ Monogamous species: P. polionotus (oldfield mouse) and P. californicus (California deer mouse) Microtus (Voles): ○ Common species: M.pennsylvanicus (meadow vole) and M. Chrotorrhinus (rock vole) Monogamy in Birds Overview: ○ About 90% of bird species are mating monogamous, but only 25% are genetically monogamous ○ Paternal care - 70% of bird species ○ Monogamy types: 1. serial/seasonal: short-term pair bonds 2. perennial;/long-term: found in 50% of orders and 21% of families Anseriformes (waterfowl): ○ Mating systems: Polygyny: magpie geese Promiscuity: maccoa, musk, african comb ducks Forced extra-pair copulations (FEPC): dabbling ducks Monogamy: dominant; observed in 93% species ○ Subtypes of monogamy: 1. Perennial (e.g., swans, geese) 2. Seasonal without re-pairing (e.g., dabbling ducks) 3. Seasonal without re-pairing (rare; e.g., shelducks) Cooperative Breeding and Brood Amalgamation in Birds Types: ○ Adopting: accepting unrelated young ○ Kidnapping: aggressively taking young from others ○ Creching: unrelated young cared for by one/few adults (e.g., penguins)  ○ Gang-brooding: multiple parents care for multiple broods Canada Goose (branta canadensis): ○ Biparental care or gang brooding (50% each) ○ Gang-brooding increases with age and is not kin-based Paradox In Waterfowl Monogamy Despite little paternal care, waterfowl remain mostly monogamous Potential reasons: ○ Males are critical during post-mating stages (e.g., egg production) ○ Female philopatry limits male access to multiple mates Notable exceptions: ○ Magpie geese: cooperative breeding ○ Comb ducks: polygyny ○ Musk ducks: promiscuity Perennial Monogamy in Waterfowl Seen in geese and swans Characteristics: ○ High mate fidelity (92-100%) ○ Larger body size allows males to assist against predators ○ “Divorce” rates: Low in species like barnacle geese (2% annually) Higher in greylag geese (10.5% annually) Group Size and Population Regulation Key concepts:  ○ Group: social units (e.g., packs in canids, troops in primates) ○ Population: organisms of the same species in a defined area Regulatory Models: ○ Wynne-Edwards’ “group selection” ○ Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) ○ Calhoun’s and Christians models on overpopulation ○ Sapolsky’s work on dominance and stress 1. Wynne-Edwards' "Group Selection" Field: Ecology/Evolutionary Biology Concept: Proposes that natural selection can act at the level of groups, not just individuals. Key Idea: Animals may behave in ways that limit their own reproduction to benefit the survival of the group or population, such as controlling resource consumption. Example: Birds or mammals restraining reproduction during food shortages to prevent overpopulation and resource depletion. Criticism: Modern evolutionary biology largely rejects strict group selection, favoring kin selection and individual selection as better explanations. 2. Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Field: Stress Physiology  Concept: A model describing how organisms respond to chronic stress in three stages. 1. Alarm: Immediate reaction to a stressor, activating the fight-or-flight response. 2. Resistance: The body adapts to the stressor, maintaining higher-than-normal physiological responses. 3. Exhaustion: Prolonged stress depletes resources, leading to burnout or disease. Key Contribution: Introduced the idea that stress has a general impact on the body, regardless of the specific stressor, and can cause long-term health problems if not resolved. 3. Calhoun's and Christian's Models on Overpopulation Field: Population Biology/Behavioral Science John B. Calhoun: ○ Studied overcrowding effects in rats (e.g., the "behavioral sink"). ○ Findings: Overcrowding led to social breakdown, increased aggression, reproductive issues, and population collapse. ○ Implication: High-density living conditions can cause social and psychological pathologies. J.J. Christian: ○ Examined population density and stress in animals.  ○ Findings: Overpopulation triggers physiological stress responses (e.g., elevated adrenal gland activity), impairing reproduction and survival. ○ Implication: Stress due to high density serves as a natural population control mechanism. 4. Sapolsky's Work on Dominance and Stress Field: Behavioral Neuroendocrinology Concept: Examined the relationship between dominance hierarchies and stress levels in primates. Key Findings: ○ Subordinate individuals in a hierarchy often experience higher stress levels due to social instability, unpredictability, and lack of control. ○ Dominant individuals tend to have lower stress levels, but this depends on the nature of their dominance (e.g., benevolent vs. aggressive). Broader Contribution: Highlights how chronic stress from social factors impacts health, linking it to issues like cardiovascular disease, immune dysfunction, and mental health disorders in both animals and humans. Syngnathids and Northern Pipefish Syngnathids Overview Includes: Seahorses, pipefish, pipehorses, and seadragons Unique Characteristics: Males brood youn in a marsupium (pouch) or via ventral gluing Reproductive behaviour: many species are monogamous or polyandrous Conservation status: many are endangered or threatened. Example: hippocampus capensis Key Conservation Concerns (from Project Seahorse) 1. Small brood size limits reproductive potential 2. Male brooding increases dependency on parental survival compared to other fish 3. Monogamy creates delays in reproduction after losing a mate 4. Low population density makes finding new partners difficult 5. Fishing affs pressure due to already low adult mortality 6. Low adult mobility and small home ranges limit recolonization 7. Juveniles may be the primary dispersers to new areas Local Species: Northern Pipefish (syngnathus fuscus) Habitat & Distribution: ○ Found in estuaries, coves, bayes, and inlets with eelgrass or seaweed ○ Sometimes seen in freshwater near coasts ○ Range: Gulf of St. Lawrence to Florida Physical description: ○ Size: up to 33 cm ○ Shape: pencil-like, horizontal body; narrow head with a tubular snout ○ Body: flexible with bony rings (19 trunk rings) ○ Colour: yellow-green with red eyes  ○ Fins: 1 dorsal fin, tiny fan-like tail ○ Unique ability: can roll eyes separately Reproduction in Northern Pipefish Breeding season: From march to august Male brooding: Male brood puch (marsupium) is where eggs develop Egg Transfer Process: 1. Females oviduct transfers eggs to the male’s brood pouch 2. Eggs are transferred in multiple batches with rest intervals 3. Male shifts eggs toward the pouch’s rear using body contortions Fertilization & Development: Fertilization occurs during the egg transfer Eggs embed in the brood pouch lining The pouch functions as a placenta, nourishing embryos through epithelial layers Incubation period: 10 days Growth of Young Pipefish: 1. Released from the pouch at 8-9 mm when yolk sac is absorbed 2. Independent after leaving the pouch; do not return 3. In aquaria, fry grow from 10mm to 70mm within 2 months post hatching 4. Likely mature at 1 years old Key Adaptations and Behaviours Male brooding increases offspring survival by protecting eggs until independent  Low mobility restricts the spread of population, making conservation crucial Separate rolling eyes aid in detecting predators and prey in aquatic vegetation Important Conservation Takeaways Fishing pressures on slow-growing, low-density populations can rapidly decrease numbers Restoring and protecting eelgrass habitats is critical for survival Promoting awareness of their unique life cycle can aid conservation efforts Urodela (Salamanders and Newts) Key species in Nova Scotia 1. Eastern Red-Backed Salamander (Plethodon cinereus) ○ Details provided in the genus overview 2. Yellow-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma Maculatum) 3. Blue-Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma laterale) 4. Four-Toed Salamander (hemidactylium scutatum) 5. Red-Spotted Newt (notophthalmus viridescens viridescens) Genus Plethodon: Woodland Salamanders Taxonomy Family: plethodontidae Subfamily: plethodontinae Genus: plethodon Species: plethodon cinereus Common name: red-backed salamander Morphs and Their Characteristics 1. Red Back (Striped Morph) ○ Habitat: deciduous woods ○ Behaviour: immobility when threatened by predators ○ Stress levels: lower overall 2. Lead Back (Non-Striped Morph) ○ Habitat: coniferous woods ○ Behaviour: runs away from threats ○ Stress level: higher overall 3. Erythristic Morph (all red) ○ Habitat: deciduous woods, highlands dominated by maple trees ○ Rarity: uncommon Development Direct development: eggs hatch directly into small salamanders; no larval stage Brooding: ○ Mothers protect eggs from cannibalistic salamanders ○ Consume dead eggs to prevent infection spread Parental Care in Amphibians (from Crump, 1996) sex recognized models: 1. Egg attendance 2. Egg transport 3. Tadpole attendance 4. Tadpole transport 5. Tadpole feeding  6. Internal gestation (in the oviduct) Reproductive Information Eggs: 4-17 eggs per brood Laying period: may-june Hatching period: august-September Territorial Behaviour Use pheromone scent marking to establish and defend territory Olfaction Feature: nasolabial groove behaviour: nose-tapping response aids in sensing the environment Why Study Plethodon Cinereus? 1. Laboratory behaviour: similar to natural forest behaviour 2. Minimal ecological impact: studies suggest no significant effects on ecosystem functions