Final Exam Study Guide.docx

Chapter 1: What is Life List and explain some characteristics of life Respond to external stimuli/Responsiveness– Alarm Clock Alter the Environment – Turning off alarm, pollutant Sense the Environment – Hot or Cold, Temperature Adapt to the Environment – Covering body with clothes, shivering or swea...

Chapter 1: What is Life List and explain some characteristics of life Respond to external stimuli/Responsiveness– Alarm Clock Alter the Environment – Turning off alarm, pollutant Sense the Environment – Hot or Cold, Temperature Adapt to the Environment – Covering body with clothes, shivering or sweating Metabolism/Energy – Ingesting food and breaking it down for energy Reproduction – reproduction of cells and of a new organism Materials found only in living organisms – proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, neucleic acids – DNA/RNA Homeostasis – maintain a stable internal environment, body temp High degree of organization – microscopic units, called cell, inc complex tissues, organs, organ systems, and individual organisms What are the levels of organization? Chemical Level – includes atoms, molecules and compounds found inside the cell. Cellular Level – the smallest unit of life, a component bounded by a membrane or cell wall, in multicellular organisms, cells are usually specialized to perform specific functions Muscle Cell Nerve Cell Epithelial Cell Cartilage Cell Tissue Level – an assemblage of similar cells Epithelial Tissue Connective Tissue Muscular Tissue Nervous Tissue Organ Level – an assemblage of tissues that often have several functions Heart – Cardiovascular System Liver – Digestive System Kidney – Urinary System Lungs – Cardiovascular Organ System Level – the group of organs that carries out a more generalized set of functions Cardiovascular – heart, lungs, veins, arteries Organism Level – Homo sapiens Systems – Integumentary System – Skin Skeleto-Muscular System – Muscles and Bones Cardiovascular System – Respiratory System – Digestive System – Urinary System – Lymphatic System – Nervous System - Reproductive System – Endocrine System - Define Taxonomy – a branch of science that deal with the study of classification based on structural similarities and common ancestry. The most accepted classification has 3 domains and 6 kingdoms Define Kingdom – based on similar characteristics, into divisions that get even more narrow Kingdom – Animalia – all multicellular organisms that ingest nutrients rather than synthesize them Phylum – all animals with a vertebral column or dorsal hollow notochord – a structure along the back of animals that protect their central nervous system. Class – Mammalia – all vertebrates with placental development, mammary glands, hair or fur, and a tail located behind the anus. Order – Primates – mammals adapted to life in tress, with opposable thumbs. Family – Hominidae – primates that move primarily with bipedal – two-footed - locomotion. Genus – Homo – hominids with large brain cases or skulls Species – The only living organism in our species, with a unique set of combined characteristics from our family(bipedal), order(opposable thumbs), and genus(large brain case) Explain the scientific Method – The scientific Method is rooted in logic. If we can show that our hypothesis does not apply to even one situation, then our hypothesis is wrong. After we analyze the data and draw conclusions from them, we may have to throw out our hypothesis or conclude that it applies to a more limited range of circumstances. Label each of the diagrams below: Sweating, water regulation, sugar – negative feedback Childbirth contractions – positive feedback, muscle contractions, Uterine contractions Chapter 3: Everyday Chemistry of Life Periodic table- is a list of the elements and contains more than 100 elements Element – a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler format. Distinguished by a unique atomic number. Elements are organized by their atomic number in the periodic table. Atom – The smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an element. Atomic number – number of protons (also equals the number of electrons in a neutral atom) Atomic weight – number of protons plus number of neutrons Label the following diagram: Write a definition for each labeled part. All are subatomic particles A- Electrons – negatively charged subatomic particle 1 negative unit, mass is negative. Located outside of nucleus. Outer shell is the valence shell. React to other atoms B- Neutorns – in the nucleus, does not have a charge, mass is 1 Atomic Mass Unit C- Protons – in the nucleus, 1 positive unit, mass is 1 Atomic Mass Unit What does the rule for diagramming an atom state? The first shell will hold up to 2 electrons Any shell after the 1st shell will hold up to 8 electrons Define Isotopes Atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons, resulting in different atomic masses. Differentiate between C12, C13 and C14 C12 – different weights, number of neutrons C13 - different weights, number of neutrons C14 – used to make fossils, radioactive, unstable Define radioisotope Unstable isotope that emits radiation. Radiation can be very harmful causing the death of cells or very beneficial as evidenced by its use in medicine. Dyes injected into the body, images of the brain, thyroid gland. Octet Rule – states that atoms desire 8 electrons in their outer shell past the first shell and will react together to get that number and achieve a complete outer shell. First shell has 2 electrons. Molecules – chemical reactions that occur between atoms to form compounds and molecules. Chemical structure held together by covalent bonds The chemical structure shows the number of each element forming the molecule. Define Ionic reaction – atoms transfer electrons in order to complete their outer shell. Define Ions – a charged atom that loses the electron carries a positive charge. Atom that gains the electron carries a negative charge Define Covalent reaction – the atoms share electrons to complete their outer shells Compare hydrogen, covalent, ionic and polar bonds. Polar bonds – when the electrons of a covalent bond are shared unequally, the bond is called a polar bond and the resulting molecules are called polar molecules. Ex: Water molecule Hydrogen bond – is a weak bond formed netween a slightly positively charged hydrogen atom and another slightly negatively charged atom Covalent bond – sharing of electrons between atoms may be equal or unequal Name the groups of Inorganic molecules discussed. Small in size Do not contain carbon Usually have Ionic bonds Often associated with non-living things Water, acids, bases, salts, and buffers Some uses of water: Water is liquid at room temperature Good solvent (dissolves many substances) Water is cohesive (has the ability to stick to itself) Water is adhesive (has the ability to stick to other surfaces) Helps regulate body temperature Transport substances -ex. Movement of substances in body fluids Help remove waste products from the body Define Acids, Bases and Salts Acids – substance that breaks down in water and releases hydrogens ions H+ Base – substance that breaks down in water and releases hydroxide ions OH- Salts – substance that breaks down in water and release ions other than hydrogen and hydroxyl ions Define pH Measures the concentration of Hydrogen ions to hydroxyl ions in a solution The pH scahle ranges from 0 to 14 pH 7 is neutral. Water The lower the pH on the pH scale the greater the acidity The higher the pH, the more basic (alkaline) a solution Blood is slightly basic or alkaline at pH of 7.35-7.45 Characteristic Acid Base Behavior in Water Releases H+ Releases OH-- pH Less than 7 Greater than 7 Example HCI (hydrochloric acid) NaOH (sodium hydroxide) What is a buffer? Chemical substance that prevents dramatic changes in pH Bicarbonate Ion (HCO-3) is a common buffer in body fluids Organic Molecules – Always contain carbon and hydrogen Contain covalent bonds Large molecules Associated with living things Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleotides Name some functional groups found in organic molecules? Subunit on an organic molecule that helps determine how it reacts with other chemicals Explain the difference between dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis? Dehydration Synthesis – large molecules (polymers) are made by joining smaller molecules together by the removal of water Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose + Water Hydrolysis – adding of water Name 3 major groups of carbohydrates and list examples for each. Monosaccharides – May contain 3-7 carbon atoms in their structure Most common monosaccharides contain 5 or 6 carbons in their structures Pentoses – 5 Carbon sugars (Ribose, Deoxyribose) Hexoses – 6 Carbon sugars (Glucose, Galactose, Fructose) Disaccharides – Formed when 2 monosaccharides join together by dehydration synthesis Polysaccharides – A chain (polymer) of glucose molecules Name 3 major groups of lipids. list examples and characteristics for each group. Lipids – insoluble in water, will not dissolve, store long-term energy, protect vital organs, and form cell membranes Triglycerides – Glycerol +3 fatty acid produces fat plus 3 water molecules Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated Saturated fatty acid has single bonds between carbon atoms, solid at room temp, mostly come form animal sources. Trans is when its hydrogenated Unsaturated fatty acids has at least one double bond in the carbon chain. Solid at room temp, come from plants. Phospholipids – Critical to cell membranes Made up of glycerol + phosphate + 2 fatty acids Glycerol is polar and water soluble (hydrophilic) Fatty acid tails are nonpolar and water insoluble (hydrophobic) Steroids – Are a unique group of lipids that consist of 4 ring compounds Cholesterol is believed to be the parent steroid in the body and is used to make other steroids Too much cholesterol is implicated in heart disease Estrogen – female sex hormone (Estradiol) Responsible for development of female reproductive system Secondary sex characteristics such as wide hips, breast development, increase in body fat, decrease in body hair and soft voices Testosterone – male sex hormone Responsible for development of male reproductive system Secondary sex characteristics such as narrow hips, lack of breast development, increase in muscle mass, increase in body hair and deep voices What are the characteristics of proteins? Some important functions of proteins in the body: Found in hair, nails, cell membranes, different tissues such as muscle tissues and skin Act as hormones, buffers, enzymes, antibodies, and carrier molecules Made of building blocks called amino acids Each amino acid has the same amino group (H2N) and the same carboxyl group (COOH). They differ from one another by their R Group. Dipeptide – 2 amino acids joined by a peptide bond Polypeptide – chains of 10 or more amino acids are called polypeptides Proteins are polypeptide chains of at least 75 amino acids that provide structure, transport, and movement for the body What are the 4 levels of structure of a protein? Primary structure – amino acid sequence, long chain of amino acids, held by peptide bond Secondary structure – twisting and folding of neighboring amino acids, stabilized by hydrogen bonds. Twisting of primary structure Tertiary structure – three-dimensional shape of polypeptide chain again held in place by hydrogen bonds between adjacent amino acid “R” Groups. Keeps folding to create 3D shape Quaternary – Arrangement of two or more polypeptide chains. Proteins are very complex Denaturation – abnormal body temp and abnormal pH of body fluids can cause a protein to lose its normal shape or configuration Loss in structure results in a loss of function Define Enzyme Proteins can act as enzymes, they serve as catalysts for chemical reactions. Speeds up reaction Define Nucleotides Group of organic molecules made up of a pentose sugar, phosphate group and nitrogen base Nucleic Acids (DNA, RNA) ATP – Adenosine Triphosphate 24. List the nucleotides studied and define each one. 1. DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid is located on the chromosomes; commonly called genes. Genetic Information 2. RNA – Ribonucleic Acid is made from DNA and controls protein synthesis in cells Sugar + phosphate is the backbone of DNA 25. What are the nitrogen bases in DNA? In RNA? 1. DNA – Adenine and Thymine bond together. Guanine and Cytosine bond together 2. RNA – Adenine and Uracil bond together. Guanine and Cytosine bond together 26. Adenosine Triphosphate – ATP 1. energy molecule in cells 2. energy is stored in its phosphate to phosphate bonds 3. when energy is needed the tail phosphate is broken off ATP producing ADP +P 4. Most ATP is made in a part of the cell called the mitochondria through a process called aerobic cellular respiration Chapter 4 – Cells: Organization and Communication Label the parts of the cell as outlined in your textbook. Cell – the smallest living unit. Human life begins as a zygote (fertilized egg) is formed by the union a sperm cell and an egg cell Many cells are formed from the zygote Epithelial cells, muscle cells, nerve cells Cells Communicate with each other by the release of chemical substances and by physical connection to one another Circulating Hormones – travel in blood and act on distant target cells Local Hormones Paracrines – act on neighboring cells Autocrines – act on same cell that secreted them Gap Junstions – Physical connects between cells that allow them to communicate with each other. Connections are made of protein Write a description and function for each part of the cell labeled abovc. All are known as organelles Microvillus – Folded parts of the cell membrane that increase the cells surface area Flagellum – All made of microtubules Centrioles – a pair is called centrosome 9+0 arrangement of microtubules Produce the spindle fibers seen during cell division Cilia – hair like extensions on the cell surface that sweeps back and forth Made of 9+2 arrangement of microtubules Flagella – has a whip like motion Made of 9+2 arrangement of microtubules Cytoplasm (Cytosol) - Describe the cytoplasm of the cell. Area between the cell membrane and nuclear membrane. It contains a cytoskeleton, water and dissolved substances and organelles Organelles are structures in the cell that carry out specific functions Provides shape and support for the cell Is composed of 3 types of protein filaments Microtubules (thickest) Intermediate filaments Microfilaments (thinnest) Nucleus – Largest organelle in the cell, not part of the cytoplasm Control center of the cell It is surrounded by a nuclear envelope which is a double membrane that allows substances to leave the nucleus and enter the cytoplasm through nuclear pores It contains most all of the genetic information (DNA) within a cell Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 Pairs) When the chromosomes are uncoiled during cell division they are called chromatin Nucleolus – A specialized region within the nucleus Involved in the production of ribosomal RNA Ribosomal RNA is used to make ribosomes in the cytoplasm Ribosome – protein synthesis Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – A network of membranes that extend from the plasma membrane to the nuclear membrane – RER contains ribosomes, ribosomes are the site for protein synthesis Plasma Membrane - Lysosome - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - A network of membranes that extend from the plasma membrane to the nuclear membrane – SER lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis. Detoxifies substances Mitochondrion – Site of cellular respiration Double membrane organelle Inner membrane folded into partitions called cristae Provides cell with energy (ATP) Golgi Complex – Consists of a series of flattened membranous sacs. Packaging center within the cell Substances made in the cell are transferred to the Golgi Complex for export Makes vesicles (containers) and lysosomes Secretory and Transfer Vesicles Membrane bound containers Transport substances to different parts of the cytoplasm or to the cell membrane for export Lysosomes Contain powerful enzymes that break down substances within the cell Worn out cell parts, microbes that enter the cell by endocytosis Label the drawing below for cellular respiration: Explain the difference between aerobic cellular respiration and lactic acid fermentation. Process that produces energy within the cell Organized into metabolic pathways Each contains a series of steps Specific enzymes speed up each step of the pathway Aerobic Cellular Respiration Requires oxygen to break down glucose Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP Energy Phase Location Description Main Products Glycolysis Cytoplasm Several-step process by which glucose is split into 2 pyruvic acid 2 pyruvic acids 2 ATP 2 H Removed NAD Transition reaction Mitochondria One CO2 is removed from each pyruvic acid; the resulting molecules bind to CoA, forming 2 acetyl CoA 2 acetyl CoA 2 CO2 2 H Removed by NAD Citric acid cycle Mitochondria Cyclic series of eight chemical reactions by which acetyl CoA is broken down 2 ATP 2 H Removed by FAD 6 H Removed By NAD Electron transportation chain Mitochondria Electrons from NADH and 2 FADH2 are passed from one protein to the next, releasing energy for ATP synthesis. 34 ATP H20 Lactic Acid Fermentation – Fermentation reaction that takes place in the human body Takes place in muscles during strenuous exercise when the oxygen supply in the muscle cells runs low Cells produce small amounts of ATP by fermentation 2ATP made per glucose molecule Lactic acid is a byproduct Label the parts of the plasma (cell) membrane The outer most boundary of the cell Controls the movement of substances in and out the cells Maintains structural integrity of the cell Provide recognition between cells Provide communication between cells Holds cells together to form tissues The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid embedded with protein This phospholipid bilayer separates the fluid outside the cell (extracellular fluid) from the material inside the cell contained in the cytoplasm Carbohydrates are attached to both the proteins and the lipids in the membrane Glycoprotein = sugar + lipid Glycolipid = sugar + lipid Cholesterol is found in the lipid bilayer Explain why the cell membrane is selective permeable. It allows some substances to pass freely while restricting others Types of transport across cell membranes Diffusion – movement of a substance from a higher concentration to a lower concentration across a permeable membrane Gases, O2, CO2 Osmosis – movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a higher concentration to a lower concentration Isotonic Solution – nothing happens Hypotonic Solution – cell swells and may burst Hypertonic Solution – cell shrinks “crenation” Facilitated Diffusion (Transport) – Movement of a substance from a higher concentration to a lower concentration with the help of a membrane protein Water soluble substance need to be assisted or “facilitated” by certain proteins (carrier protein) to cross a cell membrane Active Transport – Movement from a lower concentration to higher concentration with the aid of a carrier protein and energy (ATP) Endocytosis – Substances cross the membrane by invagination (folding) of the membrane. Bacteria, large molecules, fluid droplets A region of the plasma membrane engulfs the substance to be ingested and then pinches off from the rest of the membrane enclosing the substances in a vesicle The vesicle then travels into the cell and though the cytoplasm Phagocytosis – (cell eating) large particles or bacteria Pinocytosis – (cell drinking) droplets of fluid Exocytosis – (secretion) is the process whereby large molecules leave the cell Large molecules are enclosed in membrane bound vesicles that travel to plasma membranes Content is released to the outside Passive transport – movement across the membrane that doesn’t require energy Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion Osmosis Chapter 21: Inheritance, Genetics, and Molecular Biology Cell cycle Repeating process that involves Interphase, Mitosis, Cytokinesis Interphase The phase where the cell prepares to divide Longest part of the cell cycle 3 phases G1 Phase Nucleus and cytoplasm enlarge Chemiclas and organelles are produced Protein synthesis begins S Phase DNA Replication occurs Enzymes cause the double helix to unwind Each old stand makes a new side Theis process is called semi-conservative replication of DNA because you never get a completely new strand of DNA. Each DNA molecule made consists of one old strand and one new strand G2 Protein synthesis continues. If the cell is interfered with during this phase the cell cycle will not continue to mitosis. Mitosis Also known as Karyokinesis is the division of the nucleus Occurs in somatic cells except sperm and egg Results in identical body cells Cell produced have 46 chromosomes Occurs during growth and repair Nuclear division – 4 phases Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis Cytoplasm divides Label the stages in the cell cycle below and describe what is occurring in each phase: Interphase Prophase Chromosomes become visible The nuclear envelope breaks down The centrioles start moving toward opposite poles producing spindle fibers Metaphase The chromosomes line up at the equator(center) of the cell Chromosome=2 chromatids held by the centromere The spindle is fully formed Chromosomes in metaphase form a karyotype if stained, photographed, and arranged by size 22 pairs of autosomes 1 pair of sex chromosomes Anaphase The centromere divides The chromatids (single stranded chromosomes) move toward opposite poles Telophase Chromatids reach the poles The nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes Cytokinesis The division of the cytoplasm This splits the cytoplasm and forms to cells Label the phases of Meiosis I. How are they different from the stages in mitosis? Meiosis involves 2 cell divisions and each has its own Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase Meiosis 1 Produces gametes (egg and sperm cells) Cell produced have the number of chromosomes as the original cell ( 23 Chromosomes) Prophase 1 The nuclear envelope breaks down Centrioles start moving producing spindle fibers The chromosomes become visible and pair off into homologus pairs Synapsis – lining up of chromosomes next to each other Synapsis Homologus chromosomes exchange genes called CROSSING OVER and this exchange makes each cell produced by this process different genetically Metaphase 1 The homologus chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell The spindle is formed Anaphase 1 The homologus pairs of chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell This separation of homologus pairs produces a reduction in chromosome number Telophase 1 The nuclear membrane forms around the chromosomes Cytokinesis occurs to form two haploid cells Meiosis 2 Prophase 2 Chromosomes become visible Metaphase 2 Chromosomes line up on the equator Anaphase 2 Centromere divides and the single stranded chromosomes move toward opposite poles Telophase 2 Chromosomes reach the poles and the nucleus reforms around the chromosomes Cytokinesis occurs splitting the cytoplasm Spermatogenesis Meisosis in males (testes) which produces sperm cells – 4 sperm cells Oogenesis Meisosis in female (ovary) which produces an egg cell and nonfunctional cells called polar bodies – 1 egg cell and 3 polar bodies How is meiosis II similar to mitosis? Chromosomes line up the same way as in mitosis. Chromosomes already have 23 chromosomes. What is protein Synthesis? Where does it occur? 2 Step process Transcription Occurs in the nucleus Translation Occurs in the cytoplasm Controlled by DNA DNA is used to make 3 types of RNA 4.Differentiate between mRNA, tRNA, and ribosomal rRNA. DNA is used to make 3 types of RNA rRNA - Ribosomal is stored in the nucleus and used to make ribosomes mRNA - Messenger is made when needed and carries information in the form of a code from the nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm tRNA - Transfer is in the cytoplasm and it carries amino acids to the ribosome and line them up in the right order to make the protein Differentiate between triplet, codon and anticodon. Transcription DNA unwinds and mRNA is made complementary to the DNA Triplet 3 Nitrogen bases is DNA - ATGC Codon 3 Nitrogen bases in mRNA – AUGC Translation Occurs in the cytoplasm at the ribosome When mRNA reaches the ribosome, the 2 subunits of the ribosome attach together so translation can occur Anticodon Opposite of the Codon Chapter 5 – Tissues List the major tissue types in the body? Epithelial Tissue Covers the body surfaces, cavities and organs Also forms glands in the body Connective Tissue Bind structures together Support and protect other tissues This is the most diverse tissue type and the most widely spread tissue type Contain fewer cells than epithelial tissues Cells are surrounded by a substance called matrix The matrix may contain collagen, elastin, or reticular fibers Muscular Tissue Responsible for movement Nervous Tissue Carry electrical signals and connect all body parts to the brain and spinal cord Label the epithelial tissues below: connect the tissue with it’s location in the body. Write a location for each tissue below from your notes taken while watching the chapter 5 video. Pseudostratified columnar One layer of columnar cells but looks like more than one layer Contains goblet cells and cilia Located in the respiratory tract (Trachea) Simple cuboidal One layer of cube-shaped cells Located in linings of kidney tubule and duct of pancreas Functions in absorption and secretion Simple columnar One layer of tall, slender cells (microvilli on surface not cilia) Located in lining of digestive and respiratory tract Functions in absorption and secretion Stratified squamous Several layers of flat cells Located in the mouth, vagina and anus Keratinized form found in the skin (Barrier) Stratified cuboidal Usually two layers of cube shaped cells Located in ducts of mammary glands, sweat glands, and salivary glands Functions in protection Simple squamous One layer of flattened cells Located in air sacs of lungs and line blood capillaries Allows exchange of nutrients, gases, and wastes Transitional Cells that change shape Found in the wall of the urinary bladder When the bladder is full the cells flatten Stratified columnar Several layers of tall, slender cells Rare, located in urethra (tube that transports urine) Mammary ducts, Epididymus Functions in protection and secretion Shape Number of Layers Example Locations Functions Squamous (flat,scale-like cells) Simple (single layer) Lining of heart and blood vessels, air sacs of lungs Allows passage of materials by diffusion Stratified (more than one layer) Linings of mouth, esophagus, and vagina; outer layer of skin Protects underlying areas Cuboidal (cube-shaped cells) Simple Kidney tubules, secretory portion of glands and their ducts Secretes; absorbs Stratified Ducts of sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands Protects underlying areas Columnar Simple Most digestive tract (stomach to anus), air tubes of lungs (bronchi), excretory ducts of some glands, uterus Absorbs; secretes mucus, enzymes, and other substances Stratified Rare; urethra, junction of esophagus and stomach Protects underlying areas, secretes List and describe 3 types of junctions between cells. Tight junctions Zipper like connection Adhesion Junctions (Desmosome) Protein filaments connect cells Gap Junction Protein that create channels between the cells Write a location for each connective tissue below: Areolar Loose Widely distributed and holds the skin on and binds organs together Wraps and cushions organs Adipose Fat Found under the skin, around kidneys and heart Functions in energy storage and insulation, cushion for organs Reticular Dense connective Contains fibroblast cells and collagen fibers Location Tendon – connects muscle to bone Ligament – connects bones together Cartilage Contains cells called chondrocytes Lack blood vessels (avascular) and nerves Healing slower than bone and other connective tissues Bone Contains cells called osteocytes Most rigid connective tissue (hardest) Protects and supports body parts Works with muscle to provide movement Stores calcium and phosphorus Produces blood cells Tree trunk like Blood Contains a liquid matrix called plasma and formed elements Plasma- mostly water and also contains nutrients, gases, wastes, salts, and hormones Formed elements – cells and cell fragments White blood cells Help fight infection Red blood cells Transport O2 to cells Platelets Help with clotting Elastic Contains fibroblast cells Collagen and elastic fibers Location Wall of large arteries Aorta Name 3 types of cartilage and give a location for each. Hyaline White cartilage Most abundant and provides support and flexibility The matrix contains tiny collagen fibers that are not visible Found in the embryonic skeleton, nose etc Elastic Matrix contains elastic fibers that help maintain shape Located in the auricle of the ear Fibrocartilage Matrix contains large collagen fibers Resistant to stretch Located in the intervertebral disc between vertebra Name 3 types of muscular tissue and tell how each is unique. Give a location for each in the body. Provides movement Skeletal Striated and voluntary Attached to the skeleton – chest muscle example Responsible for voluntary movement Multi-nucleated Cardiac Striated and involuntary Branched fibers Found in wall of heart – exclusive to heart Smooth (Visceral) Non-striated and involuntary Spindle shaped cells Found in walls of hollow internal structures such as the intestines and blood vessels Type Description Example Locations Functions Skeletal Long, cylindrical cells; multiple nuclei per cell; obvious striations Muscles attached to bones Provides voluntary movement Cardiac Branching, striated cells; one nucleus; specialized junctions between cells Wall of heart Contracts and propels blood through the circulatory system Smooth Cells taper at each end; single nucleus; arranged in sheets; no striations Walls of digestive system, blood vessels, and tubules of urinary system Propels substances or objects through internal passageways Name the cell types in blood and give a function for each. Formed elements – cells and cell fragments White blood cells Help fight infection Red blood cells Transport O2 to cells Platelets Help with clotting Describe nervous tissue (include the parts of the neuron and a definition for neuroglia in your description). Neurons Nerve cells that generate impulses that are conducted to other neurons, muscle cells, or glands Parts of neuron Dendrites Nerve processes that carry electrical signals to the cell body Cell body Contains the nucleus and cytoplasm Axon Nerve process that carry electrical signals away from the cell body Synaptic knobs Neuroglia Support cells in nervous tissue Chapter 6: The Skeletomuscular System label the diagram of bone tissue below: Describe the difference between compact and spongy bone. Compact Bone Dense bone tissue made of structural units called osteons. Each osteon consists of osteocytes arranged in layers called lamella around a central canal Spongy Bone Hollow bone tissue; the makeup is a latticework of plates of bone called trabeculae Using your textbook: Label the parts of the long bone below: Write a description for each part. Epiphysis – Round ends of a bone, red marrow found in spongy bone in round ends Diaphysis – shaft, long part of the bone between the rounded ends Periosteum – outer covering of a bone Medullary Cavity – bone marrow cavity; located in the shaft, contains yellow marrow Articulate Cartilage – cartilage that cover ends of a bone Epiphyseal Plate – growth plate; allows the bone to grow in length Label the skeleton below: How many bones does it contain? 206 Bones Axial skeleton – 80 bones Skull, Ribcage, Sternum, Spinal Column Appendicular skeleton – 126 bones The skull has 2 main parts Cranium – 8; houses the brain Face – 14; support sensory structures and provide places for muscle to attach Give a location for the bones and parts of bones listed below: Frontal – 1; forms the anterior portion of the cranium; commonly called forehead Parietals – 2; forms the top portion of the cranium Occipital – 1; forms the posterior portion of the cranium Foramen magnum – large opening in the occipital bone that allows the brainstem and spinal cord to connect Occipital condyle – oval shape structure on each side of the foramen magnum; rest on the 1st vertebra in the neck Temporal bones – 2; forms part of the side of the cranium; contains ear opening External auditory meatus Sphenoid – butterfly shaped bone in the cranium Ethmoid – best hidden bone of the cranium; most of it is within the nasal cavity; t shaped Maxilla – 2; upper jaw; anterior part of the roof of the mouth Palatines – 2; posterior part of the roof of the mouth, palate Mandible – 1; lower jaw, only movable bone in the face Zygomatic bones – 2; cheek bones Lacrimals – 2; in the eye orbit, contains opening for tears Nasal bones – 2; forms in the bridge of the nose Vomer – 2; forms the inferior part of the nasal septum Inferior nasal conchae – 2; located in the nasal cavity; help filter inhaled air Name the different groups of vertebrae that make up the vertebral column. How many bones are in each group? Total of 26 Vertebrae Cervical – 7; located in the neck Atlas – 1st cervical vertebra Axis – 2nd cervical vertebrae Thoracic – 12; located behind the chest cavity Lunbar – 5; lower back Sacrum – 1; Fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae, stabilizes the pelvis Coccyx – 1; Fusion of 4 vertebrae; tailbone Vertebrae – the bones of the vertebral column Intervertebral disks-fibro – cartilage pads between the vertebra, shock absorbers Slipped disk – is actually a disk that bulges inward and can press against the spinal cord Name the bones in the pelvic girdle. Pelvic girdle – composed of the pubic bone; coxal Each coxal bone is made of 3 bones Ilium – upper flared bone at the top of the pelvis Ishium – bone we sit on Pubis – bone at he bottom; front side Acetabulum – large socket the femur fits into Pubic Symphysis – cartilage pad between the pubic bones Name the bones in the upper limb. Humerus – long bone in the upper arm Radius – lateral bone in the forearm Ulna – medial bone in the forearm Carpals – 8; bones in the wrist Metacarparls – 5; bones in the middle of the hand Phalanges – 14; bones in the fingers Name the bones in the pectoral girdle. Pectoral Girdle – Shoulder; contains 2 bones Clavicle – collar bone Scapula – shoulder blade Name the bones in the lower limb. Femur – Thigh; largest and strongest bone in the body Patella – Kneecap; Bone forms after birth as movement rubs the tendon over knee joint Tibia – Lower leg; Strong, weight supporting bone of the lower leg Fibula – Lower leg; Weak, non-weight bearing bone knitted to the tibia Tarsals – 7; Ankle Bones; The talus, supports the entire weight of the body with each step Calcaneus – heel bone; largest tarsal Talus – 2nd largest tarsal; top of the ankle Metatarsals – 5; Can easily snap under pressure from poorly fitted athletic shoes Phalanges – 14; The phalanx (great toe) is used in balance during walking Name the types of ribs in the ribcage: How many does each group contain? What is the sternum? Sternum – commonly called the breast bone Manubrium – upper part Body – middle part Xiphoid process – bottom part True ribs – rib pairs 1-7; attached to the sternum False Ribs – rib pairs 8-10; attached to the cartilage of the 7th rib Floating Ribs – rib pairs 11, 12; not attached Protect the heart and lungs; 12 pairs Differentiate between synarthrocic, amphiarthrocic and diarthrocic joints. Synarthrocic – Immovable joint Suture – joint between the skull bones Tooth socket – a cone shaped peg fits into a socket Amphiarthrotic – Slightly movable Fibrocartilage pad between bones Intervertebral disks Diarthrocic – Freely movable Synovial – fluid secreted by the inner membrane of the synovial joint, similar in viscosity to egg white Bursae – a fluid-silled sac between the bones or tendons of a joint and the skin, positioned to reduce friction Meniscus – cartilage pad within joints tha cushion bones and assist in “fit” Name the types of diarthrocic joints studied and give an example of the location in the body. 3 types Ball and socket – hip and shoulder A rounded end of one bone fits into a cup-like structure on another bone, moving arms and legs in a circle; circumduction Hinge – knee Angular movement; bones move in one plane like the hinge of a door Pivot – neck Rotation; one bone rotates on another; atlas rotates on axis Name the types of movements diarthrocic joints allow us to make. Flexion – motion that decrease the angle between the bones of the joint, bringing the bones closer together Extension – motion that increases the angle between the bones of the joint Dorsi-flexion – movement that pulls the toes back toward the body Plantar-flexion – raising the heel off the floor Rotation – movement of a body part around its own axis Circumduction – movement of a body part in a wide circle so that the motion describes a cone Adduction – movement of a body part toward the body midline Abduction – movement of a body part away from the body midline How many skeletal muscles are in the body? 640 Skeletal muscles in the body Movement of body parts Maintains posture Muscle contraction generate heat which helps regulate body temperature Allows us to change our facial expressions; speak Origin – part of the muscle attached to a stationary bone Insertion – part of the muscle attached to a movable bone Name some ways skeletal muscles are named. Direction of muscle fibers Size of muscle Shape of muscle Location of muscle Number of heads of origin Origin and insertion Action of the muscle A muscle is made up of bundles of muscles cells : fibers, each bundle is called a fascicle Epimysium – connective tissue covering of a muscle Perimysium – connective tissue covering of fascicle Endomysium – connective tissue covering of each muscle cell, fiber Myofibril – is a rod like structure within a muscle cell, fiber Contain striations produced by alternating thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments Sarcomere – is a unit on a myofibril The ends of each sarcomere are marked by dark protein bands called Z lines (disc) Actin and myosin proteins alternate within the sarcomere Actin – is attached to the z-line (disc) Myosin – filaments lie in the middle of the sarcomere, they are not attached directly to the z-line Myosin attaches to actin and pulls it toward the center of the sarcomere producing muscle contraction Describe neuromuscular junction 4 steps ACh is released from the end of neuron Synaptic cleft (space), Acetylcholine ACh binds to receptors on the muscle cell membrane, eventually stimulating the release of calcium inside the muscle cell. A contraction cycle is begun in the cell, electrical signal The ACh in the synapse is removed by the enzymes, ending its effects on the cell Continued Contraction is triggered when a nerve impulse travels down a motor neuron until it reaches the neuromuscular junction The motor neuron releases acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft. Acetylcholine binds to receptors on the muscle membrane The binding of acetylcholine to the muscle membrane causes Ions to flow across the membrane generating an impulse Structures called T- tubules carry the impulse inside the muscle cell to the sarcoplasmic reticulum which release Ca++ When Ca ++ is free inside a muscle cell, myosin attaches to actin and pulls it producing muscle contraction Motor Unit Is a motor neuron and the muscle fibers it stimulates It makes a peak on a graph, bell curve ATP is needed for muscle contraction Chapter 7 : Nervous system Define the functions of the nervous system. Controls body functions Processes information Sends messages from one part of the body to another 2 Major parts of the nervous system. Central nervous system (CNS) – brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves PNS brings sensory information into the CNS and carry response back to muscles, glands etc PNS is divided into autonomic division and somatic division Somatic Division – controls skeletal muscles in the body Autonomic Division – controls cardiac muscle, visceral muscle and glands Autonomic division is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions Sympathetic Division – controls the body in a crisis Parasympathetic Division – controls normal body functions (homeostasis) Define Peripheral nervous system Differentiate between the somatic and autonomic divisions. Label the neuron below: Be able to give a definition for each part. Neurons – nerve cells that carry electrical impulses Dendrites – extensions that bring impulses to the cell body Cell body – contain the nucleus and cytoplasm Axon – extensions that carry impulses away from the cell body (myelinated and unmyelinated) Synaptic knob – sac at the end of the neuron that holds the neurotransmitter Myelin – fatty sheath or covering around an axon It may be produced by schwann cells or oligodendrocytes Nodes of Ranvier – breaks in the myelin sheath Myelinated axons carry impulses faster than non-myelinated axons Neuroglial cells – Support cells in nervous tissue They support and nourish the neurons Ex: microglia, astrocytes and oligodentrocytes, schwann cell, ependymal cell, satellite cell Label the 3 Neuron types: The impulse travels down the unmyleniated axon differently from a myelinated axon On a myelinated axon the impulse skips from one node of ranvier to the next. (fastest way to travel) not susceptible to the flow of ions Motor Neuron – Efferent neurons; take nerve impulses away from the CNS to the effector, muscle fiber or gland Interneuron – carry sensory impulses within the central nervous system, brain and spinal cord Sensory Neuron - Afferent neurons; take nerve impulses from a sensory receptor to the CNS Name 3 Types of membrane channels An impulse (action potential) passes along the membrane of an axon because of the flow of Ions across the membrane Voltage-gated channel – channels open and close in response to voltage changes on the membrane Ligand-gated Na+ channel – channels that open and close in response to the proper chemical n=binding to the membrane Mechanically regulated channel – channels open in response to physical distortion of the membrane Define synapse Junction between nerve fibers Presynaptic neuron – bring impulse to the synapse Synaptic cleft – space between the presynaptic and post synaptic neuron Postsynaptic neuron – carries impulse away from the synapse Describe stages of nerve impulse conduction across a synapse. Nerve impulses traveling along an axon reach a synaptic knob Ca2+ enters the synaptic knob causing the release of neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters (acetylcholine or Norepinephrine) diffuse across the cleft and bind with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane Sodium Ions flow across the postsynaptic membrane generating an Impulse Label the diagram below: Define cranial meninges Cranial meninges – membranes around the brain Dura Mater – outer layer; toughest layer Arachnoid Mater – middle layer Pia Mater – inner layer Gyri – coils or bumps in brain tissue that is a result of rapid development Sulci – shallow grooves in the brain tissue Name major parts of the brain. Cerebrum – largest part of brain; divided into the left and right hemispheres Gray matter – outer layer of tissue; outside White matter – inner layer of tissue; inside, and fatty, myelinated Divided into 4 lobes; each lobe is named for the bone that covers it Diencephalon – Thalamus – Hypothalamus – Cerebellum – cauliflower like Contain branches called arbor vitae Coordinates voluntary muscular movements Help maintain posture and balance Brainstem – made up of three parts Midbrain – Pons – Medulla – 4 ventricles (chambers) in the brain 2 lateral ventricles 3rd ventricle 4th ventricle Ventricles contain blood vessels called choroid plexus that secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) CSF – tissue fluid that bathe the brain and spinal cord Corpus Callosum – a band of white tissue that connects the cerebral hemispheres together Allow communication between the lobes Label the diagram below: Name the 4 lobes of the brain. In general, what is the function of each lobe? Frontal – primary motor area; controls muscular movements and logical thinking Broca’s area – controls muscles that allow us to speak Parietal – primary somasensory and taste area Receives sensation from the skin and organs Allows touch, pressure, pain and changes in temperature etc Occipital – primary visual area allows sight Visual association area that allows you to associate things you are looking at with things seen in the past Temporal – primary auditory area Controls smell and sensory speech area Wernicke’s area allows us to recognize words written and spoken words - reading Name the parts of the brain that make up the diencephalon. Thalamus – switchboard; sends signals from the brain stem and cerebellum into appropriate areas of the cerebrum Hypothalamus – one of the main areas of homeostasis for the body it controls the endocrine system, heart rate, water balance, thirst, and digestion Name the parts of the brain that make-up the brain stem. Midbrain – helps coordinate muscular movement Pons – bridge; contains centers the help regulate breathing Medulla – contains important centers that control heart rate and breathing Cardiac control center – controls heart rate Respiratory control center – controls breathing How many ventricles does the brain contain? It contains 4 Ventricles What is the function of the reticular formation? A network of nuclei and fibers that extend throughout the brainstem It arouses the brain and keeps it awake Which part of the brain is commonly called the emotional brain? Limbic System Commonly called the emotional brain Controls emotions like pleasure, affection, and anger Name some functions of the spinal cord. Connected to the brain stem Protected by vertebra, spinal meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and adipose tissue – white matter is outside, gray matter is inside Serves as a means of communication between the brain and much of the body Contains 31 pairs of spinal nerves Define gray matter, white matter and central canal. Gray matter – Non-myelinated fibers; forms an H configuration inside the spinal cord Butterfly shaped Carry signals from side to side; integrated signals White matter – myelinated fibers; forms the outermost part of the cord carry signals up and down; wider area Central canal; opening in the center of the spinal cord that is filled with cerebrospinal fluid Define dorsal root and ventral root. Spinal Nerves – take impulses to and from the spinal cord Dorsal root – Conduct impulses toward the spinal cord Ventral root – Conduct impulses away from the spinal cord Name the 12 cranial nerves and write a function for each. Cranial nerves – take impulses to and from the brain, sense organs Olfactory – 1; controls smell Optic – 2; controls sight Oculomotor – 3; moves the eyeballs Trochlear – 4; moves the eyeballs Trigeminal – 5; controls chewing Abducens – 6; moves the eyeballs Facial – 7; control facial expressions and taste on the anterior part of the tongue Vestibulocochlear – 8; controls our hearing and balance Glossopharyngeal – 9; controls swallowing and taste on the posterior part of the tongue Vagus – 10; controls the internal organs Accessory – 11; controls movements of head and shoulders Hypoglossal – 12; controls movement of tongue during speech and swallowing Compare the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic division – release norepinephrine Increases breathing Increase heart rate Inhibits digestion Inhibits salivation Inhibits urination Parasympathetic division – release acetylcholine Slows breathing Slows heart rate Stimulates digestion Stimulates salivation Stimulates urination Chapter 8 : The Special Senses Name the 5 special senses. Taste – gustation Smell – olfaction Sight Equilibrium – balance Hearing Name the 2 that are chemical senses. Taste and Smell Label the drawing below: Define gustation. Begins in the mouth when food is dissolved by enzymes in slaiva Roughly 10K taste buds, most of which are on the tongue Located in small bumps called Papillae Different areas of the tongue contain different taste buds Tip of the tongue – taste buds for sweet foods Anterior sides = taste buds for salty foods are near the tip of the tongue Posterior sides – taste buds for sour foods Back of tongue – taste buds for bitter things When stimulated, taste bud receptor cells send information on to the brain, where the overall taste of the food we are eating is determined Explain olfaction. Sense of smell Olfactory receptors – cells containing the olfactory hairs Olfactory hairs – respond to odors The olfactory receptors respond to odor molecules Impulses generated are sent by the axons from the olfactory receptors to the olfactory bulbs in the brain allowing the sense of smell Olfactory glands – glands in nasal mucosa that produce mucus Support cells Olfactory cells are located in the nasal mucosa Write a function for each for each of these: olfactory receptor, olfactory bulb - sense types of smells, olfactory gland. Label the drawing below: Fibrous layer Outer coat of the eyeball Divided into the sclera in the back of the eye and the cornea in the front of the eye Describe the two areas in which the fibrous layer is divided. Sclera – The white of the eye It is a tough layer that gives the eyeball its shape Protects the inner parts of the eye Cornea – transparent covering over the front of the eyeball Admits and refracts light What does the vascular layer contain? Middle layer of the eyeball It is composed of the choroid, ciliary body and iris Choroid – lines the internal surface of the sclera; contains blood vessels and absorbs light Iris – colored part of the eye; regulates amount of light that enters the eyeball Pupil – opening in the iris Ciliary body – secretes aqueous humor and moves the lens Define lens Oval shaped structure made of protein Attached to ciliary body It moves to reflect light to the retina Changing of the Len’s shape to view nearby objects is called accomodation What does the nervous layer of the eye contain? Retina – contains severaly layers of neurons Ganglionic cells – Bipolar cells – Photoreceptors - Rods – black and white vision in dim light Contain the photo pigment rhodopsin Cones – work in bright light (color vision and sharpness) 3 types of cones – red, blue, and green, allow us to see color A reduced number or lack of one of the types of cones results in color blindeness Macula lutea – area of the retina that has a high concentration of cones What is located in the anterior cavity? Contains a watery fluid called aqueous humor Vitreous is vitreous humor and where is it located? Vitreous chamber – contains a gel-like fluid that holds the retina in place Explain the nearsighted eye, farsighted eye and astigmatism eye. Near sighted eye – Myopia Close objects seen clearly Distant objects out of focus Long eyeball cause image to focus in front of retina Corrected Concave lens – causes light rays to diverge so that the image focuses on the retina Farsighted eye – Distant objects seen clearly Close objects out of focus Short eyeball causes image to focus behind retina Corrected Convex lens – causes light rays to converge so that the image focuses on the retina Astigmatism – Image blurred Irregular curvature of cornea or lens causes light rays to focus unevenly Corrected Uneven lens – focuses entire image on retina Differentiate between rods and cones. Explain the physiology of sight. Optic nerve – enters the back of the eyeball, the area where it enters is the blind spot Light enters the eye. Muscles in the iris adjust the size of the pupil to let in more or less light. The photoreceptors (rods and cones) at the very back of the eye react to incoming light. Changes in the excitability of photoreceptors are passed along to other neurons in the retina. Photoreceptors pass the light impulse on to interneurons which communicate with ganglion cells I the retina. Ganglion cells send visual input from the retina to the brain via the optic nerve. Label the diagram below: What are the 3 functional parts of the ear? Outer Ear – receiver Middle Ear – amplifier Inner Ear - transmitter Name the 3 parts of the outer ear. Pinna – external flap that directs sound waves to tympanic membrane Auditory Canal – lined with hairs; contains glands that secrete wax Tympanic Membrane – ear drum, vibrates in response to sound waves pushing the auditory ossicles The bones of the middle ear are called: Auditory ossicles – bones of middle ear that transfer sound waves to the inner ear Malleus – Incus – Stapes – Eustachian (Auditory) tube – connects middle ear to nasopharynx and equalizes pressure on both sides of the ear drum Semicircular canals, ampulla, vestibule and cochlea are part of the ______ Inner ear Semicircular canals – contain ducts filled with fluid Ampulla – swelling at the base of the semicircular canals that contain fluid and a receptor called crista ampullaris Contains receptor for rotational (dynamic) equilibrium called the crista ampullaris When the head rotates the movement of fluid moves the cupula (jelly like substance) which stimulate hair cells that produce an impulse that is sent to the brain Vestibule – contains utricle, saccule and a receptor called macula Chamber between that ampullae and cochlea Contains 2 sacs called the utricle and saccule Define oval and round window pertaining to the inner ear. Oval window – membranous structure the auditory ossicles press against Round window – membranous structure that equalizes pressure in the inner ear What is the function of the Vestibularcochlea nerve? Conducts impulses to the brain Auditory Nerve Vestibular branch – balance Cochlear branch - hearing Define macula. Is a receptor for gravitational (static) equilibrium found in both the utricle and saccule Contains hair cells that are covered by a membrane with calcium carbonate crystals When the head bends movement stimulates the hair cells which generate an impulse The 3 canals in the cochlea. Cochlea – looks like a snail, contain the receptor for hearing Contains 3 canals Vestibular canal – upper canal, contains fluid Cochlear canal – middle canal, contains fluid and the receptor for hearing called the organ of corti Tympanic canal – lower canal, contains fluid Define organ of corti. Receptor for hearing Located in the cochlear duct Contains hair cells and supporting cells Tectorial membrane – gelatinous membrane above the hair cells Basilar membrane – membrane below the organ of corti that moves when fluid flows through the tympanic canal Explain the physiology of hearing in four steps. Sound waves travel through the auditory canal to the tympanic membrane causing it to vibrate Vibrations move the auditory ossicles Auditory ossicles press against the oval window which causes pressure waves to form in the fluid of the cochlea Movement of fluid in the cochlea stimulate hair cells that generate an impulse that moves to the brain so we can hear Chapter 9: Immunity and the Lymphatic System What is your body’s first line of defense? Second line of defense? Specific defense? Skin and mucus membranes Antimicrobial sunstances Antibody mediate immunity Cell mediate immunity Define the integumentary system Composed of the skin an the structures in it Protect the body from invasion by micro-organisms Prevents water loss Regulates body temp Synthesizes vitamin D Allow sensations, touch, pressure, pain Involved in the removal of waste, excretion Name the 3 layers of skin. Epdermis – thin outer layer, composed of stratified squamous epithelial cells Consists of several layers of epithelial cells No blood vessels Deepest layer contains cells undergoing mitosis Outer surface contains dead keratinized cells Dermis – thick middle layer that contains most of the structures in the skin, connective tissues Hypodermis – innermost layer, connective tissues, mostly fat or adipose tissues Describe what keratin and melanin do for the skin. Keratin – protects the skin from invasion Melanin – melanocytes produce melanin that protects the skin from u.v. light How is skin color determined? It is determined by melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin Melanin – yellow to brown to black in color Carotene – is a yellowish orange color Hemoglobin – is pink in color In tanning, the melanocytes respond to the UV radiation by increasing the production of melanin Describe albino and vitiligo. Albino – a person that lacks melanin in the skin Vitiligo – the melanocytes disappear from areas of the skin leaving white patches Define dermis Primarily connective tissue Contains blood vessels Collagen and elastic fibers are found in the lower layer, allow stretching Dermal papillae – nipple-like projections that produces the prints on skin, fingerprints Stretch marks appear when the tissues tears What is an example of dermal papillae? Fingerprints Describe the 6 parts of hair. Blood vessels, melanocyte, bulb, dermal root sheath, hair follicle, hair shaft Dead keratinized cells Primary function is protection Hair shaft extends above scalp Hair root located in a hair follicle within dermis Describe sebaceous (oil) glands. Open into a hair follicle Found all over the body except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet Produces an oily secretion called sebum What are the 2 types of sweat glands and what are their functions? Eccrine sweat glands – found all over the body; produce sweat that helps regulate body temperature Apocrine sweat – found in the arm pits and groin areas; produce sweat that makes a musky odor Describe the 2 types of modified sweat glands. Ceruminous (wax) glands – found in the external ear canal, produce wax Mammary glands – found in breast tissue, produce milk What are the four parts of the nail? Dead cells designed to protect the tips of our toes and fingers Cuticle – narrow band of epidermis that extends from the nail wall Lunula – whitish moon shaped area at the base of the nail body Nail body – transparent nail body (plate) Nail bed – attaches nail to the distal finger Define hypodermis. A layer of loose connective (adipose and areolar) tissue beneath the dermis and epidermis connecting it to other tissues, subcutaneous layer Label the diagram below: What is the lymphatic system composed of and what are the major functions? The lymphatic system composed of lymph, lymphatic vessels, and lymphatic organs and tissues The major functions of the lymphatic system are to produce, transport and stor cells that fight infection Similar to circulatory system because it is made of a series of vessels that extend through the body No central pump, flow of fluid is dependent upon skeletal muscle contraction Lymphatic vessels, similar to veins Contain valves Skeletal muscle contraction moves lymph Name the five lymphatic organs. Tonsils – contain lymphocytes Spleen – filters blood Thymus gland – site of T cell maturation Lymph nodes – filter lymph Peyer’s patches – destroy bacteria in the wall of the intestines Name 3 types of tonsils. Palatine tonsils Adenoids Lingual tonsil Describe Lymphatic process Blood pressure forces the fluid portion of the blood out at the capillaries, bathing the tissues The excess fluid is then forced into the lymphatic capillaries from the tissues by fluid pressure and osmotic pressure The fluid already in the lymphatic vessel opposes the mass movement of tissue fluid into the lymphatic system, helping to keep the tissues moist. Lymph floes without being pumped, and valves prevent backflow Describe interferons. Proteins produced by body cells infected with a virus that protect non-infected cells to keep them virus free How do the complement proteins work? Inactive proteins in the blood that help protect the body when activated Upon activation complement proteins clump together forming a membrane attack complex that attaches to bacteria causing it to burst Define natural killer cells and give an example. Type of lymphocyte, it has the ability to kill abnormal cells such as cancer cells and virus infected cells by releasing granules that contain perforin Define inflammation and give its 4 symptoms. Inflammation occurs when cells are damaged. It causes these symptoms: Redness – increase in blood flow Pain – reduces movement to allow healing Heat – increase in metabolic rate of cells to speed up healing Swelling – fluid containing chemicals that assist in healing seep into the area Define phagocytosis. Phagocytosis – the ingestion of microbes by cells called phagocytes Define specific defense and list the two types. The ability of the body to defend itself against disease Antibody mediated immunity – directed against extracellular pathogens, B cells Cell mediated immunity – directed against intracellular pathogens, some cancer cells, and tissue transplants, mature in thymus, T Cells Define cytokines. any of a number of substances, such as interferon, interleukin, and growth factors, which are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have an effect on other cells. Describe antibody mediated immunity. An antigen such as a microbe binds to receptor on B cell Chemicals called cytokines are released by helper T cells to help activate B cells Activated B cells clone into plasma cells and memory cells Plasma cells release antibodies into the blood that bind to the antigen, foreign substance Memory cells are left for future responses When the immune response is over, left over plasma cells go through apoptosis and are destroyed How are antibodies made? They are made by plasma cells for specific antigens 5 classes of antibodies, immunoglobulins Class Presence IgG Main antibody type in circulation; bind directly to antigen IgM Released first in an immune response; main antibody in infants; largest antibody in size IgA Main antibody type in secretions such as saliva and milk IgD Antibody type found on surface of immature B cells IgE Antibody type found as antigen receptors on basophils in blood and on mast cells in tissues; responsible for allergic reactions Which three cells are involved in cell mediated immunity? This type of immunity involves helper, Killer (cytotoxic) and memory T cells. Activation of helper T cell requires an antigen presenting cell (APC) Activated helper T cell releases chemical called cytokines. Activation of killer T begins with an infected body cell presenting the antigen. release of cytokines by helper T cells help stimulate inactive killer T cell activated cytotoxic T cells clone producing many cytotoxic (killer) T cells & memory T cells killer T cells goes out into the body and locate the viral infected cells and attack them Memory T cells are left behind in the body for future responses List the functions of each of the following cells: B Cells, plasma cells, memory cells, T cells, cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells, and memory T cells. Cell Function B Cells Produce plasma cells and memory B cells Plasma Cells Produce specific antibodies Memory Cells Ready to produce antibodies in the future T cells Regulate immune response; produce cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells Cytotoxic T cells Kills virus-infected cells and cancer cells Helper T cells Regulate immunity; release cytokines Memory T cells Ready to kill in the future Chapter 13: The Cardiovascular System What is the cardiovascular system composed of? The cardiovascular system transports blood carrying nutrients, gases, and waste. Heart – it’s a muscular pump that pumps blood Blood Blood Vessels – transport blood throughout the body Vena Cava – carry deoxygenated blood Pulmonary arteries – Pulmonary veins – Aorta – What is the function of arteries? Distribute oxygen rich blood to your body, thickest walls of all blood, elastic tissue, carry blood away from the heart What is the function of veins? Carry oxygen poor blood to your heart, thinner walls than arteries, contain valves for one way flow Where is the site of exchange between the blood and the bodies tissues? Capillaries – thinnest walls of all blood vessels, has walls that are on cell thick Most materials simply diffuse across the capillary wall into the cells by the force of both blood pressure and osmotic pressure Has the greatest total cross-sectional area, more capillaries in the body than arteries or veins. Label the parts of the heart below: Where is the heart located? The heart is located in the Thorax, chest Pericardium – sac around the heart Pericardial cavity – filled with fluid that cushions the heart What are the three layers of the heart wall? Epicardium – outer layer Myocardium – thick middle layer made of cardiac muscle Endocardium – innermost layer, lining Where does the right side of the heart pump the blood? Right side pumps blood to the lungs Contains blood low in oxygen, deoxygenated Where does the left side of the heart pump the blood? Left side pumps blood to the body Contains blood rich in oxygen Name the four chambers of the heart. Atria – upper chambers, Left Atrium Right Atrium Ventricles – lower chambers Left Ventricles Right Ventricles Name the four heart valves. 2 Atrioventricular, AV Valves 2 Semilunar Valves Closing of heart valves produce lub-dup heart sound What is the function of the AV valves and semilunar valves? AV Valves separate the atria from ventricles Both AV valves contain strings called chordae tendinae that keep the valve from turning inside out Tricuspid valve – separate right atrium from the right ventricle, 3 flaps Bicuspid valve – separate left atrium from the left ventricle, 2 flaps Semilunar valves – separate the ventricles from the attached blood vessels Keep blood from flowing backwards Pulmonary semilunar valve – lead into the pulmonary artery Aortic semilunar valve – lead into the aorta Heart function – Diastole – relaxation period, at the beginning of the cycle, the heart is completely relaxed, with blood entering both the left and right atria Atrial systole – as the heartbeat begins, the atria contract. This forces blood from the atria into the ventricles Ventricular systole – soon after atrial systole, ventricular systole occurs. The atria relax during ventricular systole. The ventricles remain contracted for a measurable time and then the entire heart returns to diastole. Interatrial septum – divide the left and right atrium Interventricular septum – divide the ventricles What is the function of the pulmonary circuit? Blood flow from the right side of the heart to the lungs and back to the left side of the heart Define systemic circuit. Blood flow from the left side of the heart to the body and back to the right side of the heart Explain how the electrical current is generated in the heart and how it passes through the heart to cause contraction. Sinoatrial node – SA, the contraction impulse begins in the SA node Atrioventricular node – AV, the contraction passes in a wavelike fashion through the atria and is collected at the AV node. Atrioventricular bundle – AV, from the AV node, the impulse is sent down the AV bundle Right and left bundle branches – the impulse is the passed to the left and right bundle branches Purkinje fibers – finally the impulse passes through the Purkinje fibers, and then on to the cells of the ventricles How is your heartbeat regulated? A combination of nervous and endocrine signals controls the strength and rate of contraction of the heart Explain what the waves indicate on an ECG/EKG. A recording of the electrical signals across the myocardium, voltage changes Electrocardio graph – machine that will pick up electrical signals to cause chambers to contract Abnormal patterns can indicate heart problems Electrocardiogram – P wave – atrial depolarization and contraction QRS wave – ventricular depolarization and contraction T wave – recovery of the ventricles Cardiac cycle -.85 seconds Time ATRIA VENTRICLES.15 sec SYSTOLE DIASTOLE 30 sec DIASTOLE SYSTOLE 40 sec DIASTOLE DIASTOLE Systole – contract Diastole – relax Describe atherosclerosis and what it can lead to. A narrowing of the arteries due to fatty deposits and thickening of the wall Can lead to heart attack or stroke When this occurs in the arteries of the heart muscle, it is called coronary artery disease What is an Angioplasty? Blocked artery is opened by a inserting a balloon How is bypass surgery performed? Blood is rerouted around closed vessel by using a vein from the leg What does plasma contain? 92% is water 7% plasma proteins 1% dissolved substances such as nutrients, gases, salts, hormones and waste What are the formed elements consisted of? Blood cells – 45% White blood cells – Platelets - Name the plasma proteins and give their functions. Albumin – helps control the amount of water in the blood Prothrombin – involved in blood clotting Fibrinogen – involved in blood clotting Globulins – Alpha and Beta – transport substances in the blood Gamma – releases antibodies How does your blood clot? Describe the steps. Collagen fibers stick out in a damaged vessel Platelets are activated and form the platelet plug Prothrombin activator converts prothrombin to thrombin Thrombin causes fibrinogen to change to strands of fibrin Fibrin strands trap cells forming a clot What are all blood cells made from? Stem cell Define platelets and describe its function. Cell fragments formed from a cell called megakaryocyte, technical name is thrombocytes Function – produce the platelet plug during blood clotting Leukocytes Fight disease or infection in the body Can leave the blood and enter tissues Divided into 2 main groups based on the presence or absence of granules in the cytoplasm Granular Leukocytes Agranular Leukocytes Name the 3 types of granular leukocytes Eosinophil – Contains bright red granules in the cytoplasm Nucleus contains 2 lobes Increase in number during allergic reactions Function – phagocytosis of antigen-antibody complexes Basophil – Contain large blue or purple granules in the cytoplasm Function – release heparin and histamine Heparin – prevent blood clots in an area of infection Histamines – cause tissues to leak fluids drawing other leukocytes into the area of infections Neutrophil – The most abundant of the WBCs The nucleus may contain 3-7 lobes Faint granules in the cytoplasm Function – engulf microbes by phagocytosis Define monocytes and lymphocytes. Monocytes – The largest of the white blood cells Has a horseshoe or kidney bean shaped nucleus Develops into macrophages Function – phagocytosis of microbes, dead cells, and worn out cell parts Lymphocytes – all have a large spherical nucleus Give the three types of lymphocytes. B lymphocytes – Mature in bone marrow Enlarge into plasma cells, which produce antibodies T lymphocytes – Mature in the thymus gland Release perforin Perforin – puts openings in the cell membrane of the target cell Natural killer cells – Type of lymphocyte that roams the body and destroy abnormal cancer and tumor cells by releasing perforin granules Name two white blood cell disorders. Infectious Mononucleosis – viral disease of the lymphocytes caused by the Epstein-Barr virus Leukemia – a cancer of the WBCs that causes the number of WBCs to increase, these cells do not function as normal WBCs Define and describe red blood cells. Also called erythrocytes Shaped like a biconcave disks Very flexible No nucleus Cytoplasm filled with hemoglobin Function – transport oxygen What is the life cycle of a red blood cell? When cells in the kidney detect a decrease in oxygen they release erythropoietin – hormone tha can speed RBC production Produced in the red bone marrow Circulate in the blood for 120 days Worn out RBCs are destroyed in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow Give three examples of red blood cell disorders. Anemia – low oxygen content of the blood Iron deficiency anemia – Most common, too little iron in the diet A diet that contains too little iron, an inability to absorb iron from the digestive system Pernicious anemia – occurs when there is a lack of vitamin B12 due to the lack of intrinsic factor made by the stomach Not enough red blood cells made Sickle cell anemia – caused by genetically abnormal hemoglobin RBCs form a sickle shape when the blood’s oxygen content is low Results in RBCs that are fragile and rupture easily, clogging small blood vessels and promoting clot information Name the four blood types. ABO blood grouping is the most common way to type blood Based on the presence or absence or specific glycoproteins on the red blood cells Named by the antigen found on the surface of the cell Type A – red blood cell contains the A antigen Type B – red blood cell contains the B antigen Type AB – re blood cell contains both A and B antigen, Universal Receiver Type O – red blood cell does not contain the A or B antigen, Universal Donor How does agglutination occur? Clumping Occurs when someone’s antibodies contact a foreign cell What is the Rh factor. Another important antigen on the RBC other than the A or B antigen First discovered in the Rhesus Monkey Becomes critical during pregnancies of Rh-negative women Hemolytic disease of the newborn. Anti-Rh antibodies can develop in the mother They can cross the placenta, destroying the Rh-positive fetus’s RBCs The baby may die or be very anemic Rhogam A serum containing antibodies against the Rh antigens Given to RH-mothers to prevent the production of anti-Rh antibodies CHAPTER 14 – The Respiratory System: Movement of Air What is the respiratory system responsible for? Responsible for the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the body’s cells and the environment Name the 3 processes involved in respiration. Pulmonary Ventilation – breathing, moving air in and out of the lungs Internal Respiration – exc of O2 and CO2 at the pulmonary capillaries External Respiration – exchange of O2 and CO2 at the body’s capillaries Label the parts of the upper respiratory tract in the image above: Name the three parts of the nasal cavity and tell how each one helps to filter inhaled air. Nares – opens into the nasal cavity, external Nasal cavity – contains hairs, concha and nasal mucosa that assist in filtering inhaled air Hairs – trap dust and debris Mucosa – secretes mucus It contains a blood vessel that help warm the air Concha – bony masses that cause the inhaled air to swirl in the nasal cavity Name the 3 parts of the pharynx and define each one. Called the throat Nasopharynx – part of the pharynx behind the nasal cavity, contains the pharyngeal tonsils, adenoids The eustachian tube – auditory tube, connects the nasopharynx and middle ear. This connection allows infections from the nasal cavity to spread to the ear. Oropharynx – part of the pharynx behind the oral cavity. It contains the palatine tonsils Laryngopharynx – located near the top of the larynx What is the function of the Eustachian tube? The eustachian tube – auditory tube, connects the nasopharynx and middle ear. This connection allows infections from the nasal cavity to spread to the ear. Label the diagram below: Define larynx, thyroid cartilage, and epiglottis. Larynx - cartilaginous structure at the top of the trachea Commonly called the voice box Divides the upper and lower respiratory tracts Thyroid cartilages – large cartilage on the front of the larynx. It is commonly called the adam’s apple. Epiglottis – cartilage flap the covers the top of the larynx during swallowing 9 cartilages on the larynx 3 single cartilages Epiglottis – Flap that covers the opening in the larynx, glottis Thyroid – adam’s apple, largest laryngeal cartilage, front of larynx Cricoid – floor of larynx 3 paired cartilages Corniculate – 2, pitch of sound Arytenoid – 2, pitch of sound Cuneiform – 2, What are the 2 types of vocal cords? True cords – vocal folds, vibrate and produce sound False cords – ventricular folds, do not make sound but help close off the airway, keeps food out Glottis – opening in the larynx between the vocal cords Heimlich Maneuver – removing obstructions from vocal cords Trachea – tube that extends from the neck to midway the chest cavity It contains cartilage rings that are open on the backside called C-rings It lined with a cilated mucus membrane that traps dust and debris Cilia sweeps mucus away from the lungs toward the throat Splits into two tubes called right and left primary bronchus Define primary bronchi and name the structure it is similar to. Part of the airway that enters the lungs The structure of the primary bronchi is similar to the trachea Right primary bronchus enters the right lung Left primary bronchus enters the left lung Branches several times – primary, secondary, tertiary Bronchioles – Tiny tubes inside the lungs Next passage way after the bronchi 1mm in size and do not contain cartilage in their walls Terminal bronchioles lead into the alveolar ducts Apex – Superior tip of the lungs, located above the clavicle Right lung – 2 fissures, 3 lobes Left lung – 1 fissure, 2 lobes. It also contains an indentation on the medial surface called the cardiac notch. Hilus – Area of the medial surface of the lung where primary bronchi, pulmonary vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerve fibers enter and exit the lung Pleural membranes – Cover the lungs and line the thorax Visceral pleura – membrane covering the outer surface of the lung Parietal pleura – membrane lining the wall of the thorax Label the diagram below: Define alveoli – Air sacs at the end of the airway They are covered on the outside by the pulmonary capillaries Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs occur across the wall of the alveoli Which two walls make up the respiratory membrane? Made up of the wall of the alveolus and wall of the pulmonary capillary Oxygen diffuses out of the alveolus, air sacs, into the pulmonary capillaries Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the pulmonary capillary into the alveolus What are the cell types that make up the alveoli? Type I – epithelial cells lining alveolus wall Type II – septal, secrete surfactant Surfactant – substance that decrease surface tension and prevent the collapse of the alveolus Alveolar macrophage – engulf bacteria Explain what happens when you inhale and exhale. Inhalation - Respiratory control center signals respiratory muscles (external intercostal and diaphragm) which contract External intercostal contract moving the ribcage up and out Diaphragm contracts dropping down Chest expand so the lungs expand Pressure in the lungs drop below atmospheric pressure Air moves into the lungs During labored breathing the sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, and pectoralis minor are also used Exhalation – Respiratory control center stop sending signals to the respiratory muscles which relax External intercostal relax moving the ribcage down and in Diaphragm relaxes moving up Chest decreases in size, so the lungs deflate Pressure in the lungs rise above atmospheric pressure Air moves out of the lungs During forced exhalation, the abdominal and internal intercostal muscles are also used What is the most important chemical that influences the breathing rate? Changes in depth and rate of breathing is affected by chemoreceptors located in the medulla Central chemoreceptors – brain, monitor H+ concentration in cerebrospinal fluid Peripheral chemoreceptors – blood vessels, montor CO2 levels in aortic and carotid bodies Carbon dioxide – the most important chemical influencing breathing rate Describe how 02 and C02 transports through the blood. Transport of O2 98% of oxygen is carried bound to hemoglobin 2% of oxygen is dissolved in the plasma Transport of CO2 70% of coarbon dioxide is carried in the blood as bicarbonate, HCO3 23% bound to hemoglobin 7% is dissolved in plasma Describe carbonic acid HCO3 is turned into carbonic acid to be safely carried out through the blood then turned into carbon dioxide and water CO2 binds with H2O = H2CO3 = HCO3 and H Spirometer – Respirometer, a device used to measure air volume exchange during breathing Total lung capacity(6000ml) – maximum amount of air in the lungs Tidal volume(500ml)- amount of air moving in & out of lungs during normal breathing Inspiratory reserve(3100ml)- additional air brought into the lungs during deep breathing Expiratory reserve(1200ml)- a forced exhalation (beyond normal exhalation) can blow out an extra 1200ml of air Residual volume(1200ml) – amount of air that is always in the lungs unless the lungs are damaged. Vital capacity(4800ml) – the total lung capacity minus the residual volume Name three respiratory diseases. The upper respiratory tract is susceptible to infection and inflammation of the nasal passages, sinuses, and larynx Bronchitis – airways are inflamed due to infection (acute) or due to an irritant (chronic) Coughing brings up mucus and pus Asthma – airways are inflamed due to irritation, and bronchioles constrict due to muscle spasms Emphysema – The alveolar walls rupture and there is a decrease in the surface area for gas exchange An increase in the dead air space Thickening of the alveolar walls Tuberculosis – This tiny bacterium can pass from person to person in airborne droplets generated by a cough or sneeze Chapter 16: The Digestive System Label the diagram below: What is the digestive system composed of? Consists of a tube that extends from the mouth to the anus and accessory organs What are the 4 accessory organs and what are their functions? Salivary glands – Three pairs of glands that secrete saliva, moistens food, enzyme (amylase) in saliva begins starch digestion Liver – secretes bile Gallbladder – small sac that stores bile, releases bile into intestine Pancreas – gland located behind stomach Secretes enzymes that digest all major nutrients Secretes bicarbonate ions that neutralize acid from stomach Releases secretions into small intestine What is the function of the salivary glands? Three pairs of glands that secrete saliva, moistens food, enzyme (amylase) in saliva begins starch digestion Where does the chemical digestion of carbohydrates begin? Begin in the mouth Label the diagram: Discuss the 4 layers of the digestive tube. Mucosa – The lining of the tube (epithelial cells) 1 Submucosa – is a layer of connective tissue that contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves 2 Muscularis – is made up of two layers of visceral or smooth muscle 3 Serosa – outer connective tissue covering that secretes a fluid to lubricate the outside of the GI tract 4 Mouth – opening to the digestive tube Palate – roof of the mouth; it separates the oral and nasal cavities Uvula – flap that hangs from the soft palate. It moves backward during swallowing to keep food out of the nasal cavity. Tongue – moves the food around to assist in chewing. It contains taste buds that allow tasting of different types of foods. Teeth – breaks the food into smaller pieces. Different types cuspids, tear, incisors, biting, canines, tearing, premolar, crushing, molars, grinding What is the difference between mechanical digestion and chemical digestion? Mechanical digestion – chewing Chemical digestion – salivary amylase acts on carbohydrates breaking them to disaccharides What is a bolus? A soft mass of food, suitable for swallowing The tongue helps form the bolus Describe the swallowing process Swallowing pushes the bolus into the esophagus Esophagus – tube that carries food to the stomach Epiglottis – cartilage flap that closes off the airway to keep food from entering the trachea. Peristalsis – muscular contractions pushes food Lower esophageal sphincter – relaxes as food approaches Gastroesophageal Reflex Disease – GERD, Lower esophageal sphincter fails to close and allows stomach acid to enter esophagus and cause heartburn Define gastrin, gastric juice and pepsin. Stomach – storage area for food, j shaped muscular organ Muscularis – contains 3 layers of muscle Longitudinal Circular Oblique Mucosa – has folds called rugae Stomach contains gastric glands that produce gastric juice Pepsin – helps starts the chemical breakdown of proteins Gastrin – a hormone made by stomach that stimulates the gastric glands Gastric juice – contains pepsinogen and HCl (pepsin) Where does chemical digestion of proteins begin? Chemical digestion of proteins begin in the stomach Define chyme. Chyme – a soupy acidic mixture of food and gastric juice Label the diagram below: Name and describe the three phases of gastric digestion. Cephalic Phase – in the first phase, thoughts of food and the fell of food in the oral cavity stimulate increased secretion from the gastric pits. The stomach begins to churn more actively in preparation for the incoming food Gastric Phase – When the bolus reaches the stomach, the second phase of gastric digestion begins. Here the stomach produces gastrin as well as continuing the production of pepsin and HCI. Gastrin aids in stimulation of the gastric pits, providing a feedback system that speeds digestion also go back to the brain, maintaining contact with the nervous system. Intestinal Phase – In the final phase of gastric digestion, the chyme begins to leave through the pyloric sphincter. As the chyme leaves the stomach, gastrin production decreases, the impulses to the brain indicate a lessening of chyme, and the brain begins to slow the stimulation of the gastric pits. Label the diagram below: Name the three parts of the small intestines. Duodenum – upper portion, pyloric sphincter controls the food going into the duodenum. Jejunum – middle portion Ileum – last part that joins the large intestines. Small intestines – part of the digestive tube where most of the digestive process occurs. It is also where digestion is completed and absorption occurs Define villi. Finger like projections in the mucosa. Each villus contains blood vessels, lacteals, and goblet cells to secrete mucus Plicae circulares – permanent folds in the mucosa What are the functions of Villi, Lacteals and Blood vessels? Villi – absorb nutrients and secrete enzymes that complete digestion Lacteals – absorbs fats Blood vessels – absorb all other nutrients except fats Explain how digestion is completed and where absorption occurs. How is the absorption of fats different from other substances? Label the diagram below: Define bile. How is it produced and where is it stored? Bile – emulsifies fats, breaks fats into fat droplets The liver produces bile The bile is stored in the gallbladder What is pancreatic juice? What does it contain? The pancreas produces pancreatic juice Sodium bicarbonate – neutralizes stomach acid Trypsin – break down proteins Pancreatic amylase – breaks down carbohydrates Pancreatic lipase – breaks down fats Describe carbohydrate, protein and fat digestion. Chemical digestion of carbohydrates begin in the mouth with salivary amylase and ends in the small intestines by enzymes from the pancreas and enzymes produced by the villi Chemical digestion of proteins begin in the stomach with pepsin and ends in the small intestines by enzymes from the pancreas and enzymes produces by the villi Chemical digestion of fats begins and end in the small intestines Bile breaks fats into fat droplets, micelles Lipase breaks down fats into glycerol and fatty acids Fatty acids are covered with proteins called chylomicrons What are the functions of Gastrin, Secretin and CCK? Gastrin – stimulates the gastric glands to make gastric juice Secretin – made by the small intestines, stimulates the pancreas to release sodium bicarbonate and the liver to make bile Cholecystokinin – CCK, made by the small intestines, stimulates the pancreas to make digestive enzymes and stimulates the gallbladder to contract releasing bile How does the liver function in the body? Produces bile – digestion process Largest organ in the body Detoxifies the blood Composed of 100K lobules Hepatocyte – liver cell Stores iron and fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K Produces plasma proteins Stores glucose as glycogen Help regulates the amount of cholesterol in the blood What are the four parts of the large intestine? Abosrorbs water, salts, and vitamins form the digestive tract and return it to the body Ascending colon – runs up the right side of the abdominal cavity Transverse colon – cuts across the top of the abdominal cavity, underneath the stomach Descending colon – on the left side of the abdominal cavity, Sigmoid colon – At the lower left of the abdominal cavity, the colon turns back down makes an S turn to wind up in the center of the body This portion of the colon is where feces may sit for long periods of time before moving out the rectum Cecum- upper part of the large intestines that joins the small intestines Vermiform appendix – pouch on the cecum Colon – ascending, transverse, and descending Rectum – holds feces temporarily and opens into the anus Anus – sphincter muscles controls defecation, reflex action Feces – waste material, ¾ water and ¼ solids, usually brown in color due to bilirubin Define E.coli. Escherichia coli – E. Coli, bacteria break down waste producing gas Produce vitamin K, blood clotting What are polyps? Polyps can develop in the colon as feces rest against the mucosa Growths in the epithelial lining Enzymes – large molecule of food enters the digestive system Enzyme binds to food, substrate molecules Enzyme uses H2O to splite the substrates molecule, leaving and OH- on one product molecule and an H+ on the other Chapter 17 : The Urinary System Label the diagram below: How does the male urethra differ from the female urethra? It transports both urine and semen from the body Ureter – transports urine from kidneys to bladder Urinary bladder – stores urine Urethra – transports urine from urinary bladder to outside the body Give at least 4 functions of the kidney. Produces urine Conserves water Regulates pH Stimulates production of red blood cell Transforms vitamin D into active form Filters blood & process Urine Removes waste from the body Help regulate blood pressure Release erythropoietin which stimulates red blood cell production Help maintain pH of body fluids Regulate the amounts of water in the blood Where are the kidneys located? Just above the waist on the posterior wall of the abdomen Embedded in a protective layer of fat Covered with a tough outer membrane, the renal capsule What is the function of renal artery and the renal vein? Renal artery brings oxygenated blood to kidney Renal vein drains the kidney, carries deoxygenated blood away from the kidney Hilus- opening in the kidney where the renal artery, renal vein and the ureter enter and exit Define the renal capsule. Outer connective tissue covering Differentiate between the renal cortex, renal medulla and renal pelvis. Renal cortex – outermost layer of the kidney Renal medulla – inner most layer of the kidney Renal pyramids – fan shaped structures inside the medulla Renal columns – extensions of the renal cortex Renal pelvis – expanded part of the ureter inside the kidney Label the diagram below: Describe the flow of fluid through a nephron. Yellow graph in picture above, Loop of henley-ascending, descending Define nephron. Filtering device inside the kidney Each kidney contains about 1 million nephrons Location of a nephron Part of the nephron is in the cortex and part of it is in the medulla Define glomerular capsule and glomerulus. Glomerular Capsule – blind end of the nephron that contains the glomerulus Glomerulus – ball of capillaries Give the functions of the following: afferent arteriole; efferent arteriole and peritubular capillaries. Afferent arteriole – carry blood to the glomerulus Efferent arteriole – takes blood from the glomerulus to the peritubular capillaries Peritubular capillaries – blood capillaries wrapped around the outside of the nephron What is the formation of glomerular filtrate? 25% of the blood pump out of the heart goes directly to the kidneys Blood pressure produces glomerular filtrate 48 gallons of filtrate formed a day, but only 1-2 quarts of urine formed Out of 48 gallons of filtrate formed in a day, how many quarts of urine are released from the body? 1-2 quarts Proximal tubule – first coiled part of the kidney tubule Loop of Henle – u shaped part of the nephron Distal tubule – second coiled part od kidney tubule that leads to the collecting ducts Steps in Urine Formation Formation of glomerular filtrate Water, salts, nutrients, hormones & waste are forced across the wall of the glomerulus into glomerular capsule Tubular reabsorption Occurs in the proximal tubule Water, nutrients, ions, hormones, and salts are returned to the body Obligatory water reabsorption occurs in the proximal tubule due to pressure Tubular secretion Occurs at the distal tubule Waste products and substances that are in excess in the blood into the kidney tubule at the distal end to become a part of urine Facultative water reabsorption Occurs at the distal tubule & collecting ducts ADH secreted by the hypothalamus causes cells in the lining the distal tubule & collecting ducts to become permeable to water Concentration of urine The concentration of urine occurs in the collecting ducts due to the high salt concentration in the interstitial fluid How does the kidney regulate blood pressure? Angiotensin – protein made by liver Angiotensinogen to Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II Rennin Lung Enzymes How does angiotensin II raise blood pressure? Constricts blood vessels in the body Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release Aldosterone which cause the kidney tubules to absorb salt and water and return it to the body Define ADH. Antidiuretic hormone Hormone released by the hypothalamus Causes the kidney to conserve water in the body Alcohol blocks the effect of ADH List the three hormones that play important roles in adjusting kidney function. Antidiuretic hormone – ADH, conserve water Aldosterone Atrial Natriuretic Peptide – ANP, release water What is the function of ANP? Released from the heart in response to increase blood volume and pressure Causes increased urine output by inhibiting ADH and Rennin How does the kidney help to regulate the pH of body fluids? Kidney removes excess hydrogen ions from the body and conserves bicarbonate Ions - Acidic Kidney removes excess bicarbonate ions from the body and conserves Hydrogen Ions – Basic or alkaline Urinalysis – analysis of the volume and properties of urine Normal urine is protein free Contains urea, creatine, uric acid, fatty acids, enzymes and hormones Kidney Stones – crystallized masses usually made from uric acid or calcium oxalate When is dialysis necessary? How does it work? Dialysis therapy is used when the kidneys are not able to filter the blood Separation of large solutes from smaller ones by a selectively permeable membrane Blood flows through tubing surrounded by dialysis solution Cleansed blood flows back into the body Chapter 18: The Endocrine System and Development Hormones circulate throughout the body until they reach target cells Circulating hormones – travel long distances Local hormones – affect cells close by Autocrine Paracrine Define endocrine glands. Are made up of secretory cells that release their products called hormones directly into blood or tissue fluid What is the purpose of target cells? Target cells respond to the hormone, influencing growth, development, metabolism, and behavior What is the main function of the endocrine system? Main function of the endocrine system is to coordinate body systems and maintain homeostasis What are the five major endocrine glands? Pituitary – Thyroid – Parathyroid – Adrenals – Pineal – Name five organs with some endocrine tissue. Hypothalamus – Thymus – Pancreas – Ovaries – Testes – Explain the difference between how steroid hormones and non-steroid hormones work. Steroid Hormone – are lipid-soluble Can pass directly through the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes Steroid hormones pass directly through cell and nuclear membranes of their target Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble and can readily diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer of the target cell After crossing the cell membrane, steroid hormones can bind to their specific receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleoplasm The receptor-hormone complexes then either act to increase or decrease the production of specific proteins These newly made proteins in turn alter the activities of the target cell Non-steroid hormone – are not lipid-soluble Cannot pass through the cell membrane Non-steroid hormones are water-soluble and cannot diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer Hormone binds to a receptor on the cell membrane which activates adenylate cyclase Adenylate cyclase activates cyclic AMP (cAMP) cAMP in turn activates protein kinases, that phosphorylate proteins inside the cell Phosphorylated proteins make changes in the cell very quickly The main difference between these classes is solubility Hypothalamus and pituitary glands – both are master endocrine glands because they release hormones that affect other glands in the body Hypothalamus – secretes hormones called releasing factors that control the anterior pituitary Produces ADH and Oxytocin that are released through the posterior pituitary Oxytocin – causes uterine contraction to occur during birth After birth oxytocin causes release of milk from the mammary glands Antidiuretic Hormone – ADH, vasopressin Acts on kidney tubules causing them to conserve water in the body Name the six hormones released by anterior pituitary. Thyroid-stimulating Hormone– TSH, stimulates the thyroid gland to produce the thyroid hormone Luteinizing Hormone – LH, in females LH stimulates ovulation LH stimulate testosterone production in males Follicle-stimulating Hormone – FSH, stimulates egg development in the follicle of the ovary Stimulate sperm production in the testes Adrenocorticotropic Hormone – ACTH, stimulates cells of the adrenal cortex that produce cortisol Growth Hormone – hGH, controls the growth of all body tissues including bone Hypersecretion – too much during childhood = giantism Too much GH in adult = acromegaly, thickening of the hands, feet, skull, and skin Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone – MSH, Prolactin – PRL, stimulates milk production in females What are two GH disorders? Define ACTH. Name 2 hormones made by the thyroid gland. What are their functions? Butterfly shaped gland located on top of the trachea, it produces: Thyroid hormone – T3,T4, control metabolism in the body Calcitonin – removes calcium from the blood into bone tissue What removes calcium from the blood into bone tissue? Calcitonin Differentiate between cretinism and myxedema. Cretinism – Too litt