Final Exam Study Guide Ch 6-9 PDF

**[Chapter 6]** 1. Describe three forms of local communication and two forms of long-distance communication. **The distinction between local and long-distance is a concept people seem to be forgetting as the semester goes on.** - **Local Communication**: 1. **Gap Junctions**:...

**[Chapter 6]** 1. Describe three forms of local communication and two forms of long-distance communication. **The distinction between local and long-distance is a concept people seem to be forgetting as the semester goes on.** - **Local Communication**: 1. **Gap Junctions**: Direct cytoplasmic connections between adjacent cells that allow ions and small molecules to pass (e.g., cardiac muscle cells). 2. **Contact dependent signals:** require cell-to-cell contact; cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) 3. **Diffusing chemicals:** - Paracrine Signaling: Chemical signals released by a cell affect nearby cells (e.g., histamine during inflammation). - Autocrine Signaling: A cell releases a chemical that acts on itself (e.g., immune cells releasing interleukins). - **Long-Distance Communication**: 4. **Blood Transport** - **Endocrine System**: Hormones released into the bloodstream act on distant targets (e.g., insulin regulating glucose levels). 5. **Neurochemicals** - Neurotransmitters: released by neuron into synaptic cleft - Neuromodulators: modulate other neurons - Neurohormones: neuron releases hormone into blood A diagram of cell division Description automatically generated  2. Explain the general sequence of events that follow lipophilic ligand binding to intracellular receptors. Slower response related to changes in gene activity 3. Describe the general sequence of events that follow lipophobic ligand binding to a cell surface receptor. Rapid cellular response A diagram of cell neurons Description automatically generated 4. Name and describe four major groups of cell surface receptors. 5. Apply the concepts of specificity, competition, affinity, and saturation to receptors and their ligands. Note: receptor type depends on location - **Alpha receptors**: bind epi; found in intestinal blood vessels and cause vasoconstriction - **Beta receptors**: bind epi; found in skeletal muscle of blood vessels and cause vasodilation 6. List the seven steps of a reflex control pathway in the order in which they occur. 7. Compare the speed, specificity, types of signals, and duration of action in neural and endocrine reflexes. How is stimulus intensity coded in each type of reflex? - **Neural Reflexes**: - **Speed**: Very fast (milliseconds). - **Specificity**: Highly specific; targets specific cells. - **Signals**: Electrical (along neurons) and chemical (neurotransmitters). - **Duration**: Short-lived. - **Stimulus Intensity Coding**: Frequency of action potentials (increased) - **Endocrine Reflexes**: - **Speed**: Slower (minutes to hours). - **Specificity**: Broad; hormones affect all cells with appropriate receptors. - **Signals**: Chemical (hormones in the bloodstream). - **Duration**: Longer-lasting. - **Stimulus Intensity Coding**: Hormone concentration (increased) NOTE: these are mediated by the nervous system OR endocrine, NOT both; neuroendocrine is complex and is mediated by both  A screenshot of a medical report Description automatically generated **[Chapter 7]** 1. Explain the four criteria that make a chemical signal a hormone. Chemicals secreted by a cell into the blood for transport to a distant target where, at very low concentrations, it affects growth, development, homeostasis, or metabolism 2. Compare endocrine cells' synthesis, storage, and release of peptide and steroid hormones.  - **Peptide Hormones**: - **Synthesis**: Made in advance as preprohormones; cleaved to active hormones. - **Storage**: Stored in secretory vesicles. - **Release**: Released by exocytosis when triggered (e.g., insulin). - **Steroid Hormones**: - **Synthesis**: Synthesized on demand from cholesterol. - **Storage**: Not stored; diffuse out of the cell immediately after synthesis. - **Release**: Diffuse through the cell membrane (e.g., cortisol). 3. Compare the location of hormone receptors and the cellular mechanisms of action of peptide and steroid hormones. A diagram of a cell division Description automatically generated  - **Peptide Hormones**: - **Receptors**: Located on the cell surface. - **Mechanism**: Activate second messenger pathways, leading to rapid responses (e.g., insulin). - **Steroid Hormones**: - **Receptors**: Located in the cytoplasm or nucleus. - **Mechanism**: Regulate gene expression, leading to slower but longer-lasting effects (e.g., testosterone). 4. Compare the three main groups of amine hormones. (**Amino-acid derived**) a. **Catecholamines**: i. Derived from single tyrosine. ii. Act like peptide hormones (e.g., epinephrine, norepinephrine). b. **Thyroid Hormones**: iii. Derived from two tyrosine molecules. iv. Act like steroid hormones (e.g., thyroxine \[T4\], triiodothyronine \[T3\]). c. **Melatonin**: v. Derived from tryptophan. vi. Regulates circadian rhythms. 5. Describe the role of the nervous system in endocrine reflexes. **(\*\*\*WEAK**) The nervous system integrates with the endocrine system through neurohormones and control pathways: - **Hypothalamus**: Produces neurohormones that regulate the pituitary gland. - **Neuroendocrine Reflexes**: Electrical signals trigger hormone release (e.g., oxytocin during childbirth). - **Feedback Loops**: Coordinates hormonal and neural responses for homeostasis. 6. List \[full spellings and abbreviations\] the six anterior pituitary hormones, the hormones that control their release, and their primary targets. A hand pointing at a diagram Description automatically generated  \*\*\* These 6 are all peptide hormones 1. **Prolactin (PRL)**: - **Control**: Prolactin-releasing factors and dopamine. - **Target**: Mammary glands. 2. **Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)**: - **Control**: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). - **Target**: Thyroid gland. 3. **Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)**: - **Control**: Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). - **Target**: Adrenal cortex. 4. **Growth Hormone (GH)**: - **Control**: Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) and somatostatin. - **Target**: Liver and other tissues. 5. **Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)**: - **Control**: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). - **Target**: Gonads. 6. **Luteinizing Hormone (LH)**: - **Control**: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). - **Target**: Gonads. 7. Compare long-loop negative feedback for anterior pituitary hormones to the negative feedback loops for insulin and parathyroid hormone. A diagram of a diagram of a person\'s body Description automatically generated - **Long-Loop Negative Feedback**: - Hormones from target endocrine glands (e.g., cortisol) inhibit the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus. - **Insulin Feedback**: - High blood glucose stimulates insulin release, which lowers blood glucose, reducing the stimulus. - **Parathyroid Hormone Feedback**: - Low calcium levels stimulate parathyroid hormone release, which increases calcium, reducing further hormone release. - Long-loop negative feedback - Peripheral endocrine gland produces hormone that suppresses secretion of anterior pituitary and hypothalamic trophic hormones - Most dominant feedback mechanism - Short-loop negative feedback - Pituitary hormone suppresses hypothalamic trophic hormone production - Secondary feedback mechanism - Ultra-short-loop negative feedback (not depicted in figure above) - Occurs in hypothalamus and pituitary - Autocrine or paracrine signals to regulate secretion 8. Explain permissiveness, synergism, and functional antagonism as they apply to hormones. 9. Name the three most common types of endocrine pathologies. - **Hypersecretion**: Excess hormone production (e.g., hyperthyroidism); produces exaggerated effect - **Hyposecretion**: Deficient hormone production (e.g., hypothyroidism); absence of negative feedback leads to overproduction of trophic hormones - **Abnormal Target Response (Receptor/second messenger problems)** : Target cells fail to respond appropriately (e.g., type 2 diabetes). 10. Explain how negative feedback can be used to determine the location of a problem with one gland in a two- or three-gland pathway. (\*\*\* **NOT SURE)** Think above answers this as well **[Chapter 8]** 1. Map the organization of the nervous system in detail.  - **Central Nervous System (CNS):** Brain and spinal cord; processes information and coordinates activity. - **Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):** - **Afferent Division:** Sensory input from receptors to the CNS. - **Efferent Division:** Motor output from the CNS to effectors, further divided into: - **Somatic Nervous System (SNS):** Controls voluntary movements (skeletal muscles). \*\*\* Usually voluntary, but not always - **Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):** Controls involuntary activities (smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands), divided into: - **Sympathetic Division:** \"Fight or flight\" response. - **Parasympathetic Division:** \"Rest and digest\" response. - **Enteric Nervous System (ENS):** Network of neurons in the gastrointestinal tract. 2. Name the types and functions of glial cells. A diagram of a cell structure Description automatically generated - **In the CNS:** - **Astrocytes:** Maintain the blood-brain barrier, provide structural support, and regulate ion and neurotransmitter concentrations. - **Oligodendrocytes:** Myelinate CNS axons to increase signal transmission speed. - **Microglia:** Act as immune cells; remove debris and pathogens. - **Ependymal Cells:** One source of neural stem cells - **In the PNS:** - **Schwann Cells:** Myelinate PNS axons and aid in repair after injury. - **Satellite Cells:** Surround neuronal cell bodies in ganglia, providing support and nutrient exchange. 3. Compare and contrast graded potentials and action potentials.  A diagram of a nerve cell Description automatically generated  4. Explain the changes in ion permeability and ion flow that take place during an action potential. (Must know specifics with activation and inactivation gates) A diagram of a neuron Description automatically generated  5. Describe and compare absolute and relative refractory periods. A diagram of a graph Description automatically generated - **Absolute Refractory Period:** - No new action potential can be initiated. - Na⁺ channels are inactivated, preventing depolarization. - **Relative Refractory Period:** - A new action potential can occur with a stronger-than-normal stimulus. - Some Na⁺ channels are reset, but K⁺ channels remain open. 6. Describe the role of the following in synaptic communication: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, fast and slow synaptic potentials, excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.  A diagram of a synapse Description automatically generated  7. Explain the mechanism of long-term potentiation mediated by AMPA and NMDA receptors. A diagram of a synapse Description automatically generated - **LTP Process:** - **Initial Signal:** Glutamate is the key, it binds to AMPA and NMDA receptors. - **AMPA Activation:** Na⁺ influx through AMPA receptors causes depolarization. - **NMDA Activation:** Depolarization removes Mg²⁺ block from NMDA receptors, allowing Ca²⁺ influx. - **Calcium Role:** Ca²⁺ activates intracellular signaling pathways, leading to: - Activation of second messenger pathways - Paracrine release from postsynaptic cell which enhances glutamate release - **Result:** Enhanced synaptic transmission, a cellular basis for learning and memory. **[Chapter 9]** 1. Explain the formation, distribution, and functions of cerebrospinal fluid. - **Formation:** - Produced by the **choroid plexus** in the ventricles (mainly lateral ventricles). - Formed via selective filtration of plasma through ependymal cells. - **Distribution:** - Flows from the lateral ventricles → third ventricle → cerebral aqueduct → fourth ventricle. - Enters the subarachnoid space via the **median and lateral apertures**. - Circulates around the brain and spinal cord; between arachnoid membrane and pia mater - Reabsorbed into venous circulation through the **arachnoid villi** in the dural sinuses. - **Functions: chemical and physical protection** 2. Describe the structure and functions of the blood-brain barrier. - **Structure:** - **Endothelial cells of capillaries:** Joined by tight junctions to limit permeability. - **Astrocytic end-feet:** Astrocytes surround capillaries and support the barrier. - **Basement membrane:** Provides structural support to the barrier. - **Functions:** \*\*\* Protects the brain from toxic water-soluble compounds and pathogens; Small lipid soluble molecules cross the blood-brain barrier 3. Name the major subdivisions of the cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brain stem. Explain their anatomical relationships, and give their major functions. a. **Subdivisions:** Two hemispheres connected by corpus callosum b. **Functions:** Higher functions like sensory processing, motor control, language, memory, and decision-making. c. Grey matter (outside) and white matter (inside) d. Grey Matter: i. Cerebral cortex ii. Basal ganglia: controls movement iii. Limbic system: link between cognitive functions and emotions 1. Amygdala: emotion and memory 2. Hippocampus: learning and memory e. **Subdivisions:** Two hemispheres f. **Functions:** Coordination of voluntary movements, posture, balance, and motor learning. g. **Subdivisions:** Thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland h. **Anatomical Relationships:** Located between the cerebrum and brainstem. i. **Functions:** iv. **Thalamus:** Relay center for sensory and motor signals. v. **Hypothalamus:** Regulates homeostasis (temperature, hunger, endocrine functions). vi. **Pituitary gland:** Hormone secretion vii. **Pineal gland:** Melatonin secretion j. **Subdivisions:** Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata. k. **Functions:** viii. **Midbrain:** Visual and auditory reflexes. ix. **Pons:** Relays information between the cerebrum and cerebellum; regulates respiration. x. **Medulla Oblongata:** Controls autonomic (involuntary) functions like heartbeat and breathing. 4. Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex, and explain which sensory, motor, or association areas are associated with each lobe.  - **Frontal Lobe:** motor cortex, association area - **Primary Motor Cortex:** Controls voluntary movements. - **Broca's Area:** Speech production (left hemisphere). - **Association Areas:** Planning, decision-making, personality, and reasoning. - **Parietal Lobe:** sensory cortex, association area - **Primary Somatosensory Cortex (postcentral gyrus):** Processes tactile information (touch, pressure, pain, temperature). - **Association Areas:** Spatial awareness, integration of sensory input. - **Occipital Lobe:** sensory cortex, association area - **Primary Visual Cortex:** Processes visual information. - **Visual Association Areas:** Interprets visual stimuli (recognition of objects, colors). - **Temporal Lobe:** sensory cortex, association area - **Primary Auditory Cortex:** Processes sound. - **Wernicke's Area:** Language comprehension (left hemisphere). - **Association Areas:** Memory (hippocampus), emotion, facial recognition. Sensory areas Motor areas Association areas