Final Exam Review - NEW MATERIAL PDF

The Urinary System – Ch 11 Detail the organs of the urinary system, their functions and characteristics This one did not make it on the exam Know in order the vessels through which blood flows through the nephron Put these in order: renal artery à afferent arteriole à glomerulus à efferent arter...

The Urinary System – Ch 11 Detail the organs of the urinary system, their functions and characteristics This one did not make it on the exam Know in order the vessels through which blood flows through the nephron Put these in order: renal artery à afferent arteriole à glomerulus à efferent arteriole à peritubular capillary network à renal vein distal convoluted proximal tubule convoluted afferent efferent tubule arteriole arteriole glomerulus renal artery glomerular capsule renal vein collecting duct loop of the nephron Peritubular capillary network  The Urinary System – Ch 11 Know in order the tubes through which filtrate flows through the nephron If I gave you one of these parts, tell me what came before and what comes after: Glomerular capsule (Bowman’s capsule) à proximal tubule à loop of the nephron (loop of Henle) à distal tubule à collecting duct distal convoluted proximal tubule convoluted afferent efferent tubule arteriole arteriole glomerulus renal artery glomerular capsule renal vein collecting duct loop of the nephron Peritubular capillary network  The Urinary System – Ch 11 Describe the following disorders of the urinary system: urinary tract infections, kidney stones Urinary Tract Infections Usually caused by E. coli entering urinary tract Most common in women Women have shorter urethras so shorter distance for bacteria to get in Kidney Stones If it gets large can block renal pelvis or ureter Causes backflow into nephrons, causing damage What is hemodialysis, when would you need it and how does it work? This one did not make it on the exam  The Urinary System – Ch 11 List the three stages of urine formation in the order in which they occur Put these in order: Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion Describe the three stages of urine formation, what happens in each and where they occur (glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion) Know the stuff in red Process Description Where Occurs What is Moved Nutrients, wastes, salts and water are filtered (“filtrate”). Glomerular Filtering of blood Glomerulus Formed elements and plasma Filtration proteins are NOT filtered (stay in blood) Filtrate is Some of the filtrate reabsorbed from Tubular is reabsorbed the tubules into the Water, nutrients, glucose, salts Reabsorption (reclaimed) back peritubular into the blood capillary network Unfiltered Secreting unfiltered molecules from the Tubular molecules from the peritubular Ions (such as H+), pH, some Secretion blood into the capillary network drugs tubules are secreted into the tubules  The Reproductive System – Ch 17 Outline the function of the major components of the male reproductive tract (testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, seminal vesicles) Structure Description Produce sperm as well as the male sex Testes hormones, lie within the scrotum. Epididymis Ducts where sperm mature. Vas Deferens (Ductus Where sperm are stored, smooth muscles Deferens) here cause ejaculation (not in book). Sperm from the ejaculatory ducts enters Urethra here, common duct for sperm and urine (not in book). Produce majority of fluid in semen, Seminal Vesicles produces fructose which nourishes sperm (not in book).  The Reproductive System – Ch 17 Describe the location and function of Leydig cells and Sertoli cells Leydig cells Located in between seminiferous tubules Produce testosterone Sertoli cells Located inside seminiferous tubules Nourish and support growth of sperm Describe the effect of FSH and LH on the testes Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) Stimulates Sertoli cells to produce sperm Luteinizing hormone (LH) Stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone  The Reproductive System – Ch 17 Outline the function of the major components of the female reproductive tract (ovaries, oviduct, uterus, cervix, vagina) This one did not make it on the exam Describe the effect of FSH and LH on the ovaries Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Stimulates follicle growth Luteinizing Hormone Triggers ovulation FOR THE REMAINING QUESTIONS, THIS DIAGRAM WILL APPEAR ON THE EXAM TO HELP YOU:  The Reproductive System – Ch 17 What does FSH do during the follicular phase? Activates follicle to develop What triggers ovulation? LH surge at mid-cycle What is the corpus luteum? Remnant of ruptured follicle after ovulation. If the egg is not fertilized what happens? Steep drop in estrogen and progesterone causes menstruation. What hormone is detected by a pregnancy test? HCG hormone  Endocrine System – Ch 16 Describe how hormones are specific to target cells Hormones are chemicals that are released into the bloodstream. They only bind to specific receptors on their specific target cells. (Know BOTH of these facts) Detail the differences between protein and steroid hormones Protein Hormones: Bind to receptor on membrane of the cell (hydrophilic so can’t get into cell), triggering a second messenger and an enzyme cascade. Steroid Hormone: Bind to receptor on nucleus (hydrophobic so can enter cell), triggers DNA à mRNA à protein Outline the role of the hypothalamus in regulating the anterior and posterior pituitary This did not make it on the exam  Endocrine System – Ch 16 For each of the hormones discussed (antidiuretic, oxytocin, Thyroid releasing hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, thyroxine, insulin, glucagon), detail where they are secreted from, their target tissue, their function, and any disorders associated with them that were discussed Know the stuff in red Where it is Target Hormone Effect Disorders (if discussed) Secreted From Tissue ADH (Antidiuret Posterior Blood solute concentration is too high, ADH Kidney ic Pituitary causes kidneys reabsorb water Hormone) Uterus and Posterior Causes uterine contractions and milk let- Oxytocin Mammary Pituitary down Glands TRH (Thyroid Anterior Tells anterior pituitary to release thyroid Hypothalamus Releasing Pituitary stimulating hormone Hormone) Thyroid Stimulating Anterior Pituitary Thyroid Tells thyroid to release thyroxine Hormone Maintains basal metabolic rate, Increases Goiter – lack of iodine, which protein production, increases glucose levels, Thyroxine Thyroid All tissues is needed to make thyroxine. increases lipid synthesis, increases heart Thyroid enlarges. rate, maintains mood and sleep Type I Diabetes (beta cells do not produce insulin) After a Meal - Tells liver cells to take up Pancreas (Beta Type II Diabetes (not enough Insulin Liver glucose and store it as glycogen. Decreases cells) insulin produced and glucose levels in blood. receptors don’t bring in all the glucose) When Fasting – Tells liver to break down Pancreas (Alpha Liver and Glucagon glycogen into glucose. Increases glucose cells) Muscles levels in blood.  Endocrine System – Ch 16 Describe diabetes mellitus and contrast type I and type II diabetes Type I: Autoimmune disorder, body attacks Beta cells of the pancreas. Insufficient insulin produced. Type II: Insufficient response from insulin receptors. Human Development – Ch 18 Know the process of how a sperm enters the egg This did not make it on the exam. Outline the four main stages of development and what happens at each stage Stage Description Mitotic cell division, cells divide but do Cleavage not increase in size. Growth Cell division, cells increase in size. Morphogenesis Cells migrate, embryo assumes shape. Cells take on specific structures and Differentiation functions.  Endocrine System – Ch 16 What is a blastocyst and what do the inner cell mass and outer cells of the blastocyst become? Blastocyst – hollow ball of cells during first week of development Inner cell mass: Embryo Outer cells: Chorion (fetal side of the placenta) Contrast the different functions of the four extraembryonic membranes This did not make it on the exam  Human Development – Ch 18 What do each of the three primary germ layers develop into? Endoderm: Digestive tract Mesoderm: Muscles, bones, circulatory Ectoderm: Skin, nervous system What is the function of the placenta? This did not make it on the exam What is the function of the umbilical cord? This did not make it on the exam Contrast the role of umbilical veins and arteries (do they carry deoxygenated/oxygenated blood, where do they carry blood to/from) Fetal heart Umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood Umbilical veins Fetal from fetal tissues to placenta tissues Umbilical Umbilical veins arteries Placenta carry oxygenated blood from (where blood is placenta to fetus oxygenated)  Human Development – Ch 18 Describe the role of the foramen ovale and the ductus arteriosus in fetal circulation Foramen Ovale Hole between the right and left atria Ductus Arteriosis Connects pulmonary artery to aorta Right atrium Right ventricle Pulmonary artery Foramen Lungs Ovale Ductus Pulmonary vein Arteriosus Left atrium Left ventricle Aorta  Evolution I – Ch 23 Differentiate between chemical and biological evolution This did not make it on the exam Outline the four steps to living cells This did not make it on the exam Contrast Lamarck's hypothesis for evolution to Darwin’s Hypothesis #1 – Inheritance of Acquired Traits Proposed by Jean Baptiste de Lamarck Acquired traits (that develop after birth) are passed on to offspring Hypothesis #2 - Natural Selection Mechanism of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin Some individuals are better able to survive and reproduce Those with traits allowing for better survival in environment are more likely to survive & reproduce  Evolution I – Ch 23 Know what artificial selection is When humans select for desirable traits in a species Example: Dog domesticated from gray wolf Outline the three requirements for natural selection to occur – just know the requirements, not the descriptions. 1. Variation 2. Competition 3. Heritability Describe the four major evidences for evolution (fossil record, biogeography, anatomical, biochemical) and be familiar with the examples given for each This did not make it on the exam Define homologous, analogous, and vestigial structures and give examples of each – just know definitions, NOT examples Homologous: Structures that are anatomically similar to each other because they both originated from a common ancestor Analogous: Structures that are similar in function, but with different anatomy because they did not originate from a common ancestor Vestigial: Structures that were present in the ancestral form but no longer serve a function in the current form  Evolution II – Ch 23 Outline the major adaptations to arboreal life by primates Question will be “which of the following is NOT an adaptation…” Primates have mobile limbs with five digits on each hand and foot. opposable thumbs (and sometimes toes) with nails instead of claws allow primates to grasp food and tree limbs. Primate have short snouts and front-facing eyes, which allow for binocular or stereoscopic vision (depth perception). Primates have larger and more complex brains with specialization for vision processing compared to other animals. Primates have a reduced reproductive rate compared to other animals, as carrying several offspring while living in the trees is difficult Outline changes in human skeletal structure compared to chimpanzee know stuff in red Characteristic Human Chimp Spinal cord exits skull Center of base Rear of base Spine shape S-shaped C-shaped Pelvis shape Broad, bowl shaped Narrow, tall Femur angle Towards the knee Outward from the knee Knee joint Very Strong Strong Is Big Toe Fixed or Fixed Opposable Opposable? Are Feet Arched or Flat? Arched Flat  Evolution II – Ch 23 In which major group of primates do humans belong - Prosimians or Anthropoids? These primates are prosimians These primates are anthropoids HUMANS BELONG TO THIS GROUP What are branches and nodes in an evolutionary tree? Node common ancestor Branches lineages to specific species  Evolution II – Ch 23 Understand the idea of the molecular clock The longer a species has branched off from the ancestor, the more unique mutations it accumulates, the more different it becomes from the ancestor For each of the early human examples (Homo Floresiensis, Homo Neanderthalensis, Homo Denisovans, Homo Sapiens) outline the main distinguishing features and know details about each – know the three below Homo floresiensis Island of Flores, Indonesia 3 ft tall, possibly island dwarfism Homo neanderthalensis Advanced tools Buried their dead with flowers & tools Interbred with humans Denisovans Lived in Asia the same time as Neanderthals lived in Europe Only evidence of existence is a toe bone, teeth and long bone shard