Final Exam Review BIO 103 Fall 2024 PDF

Final Exam Review Ms.Alanoud Albugami BIO 103 Fall 2024 1 Chapter 20 Cancer  20.1 Benign and Malignant Tumors Abnormal cell division may lead to tumors. Two types of tumors are encountered in humans: – Benign tumors fail to grow and spr...

Final Exam Review Ms.Alanoud Albugami BIO 103 Fall 2024 1 Chapter 20 Cancer  20.1 Benign and Malignant Tumors Abnormal cell division may lead to tumors. Two types of tumors are encountered in humans: – Benign tumors fail to grow and spread: Removed surgically, rarely cause medical problems. – Malignant tumors continue to grow: They often spread to other parts of the body and invade vital organs – form multiple metastases that could not be surgically removed. Resist therapies.  20.1 Benign and Malignant Tumors The term cancer is reserved for malignant tumors, which are over 100 different types : brain, lung, liver …etc. Almost every type of cell in the body can become malignant except Neurons and muscle cells >>> can’t divide. Metastatic Liver carcinoma adenoma (malignant) (benign)  Metastasis – Cancer cells often migrate to other sites. – 90% of cancer-related deaths are caused by metastatic disease – Cancer cells break loose from their site of origin, the primary tumor – They can form secondary tumors (metastases) in other parts of the body by travelling through circulatory and lymphatic systems. – It occurs most commonly in the lungs, liver, and bone.  (A) Mutations and Cancer Mutations in two groups of genes are primarily responsible for cancer: – Proto-oncogenes control functions related to cell division, if mutated and not repaired, result is uncontrolled cellular proliferation- cancer. – Tumor suppressor genes naturally inhibit cell proliferation, mutation result cells are partially or fully released from normal growth.  (B) Causes of Cancer (Carcinogens) Carcinogens divided into chemical, physical and biological agents are also responsible for DNA damage and cancer: – X-rays – ultraviolet radiation/ sunlight – viruses  (D) Latent Period Cancers can develop many years after the initial exposure to a carcinogen: – The period between exposure and emergence of a cancer is called the latent period Ecology and the Environment Chapter 24  24-1 An Introduction to Ecosystems Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms, including humans, and their environment.  The Biosphere: is the zone in which all life exists on Earth: Forms at the intersection between air, water, and land. The biosphere extends from the bottom of the oceans to the top of the highest mountains. The biosphere is a closed system in which materials are recycled over and over. The only outside contribution is sunlight, which powers virtually all biological processes. The largest biological system on earth is biosphere.  Ecosystems Ecosystems consist of organisms and their environment. Ecosystems consist of two basic components:  Abiotic – the physical and chemical factors needed for life (nonliving matter).  Biotic – the organisms that live in an ecological system (living matter). A group of organisms of the same species living in a specific region constitutes a population. Two or more populations occupying that region form a community.  Habitat and Niche Habitat is the physical space where an organism lives. An organism’s niche defined as organism's role and interaction within that environment.  24-2 Ecosystem Function Ecosystem consist of (Producers, consumers , and decomposers). Producers generate nutrients consumed by all other organisms. – Producers are organisms that synthesize organic materials from: Sunlight. Carbon dioxide. Water. – The major producers are: Plants. Photosynthetic protists. Photosynthetic bacteria. – Consumers are organisms dependent on producers and other organisms for food. Four types of consumers are present: - Herbivores. - Carnivores.  Food Chains and Food Webs Organisms are part of food webs: – A food chain represents a feeding relationship in an ecosystem, each organism is a food source for other. – There are two general types of food chains: Grazer- begin with plants and algae (producers). Decomposer- begin with dead material/wastes.  Both food chains function together. Food web represents feeding relationships within a community that connect many different food chains. – Energy and nutrients both flow through food webs but in very different ways.  Chapter 5 Nutrition & Digestion BIO 103 Fall 2024 Ms.Alanoud Albugami 15 5.1 Macronutrients and Micronutrients The nutrients we need to survive and prosper physically and mentally divided into: Macronutrients and Micronutrients. Macronutrients Macronutrients are consumed in large quantities and provide our bodies with energy and structure. They include: – Water – Carbohydrates – Lipids – Amino acids and proteins 16  Carbohydrates Are a major source of energy and fiber. Three groups: – Monosaccharides (one unit of sugar) Ex: (Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose). – Disaccharides (Two units of sugar bonded) Ex: (Sucrose/table sugar, lactose, and Maltose). – Polysaccharides (complex sugar- more than two). Starch, fibers, cellulose, glycogen – from glucose only. 17  Dietary fiber (A Type of Carb) Exists in two basic forms: 1) water-soluble e.g., hemicellulose May help to lower blood sugar and cholesterol. cereals, bran, legume 2) water-insoluble e.g., cellulose, lignin Increase peristaltic (decreases constipation) May help prevent cancer of the colon and rectum grains, vegetables, nuts 18  Amino Acids and Protein Proteins in food are broken down to amino acids. – Amino acids are used to make proteins, like enzymes and hormones. – There are 20 different types of amino acids, 11 synthesized by the body- rest from diet. Amino acids the body cannot synthesize are known as essential amino acids. – Complete proteins contain large amounts of essential amino acids (milk, eggs, fish, poultry, cheese, soy) Amino acids the body can synthesize are known as nonessential amino acids. 19  Micronutrients (Vitamins and minerals) Micronutrients are consumed in smaller amounts but are vital for various bodily functions. Absorbed not broken down! Vitamins – Organic compounds that perform a variety of functions, such as regulating metabolism, protecting cells, and aiding in growth and development. – Fall into two broad categories: Water-soluble: B-vitamins, Vitamin C. Fat-soluble: vitamins A, D, E, K. – Vitamin deficiencies can lead to serious homeostatic imbalance and many adverse health effects. 20  5-2: The Digestive System  The digestive system consists of a tube (gut) opened at both ends >>>> food enters the mouth and waste leaves at the opposite end through the anus.  During this journey, water, food molecules ,minerals , and vitamins are absorbed through the wall of the gut and enter the bloodstream.  Food is chemically and physically broken down. 21  The Esophagus The esophagus transports food to the stomach via peristalsis. (HOW)? Involuntary contractions of the muscular wall of the esophagus above the swallowed food mass, squeezing it along. 22  The Stomach The stomach stores food, releasing it into the small intestine in spurts. Gastric glands in the stomach produce gastric juice that made up of hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen. >>> HCL converts pepsinogen to pepsin enzyme (Activate the pepsin enzyme). Gastrin hormone stimulates the release of gastric juices. Protein are digested in the stomach by pepsin enzyme. The rest of the food is turned into chyme (semifluid mass of partially digested food) before it is released to the intestine. 23  Chapter 6 The Circulatory System  6.1 The Circulatory System’s Function: An Overview The circulatory system consist of: – A muscular pump – the heart. – Network of vessels. The circulatory system is one of the body’s chief homeostatic systems because it: – Distributes oxygen. – Helps maintain constant levels of nutrients and wastes. – Helps regulate body temperature. – Distributes body heat. – Protects against microorganisms. – Through clotting, protects against blood loss. 25  The Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits Blood flows through two distinct circuits in the cardiovascular system. – The pulmonary circuit Transports blood to and from the lungs. – The systemic circuit Delivers blood to the body and returns it to the heart. 26  Blood Flow Through the Heart  The human heart consists of FOUR chambers: two atria and two ventricles.  Two atria contract first, followed by contraction of two ventricles. 27  Heart Valves Valves help control the flow of blood in the heart. There are 4 valves in the heart:  The atrioventricular valves are between the atria and ventricles (right and left). – Called tricuspid and bicuspid.  The semilunar valves are between the ventricles and the arteries into which they pump blood (Pulmonary artery and aortic). 28  6.3 The Blood Vessels Blood flows from the heart…through the arteries…to arterioles…to the capillaries It then flows into venules…then veins…then back to the heart. 29  Capillaries permit the exchange of nutrients and wastes – Capillaries form branching networks among the cells of body tissues These are called capillary beds. 30  C. Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis results from the buildup of cholesterol plaque in arteries – Arteries clogged with cholesterol force the heart to work harder. – Blood clots can lodge in narrowed coronary arteries. 31 Chapter 7 The Blood  7-1 Blood: An Overview – Blood consists of two basic components: The plasma — fluid that contains dissolved nutrients, proteins, gases, and wastes. Its about 90% water. The formed elements — red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, suspended in the plasma.  Plasma constitutes about 55% of the blood volume, and the formed elements make up 45%.  7-3 Red Blood Cells Red blood cells (Erythrocytes) are highly flexible cells, they can bend and twist. They transport: – Oxygen – Carbon dioxide RBCs lives for 120 days, are replenished by stem cells in bone marrow. They lack nuclei and organelles, they don’t divide. TEM of Human RBCs SEM of Human RBCs Sickle-Cell Anemia  Anemia Anemia results in a decrease in oxygen transport by the blood. This can be the result of: – Decreased number of circulating RBCs (excessive bleeding, tumor in red marrow, infection). – Reduction in RBC hemoglobin content (Iron, B12, copper deficiency). – Abnormal hemoglobin in RBCs (Sickle cell anemia).  7-4 White Blood Cells White blood cells (Leukocytes) are a diverse group that protects the body from infection. – They are nucleated and produced in the bone marrow alongside red blood cells and circulate in the bloodstream.  WBC’s squeezing between the capillaries in the site of infection.  (A) Neutrophils Neutrophils are phagocytic cells (engulf microbes). They are most abundant immune cells the first to arrive at an injury. They leave the bloodstream and migrate to the site of infection by amoeboid movement.  (B) Monocytes Monocytes are a kind of clean up crew (Microphages). Larger than neutrophils , has U or kidney shaped nuclei. They also phagocytize: – Microorganisms. M – Dead cells. N – Cellular debris. – Dead neutrophils.  (C) Lymphocytes Lymphocytes are involved in immune reaction to microorganisms. They are the second most numerous WBCs, not phagocytic. They exist in outside circulatory system ( lymphoid organs, intestine, and respiratory tract). Types of lymphocytes: – T lymphocytes. – B lymphocytes.  Scanning electron micrograph of T lymphocyte (right), a platelet (center) and a red blood cell.  7-5 Blood Clotting Platelets are a vital component of the blood-clotting mechanism. – Produced in the bone marrow by fragmentation of a huge cell known as Megakaryocytes. – Clotting is a chain reaction stimulated by the release of a chemical (Thromboplastin) >>> act on and activate prothrombin enzyme to thrombin. – Thrombin in turn acts on another blood protein, fibrinogen >>> fibrinogen is converted into fibrin (weblike network). – The fibrin web traps RBCs and platelets. – Platelets captured by the fibrin web release additional thromboplastin, reinforcing the fibrin network. The Mechanism of Blood clotting  Chapter 8 The Vital Exchange: Respiration 42  8-1 Structure of the Human Respiratory System The respiratory system supplies oxygen to the body and gets rid of carbon dioxide. The respiratory system consists of: – An air-conducting portion that delivers air to the lungs. – A gas-exchange portion allows O2 to be transferred from inhaled air to the blood. The conducting portion of the respiratory system: – Moves air in and out of the body. – Filters, warms, and moistens incoming air.  Vocal cords In humans, sound is produced by the vocal cords. Inside each cord is an elastic tissue that vibrates when we talk, sing, or hum. Sound is influenced by the tongue and shape of the oral cavity. Muscles in the larynx that attached to the cords control sound tone.  The Alveoli The alveoli are the site of gaseous exchange. They are tiny, thin-walled sacs: – They are formed by a single layer of flattened epithelial cells that facilitate diffusion. Capillary beds surround the alveoli that: – Pick up oxygen. – Expel carbon dioxide.  8-2 Breathing and the Control of Respiration Air is moved in and out of the lungs by changes in pressure inside the chest cavity >>> Inhalation (Inspiration), Exhalation (expiration). Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts (flattens), intercostal muscles contract (lift ribs up and out), increasing lung volume and drawing air in. Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes (returns to dome shape), intercostal muscles relax (ribs move down and in), decreasing lung volume and expelling air. Exhalation Inhalation  Measuring Air Flow in the Lung (Lung capacity) Measurment of air flow into and out of the lungs can help physicians asses lung health. Tidal Volume (TV): The amount of air inhaled or exhaled during a normal, resting breath. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): The additional volume of air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): The additional volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation. Residual Volume (RV): The volume of air that remains in the lungs after a forceful exhalation.  Chapter 11 The Human Senses 11.1 The General and Special Senses  The human body has two primary categories of senses that work together:  General senses  Special Senses Pain Taste Temperature Smell Light touch Vision Pressure Hearing Sense of body and limb Balance position  11.1 The General and Special Senses The human body contains receptors that detect internal and external stimuli essential for our well-being and homeostasis. Both general and special senses rely on sensory receptors >>> convert physical or chemical stimuli into electrical signals that transmitted to the brain via sensory neuron.  Receptors for the senses are grouped into five functional categories: 1. Mechanoreceptors (touch, pressure, vibration) --- skin , joint , muscles. 2. Chemoreceptors (chemicals) --- taste and smell. 3. Thermoreceptors (heat, cold) --- skin. 4. Photoreceptors (light) --- vision. 5. Nociceptors (pain- pinch, tear, burn) --- throughout the body.  Encapsulated Receptors Proprioception – Proprioception is the sense of your body's position and movement in space. Located in your muscles, tendons, and joints. Essential for maintaining balance, posture, and coordination. Position is also detected by: Muscle spindles – These receptors are located within muscles and detect changes in muscle length. They help to regulate muscle tone and movement. Golgi tendon organ – These receptors are located in tendons and detect changes in muscle tension. They help to protect muscles from excessive force. – knee jerk reflex.  11.3 Taste and Smell  Taste Buds are receptors respond to chemicals dissolved in food.  They are located principally on the upper surface of the tongue on papillae.  Food molecules dissolved in the saliva bind to the membranes at the taste hair cells called microvilli of the receptor cells.  Taste Buds  Food dissolved in saliva enters taste pore.  Chemicals from food interact with receptors on taste hair cells (microvilli).  This stimulates sensory dendrites wrapped around taste hair cells.  Basal cell – undifferentiated cells that regenerate damaged taste cells.  Primary Flavors – Taste buds respond to five flavors: Salty (sides) Bitter (back) Sweet (tip) Sour (sides) Umami [meaty taste] all locations – Taste buds are preferentially responsive to one flavor.  11.3 The Smell The olfactory epithelium is a patch of receptor cells that detects odors. – It is located in the roof of the nasal cavities. – The receptor cells respond to thousands of different molecules. Smell influences our sense of taste, and vice versa.  11.4 The Visual Sense: The Eye Human eyes are roughly spherical organs located in the eye sockets, or orbits. The eye is attached to the orbit by six small muscles that control eye movement.  The human eye consists of three distinct layers: The outermost layer consists of: – the sclera (white). – the cornea (transparent). The middle layer consists of: – the choroid. – the ciliary body. – the iris. The inner part – retina.  Anatomy of The Eye – The choroid contains: melanin – dark surface that absorbs light, and blood vessels – supply nutrients. – The ciliary body contains smooth muscle that connect choroid and iris together, change shape of lens – allow focusing. – Pupil: The black circular opening in the center of the iris. Allow light to enter. – Iris is the colored part of the eye controls the size of pupil through a smooth muscle that contract to control amount of light.  Retina is weakly attached to choroid and may detach after head injury.  11.5 Ear: organ of Hearing and Balance The ear consists of three anatomically separate portions: – The outer ear. – The middle ear. – The inner ear.  11.5 Ear: Organ of Hearing and Balance The outer ear consists of the auricle (Pinna) and external auditory canal. – Both direct sound to the eardrum The middle ear consists of the eardrum (tympanic membrane) and three small bones, the Ossicles that transmit and amplify sound vibrations to the inner ear.  11.5 Ear: Organ of Hearing and Balance The Eustachian tube helps to equalize pressure in the middle ear. The inner ear contains the cochlea, where the receptors for sound and vestibular apparatus, where receptors of body position and movements are located. Semicircular canals is The part of the ear that helps to maintain balance and equilibrium.  Anatomy of The Eye  The retina, the light- sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye contains with two types of photoreceptors: Rods: Function in dim light and provide black-and-white vision. Cones: Operate in bright light and provide color vision responsible for visual acuity.  Chapter 12 The Skeleton & Muscles 62  12.1 Structure and Function of the Human Skeleton Bones, joints, and muscles make up about 50-60% of human body weight. Bones serve many functions and play an important role in homeostasis including: – Provide internal support. – Allow for movement. – Help protect internal body parts. – Produce blood cells and platelets. – Store fat. – Store minerals: calcium and phosphors. – Help regulate blood calcium levels.  The human skeleton (206 bones) consists of two parts: 1. The axial skeleton  Skull.  Vertebral column.  Rib cage. 2. The appendicular skeleton  Bones of arms.  Shoulders.  Legs.  Pelvis.  Bone Remodeling Bones are constantly remodeled in adults to meet changing stresses placed on them. Maintain bone strength and structure, as well as regulate calcium levels in the body. Two types of cells are responsible for bone remodeling: – Osteoclasts — breakdown bone. – Osteoblasts — form bone.  The Joints – Structures that connect bones. – Classified by degrees of mobility: Immovable, Slightly movable, and Freely movable. Immovable Joints Slightly Movable Joints skull sutures (intervertebral joints) pelvic symphysis  Types of Synovial Joint 1. Hinge joints – allows movement in one plane (knee joint). 2. Ball-and–socket joints – allows wider 3D movements (shoulder, hip).  Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) RA is an autoimmune disease: – It results in an inflammation and thicken of the synovial membrane. – It can spread to articular cartilage. Thickening of the synovial membrane and degeneration of the bone often: – Disfigure the joints. – Bone can be dislocated. – Reduce mobility. – Cause considerable pain. RA can be treated with: – Physical therapy. – Painkillers. – Anti-inflammatory drugs. – Surgery.  Maintaining Calcium Levels In addition to bone remodeling, Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts help control blood calcium levels (Homeostasis). They are controlled by two hormons: Parathyroid hormone (PTH, Parathormone) released by parathyroid glands stimulates replenishment of calcium levels. – It causes osteoclasts to digest bone in to release calcium. Calcitonin (released by thyroid gland) stops osteoclasts from digesting bone when calcium levels are high. Maintaining Calcium Levels  Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Skeletal muscles consist of long, unbranched muscle fibers. Muscle fibers contain many small bundles (myofibrils) of contractile filaments (myofilaments). Myofibrils are striated in appearance: – They contain thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments.  The motor unit  A “motor unit” is defined as one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.  Fibers are stimulated by nerve impulses arriving at the terminal boutons of motor nerves.  Chapter 13 The Endocrine System 73  13.1 General Principles of Endocrinology The endocrine glands produces hormones: – They are transported in the blood to distant sites. – They influence many functions. Hormones affect five vital aspects of our lives: – Homeostasis. – Growth and development. – Reproduction. – Energy production, storage and use. – Behavior.  Target Cells Target cells contain receptors for specific hormones. Selectivity occurs because of protein receptors.  Main Endocrine glands Pineal gland Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands Thymus gland (children) Adrenal gland Liver Kidney Pancreas Ovaries (women) Testes (men)  The Anterior and Posterior Pituitary Hormones  The anterior pituitary lobe produce seven hormones with different functions: – Growth Hormone (GH). – Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH). – Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH). – Gonadotropins: follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). – Prolactin. – Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH). – Beta-endorphin (precursor of MSH).  The posterior pituitary: Oxytocin.  Growth Hormone Growth hormone stimulates cell growth and Primarily targets muscle and bone >>>> Stimulates production of several polypeptide hormones called somatomedins >>> stimulate bone and cartilage cells. Growth hormone imbalance can result in dramatic changes in body shape and size. During the child growth phase: Underproduction – dwarfism. Overproduction – gigantism. Overproduction in adult: Acromegaly (enlarged fingers, hands and feet, coarse face, hunched back, enlarged tong, kidney, liver).  Negative Feedback Control Hormone secretion is often controlled by negative feedback mechanisms: – The end product of a biochemical process inhibits its own production.  Example: glucagon – pancreatic hormone that stimulates breakdown of glycogen in liver to produce glucose. High glucose concentration shuts down glucagon production Positive feedback loops are (rarely) seen in the endocrine system: – The hormonal product of a cell or organ stimulates the production of another hormone (ovulation cycle).  Chapter 14 The Immune System 80  Viruses Viruses are nonliving biological agents that invade cells to reproduce. Viruses consist of: – a nucleic acid core (DNA or RNA). – a coat of protein molecules (capsid). – some have additional layer (Envelop). Enters the body (Host) through respiratory system , digestive system , and the skin. General structure of a virus Electron micrograph of HIV virus  Bacteria Many bacteria perform useful functions: – Others cause serious diseases. Bacteria are living organisms that reproduce on their own: – They do not take over host cells like virus. General structure of a bacterium Electron micrograph of Salmonella bacteria  Treating Bacterial and Viral Infections Bacteria respond to antibiotics: – Many have become resistant to heavy use of antibiotics. Viruses do not respond to antibiotics: – Treatment focuses on managing symptoms and allowing the body to fight the infection. – New antiviral drugs may help flu sufferers.  The First Line of Defense In humans, the first line of defense against microbes is a physical and chemical barrier. – Physical The skin. Epithelial linings of the respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems. – Chemical Body secretions that impair bacterial growth like mucus, tears, saliva, and stomach acid.  The Second Line of Defense The body’s second line of defense combats infectious agents that penetrate the first line, (innate immunity). It consists of cellular and chemical responses, including: – The inflammatory response. – Pyrogens. – Interferons. – Complement.  The Inflammatory Response Redness, Swelling, Pain  The inflammatory response involves chemical and cellular responses: - Macrophages and neutrophils phagocytize infectious agents, preventing their spread. - Histamine stimulates arterioles in the infected tissue to dilate (vasodilation). - The increase in blood flow raises the temperature of the wound >> redness and heat. - Heat stimulates macrophage metabolism, accelerating the rate of the destruction of infectious agents >> accelerate healing. - Other chemicals increase the permeability of the capillaries, causing plasma to flow into the wound >> swelling. The Inflammatory Response  Pyrogens, Interferons, and Complement Pyrogens are molecules released primarily by macrophages exposed to bacteria: – They raise body temperature by acting on hypothalamus (Thermostat) >> and lower iron availability >> decreasing bacterial replication.  Complement System The complement system complement the action of antibodies. It is part of the immune system called the innate immune system. The complement system consists of number of small proteins found in the blood, in general synthesized by the liver, and normally circulating as inactive precursors. Complement proteins circulate in the blood in an inactive state: – They become activated only when the body is invaded by bacteria. – Five complement proteins form a membrane-attack complex:  The complex embeds in the bacterial plasma membrane and causes cell lysis (swell, burst, and die).  The Third Line of Defense: The Immune System The cells of the immune system selectively target foreign substances and organisms: – The immune system is specific >> recognize and respond. In the adaptive immune response, Lymphocytes serve as: – Receptors to detect a change (Antigen recognition). – Effectors to bring about a response (Eliminate threat).  Antigens Antigens are substances that trigger an immune response. They are large weight molecules, particularly proteins and polysaccharides. Antigens are antibody-generating substances.  How Antibodies Work Antibodies destroy antigens in one of four ways: – Neutralization. – Agglutination. – Precipitation. – Activation of the complement system. How Antibodies Work  Active and Passive Immunity Active immunity: – A vaccine is injected into the body. – The vaccine contains an inactivated or weakened: virus bacterium bacterial toxin Passive immunity: – Antibodies are injected into the body. – Antibodies are transferred from a mother to her baby.  Diseases of the Immune System (A) Allergies Allergies are an immune system overreaction to environmental substances such as pollen or food. Antigens that stimulate an allergic reaction are called allergens:  Allergens cause plasma cells to produce immunoglobulin known as IgE antibodies.  IgE antibodies bind to mast cells: Mast cells release histamine and other chemical substances via exocytosis that induce the symptoms of an allergy.