FE Reference Handbook 10.4 PDF

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This document is protected under U.S. and international copyright law. You may print this document for your personal use, but you may not distribute it electronically or in print or post it on the internet without the express written permission of NCEES. Contact [email protected] for more information. FE Reference Handbook 10.4 Copyright ©2020 by NCEES®. All rights reserved. All NCEES material is copyrighted under the laws of the United States. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of NCEES. Requests for permissions should be addressed in writing to [email protected]. ISBN 978-1-947801-11-0 Printed in the United States of America Sixth printing May 2024 Edition 10.4 Introduction About the Handbook The Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam is computer based, and the FE Reference Handbook is the only resource material you may use during the exam. Reviewing it before exam day will help you become familiar with the charts, formulas, tables, and other reference information provided. You won't be allowed to bring your personal copy of the Handbook into the exam room. Instead, the computer-based exam will include a PDF version of the Handbook for your use. No printed copies of the Handbook will be allowed in the exam room. The PDF version of the FE Reference Handbook that you use on exam day will be very similar to the printed version. Pages not needed to solve exam questions—such as the cover, introductory material, index, and exam specifications—will not be included in the PDF version. In addition, NCEES will periodically revise and update the Handbook, and each FE exam will be administered using the updated version. The FE Reference Handbook does not contain all the information required to answer every question on the exam. Basic theories, conversions, formulas, and definitions examinees are expected to know have not been included. Special material required for the solution of a particular exam question will be included in the question itself. Updates on exam content and procedures NCEES.org is our home on the web. Visit us there for updates on everything exam related, including specifications, exam- day policies, scoring, and practice tests. A PDF version of the FE Reference Handbook similar to the one you will use on exam day is also available there. Errata To report errata in this book, send your correction using our chat feature or your account on NCEES.org. We will also post errata on the website. Examinees are not penalized for any errors in the Handbook that affect an exam question. iii iv Contents Units and Conversion Factors...........................................................................................................1 Ethics and Professional Practice.......................................................................................................4 Safety..............................................................................................................................................13 Mathematics....................................................................................................................................34 Engineering Probability and Statistics............................................................................................63 Chemistry and Biology...................................................................................................................85 Statics..............................................................................................................................................94 Dynamics......................................................................................................................................101 Materials Science/Structure of Matter..........................................................................................117 Mechanics of Materials.................................................................................................................130 Thermodynamics...........................................................................................................................143 Fluid Mechanics............................................................................................................................177 Heat Transfer.................................................................................................................................204 Instrumentation, Measurement, and Control................................................................................220 Engineering Economics................................................................................................................230 Chemical Engineering...................................................................................................................238 Civil Engineering..........................................................................................................................259 Environmental Engineering..........................................................................................................312 Electrical and Computer Engineering...........................................................................................356 Industrial and Systems Engineering..............................................................................................419 Mechanical Engineering...............................................................................................................433 Index.............................................................................................................................................463 Appendix: FE Exam Specifications..............................................................................................473 v vi Units and Conversion Factors Distinguishing pound-force from pound-mass The FE exam and this handbook use both the metric system of units and the U.S. Customary System (USCS). In the USCS system of units, both force and mass are called pounds. Therefore, one must distinguish the pound-force (lbf) from the pound-mass (lbm). The pound-force is that force which accelerates one pound-mass at 32.174 ft/sec2. Thus, 1 lbf = 32.174 lbm-ft/sec2. The expression 32.174 lbm-ft/(lbf-sec2) is designated as gc and is used to resolve expressions involving both mass and force expressed as pounds. For instance, in writing Newton's second law, the equation would be written as F = ma/gc, where F is in lbf, m in lbm, and a is in ft/sec2. Similar expressions exist for other quantities: Kinetic energy, KE = mv2/2gc, with KE in (ft-lbf) Potential energy, PE = mgh/gc, with PE in (ft-lbf) Fluid pressure, p = ρgh/gc, with p in (lbf/ft2) Specific weight, SW = ρg/gc, in (lbf/ft3) Shear stress, τ = (µ/gc)(dv/dy), with shear stress in (lbf/ft2). In all these examples, gc should be regarded as a force unit conversion factor. It is frequently not written explicitly in engineering equations. However, its use is required to produce a consistent set of units. Note that the force unit conversion factor gc [lbm-ft/(lbf-sec2)] should not be confused with the local acceleration of gravity g, which has different units (m/s2 or ft/sec2) and may be either its standard value (9.807 m/s2 or 32.174 ft/sec2) or some other local value. If the problem is presented in USCS units, it may be necessary to use the constant gc in the equation to have a consistent set of units. Constants and conversion factors provided are approximate, with sufficient accuracy to solve exam questions. METRIC PREFIXES COMMONLY USED EQUIVALENTS Multiple Prefix Symbol 10–18 atto a 10–15 femto f 1 gallon of water weighs 8.34 lbf 10–12 pico p 1 cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 lbf 10–9 nano n 1 cubic inch of mercury weighs 0.491 lbf 10–6 micro µ The mass of 1 cubic meter of water is 1,000 kilograms 10–3 milli m 1 mg/L is 8.34 × 10–6 lbm/gal 10–2 centi c 10–1 deci d 101 deka da TEMPERATURE CONVERSIONS 102 hecto h 103 kilo k 106 mega ºF = 1.8 (ºC) + 32 M 109 giga G ºC = (ºF – 32)/1.8 1012 tera T ºR = ºF + 459.69 1015 peta P K = ºC + 273.15 1018 exa E 1 ©2020 NCEES  Units and Conversion Factors Significant Figures Significant figures of numbers in math operations will determine the accuracy of the result. General rules for significant digits are: Rule 1: Non-zero digits are always significant. Rule 2: Any zeros between two significant digits are significant. Rule 3a: In the decimal portion of a number whose absolute value is less than 1, all zeroes to the right of the first non-zero digit are significant. Rule 3b: In the decimal portion of a number whose absolute value is greater than or equal to 1, all zeroes are significant. Rule 4 (Addition and Subtraction): The number used in the calculation with the least number of significant digits after the decimal point dictates the number of significant figures after the decimal point. The number with the most significant figures to the left of the decimal point dictates the number of significant digits to the left of decimal point. Rule 5 (Multiplication and Division): The result of the operation has the same number of significant digits as the input number with the least number of significant digits. Rule 6: In the solution of engineering problems, it is customary to retain 3–4 significant digits in the final result. Ideal Gas Constants The universal gas constant, designated as R in the table below, relates pressure, volume, temperature, and number of moles of an ideal gas. When that universal constant, R , is divided by the molecular weight of the gas, the result, often designated as R, has units of energy per degree per unit mass [kJ/(kg·K) or ft-lbf/(lbm-ºR)] and becomes characteristic of the particular gas. Some disciplines, notably chemical engineering, often use the symbol R to refer to the universal gas constant R. Fundamental Constants Quantity Symbol Value Units electron charge e 1.6022 × 10−19 C (coulombs) Faraday constant F 96,485 coulombs/(mol) gas constant metric R 8,314 J/(kmol K) gas constant metric R 8.314 kPa m3/(kmol K) gas constant USCS R 1,545 ft-lbf/(lb mole-ºR) R 0.08206 L atm/(mole K) gravitation-Newtonian constant G 6.673 × 10–11 m3/(kg s2) gravitation-Newtonian constant G 6.673 × 10–11 N m2/kg2 gravity acceleration (standard) metric g 9.807 m/s2 gravity acceleration (standard) USCS g 32.174 ft/sec2 molar volume (ideal gas), T = 273.15 K, p = 101.3 kPa Vm 22,414 L/kmol speed of light (exact) c 299,792,458 m/s Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ 5.67 × 10–8 W/(m2 K4) ©2020 NCEES 2  Units and Conversion Factors Multiply By To Obtain Multiply By To Obtain acre 43,560 square feet (ft2) joule (J) 9.478 × 10–4 Btu ampere-hr (A-hr) 3,600 coulomb (C) J 0.7376 ft-lbf ångström (Å) 1 × 10–10 meter (m) J 1 newton m (N m) atmosphere (atm) 76.0 cm, mercury (Hg) J/s 1 watt (W) atm, std 29.92 in., mercury (Hg) atm, std 14.70 lbf/in2 abs (psia) kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound-mass (lbm) atm, std 33.90 ft, water kgf 9.8066 newton (N) atm, std 1.013 × 105 pascal (Pa) kilometer (km) 3,281 feet (ft) km/hr 0.621 mph 5 bar 1 × 10 Pa kilopascal (kPa) 0.145 lbf/in2 (psi) bar 0.987 atm kilowatt (kW) 1.341 horsepower (hp) barrels–oil 42 gallons–oil kW 3,413 Btu/hr Btu 1,055 joule (J) kW 737.6 (ft-lbf )/sec Btu 2.928 × 10–4 kilowatt-hr (kWh) kW-hour (kWh) 3,413 Btu Btu 778 ft-lbf kWh 1.341 hp-hr Btu/hr 3.930 × 10–4 horsepower (hp) kWh 3.6 × 106 joule (J) Btu/hr 0.293 watt (W) kip (K) 1,000 lbf Btu/hr 0.216 ft-lbf/sec K 4,448 newton (N) calorie (g-cal) 3.968 × 10–3 Btu liter (L) 61.02 in3 cal 1.560 × 10–6 hp-hr L 0.264 gal (U.S. Liq) cal 4.184 joule (J) L 10–3 m3 cal/sec 4.184 watt (W) L/second (L/s) 2.119 ft3/min (cfm) centimeter (cm) 3.281 × 10–2 foot (ft) L/s 15.85 gal (U.S.)/min (gpm) cm 0.394 inch (in) centipoise (cP) 0.001 pascal sec (Pa s) meter (m) 3.281 feet (ft) centipoise (cP) 1 g/(m s) m 1.094 yard centipoise (cP) 2.419 lbm/hr-ft m/second (m/s) 196.8 feet/min (ft/min) centistoke (cSt) 1 × 10–6 m2/sec (m2/s) mile (statute) 5,280 feet (ft) cubic feet/second (cfs) 0.646317 million gallons/day (MGD) mile (statute) 1.609 kilometer (km) cubic foot (ft3) 7.481 gallon mile/hour (mph) 88.0 ft/min (fpm) cubic meters (m3) 1,000 liters mph 1.609 km/h mm of Hg 1.316 × 10–3 atm electronvolt (eV) 1.602 × 10–19 joule (J) mm of H2O 9.678 × 10–5 atm foot (ft) 30.48 cm newton (N) 0.225 lbf ft 0.3048 meter (m) newton (N) 1 kg m/s2 ft of H2O 0.4332 psi N m 0.7376 ft-lbf ft-pound (ft-lbf) 1.285 × 10–3 Btu N m 1 joule (J) ft-lbf 3.766 × 10–7 kilowatt-hr (kWh) ft-lbf 0.324 calorie (g-cal) pascal (Pa) 9.869 × 10–6 atmosphere (atm) ft-lbf 1.356 joule (J) Pa 1 newton/m2 (N/m2) ft-lbf/sec 1.818 × 10–3 horsepower (hp) Pa sec (Pa s) 10 poise (P) pound (lbm, avdp) 0.454 kilogram (kg) gallon (U.S. Liq) 231 in3 lbf 4.448 N gallon (U.S. Liq) 3.785 liter (L) lbf-ft 1.356 N m gallon (U.S. Liq) 0.134 ft3 lbf/in2 (psi) 0.068 atm gallons of water 8.3453 pounds of water psi 2.307 ft of H2O gamma (γ, Γ) 1 × 10–9 tesla (T) psi 2.036 in. of Hg gauss 1 × 10–4 T psi 6,895 Pa gram (g) 2.205 × 10–3 pound (lbm) radian (rad) 180/π degree hectare 1 × 104 square meters (m2) revolution (rev) 2×π radian hectare 2.47104 acres rpm horsepower (hp) 42.4 Btu/min (revolutions per minute) 2 × π/60 radian/second hp 745.7 watt (W) hp 33,000 (ft-lbf)/min slug 32.174 pound-mass (lbm) hp 550 (ft-lbf)/sec stokes 1 × 10–4 m2/s hp-hr 2,545 Btu hp-hr 1.98 × 106 ft-lbf tesla 1.0 weber/m2 hp-hr 2.68 × 106 joule (J) therm 1 × 105 Btu hp-hr 0.746 kWh ton (metric) 1,000 kilogram (kg) ton (short) 2,000 pound-force (lbf) inch (in.) 2.540 centimeter (cm) in. of Hg 0.0334 atm watt (W) 3.413 Btu/hr in. of Hg 13.60 in. of H2O W 1.341 × 10–3 horsepower (hp) in. of H2O 0.0361 lbf/in2 (psi) W 1 joule/s (J/s) in. of H2O 0.002458 atm weber/m2 (Wb/m2) 10,000 gauss 3 ©2020 NCEES Ethics and Professional Practice Code of Ethics Engineering is considered to be a "profession" rather than an "occupation" because of several important characteristics shared with other recognized learned professions, law, medicine, and theology: special knowledge, special privileges, and special responsibilities. Professions are based on a large knowledge base requiring extensive training. Professional skills are important to the well-being of society. Professions are self-regulating, in that they control the training and evaluation processes that admit new persons to the field. Professionals have autonomy in the workplace; they are expected to utilize their independent judgment in carrying out their professional responsibilities. Finally, professions are regulated by ethical standards. (Harris, C.E., M.S. Pritchard, & M.J. Rabins, Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases, Wadsworth Publishing company, pages 27–28, 1995.) The expertise possessed by engineers is vitally important to societal welfare. In order to serve society effectively, engineers must maintain a high level of technical competence. However, a high level of technical expertise without adherence to ethical guidelines is as much a threat to public welfare as is professional incompetence. Therefore, engineers must also be guided by ethical principles. The ethical principles governing the engineering profession are embodied in codes of ethics. Such codes have been adopted by state boards of registration, professional engineering societies, and even by some private industries. An example of one such code is the NCEES Rules of Professional Conduct, found in Section 240 of the Model Rules and presented here. As part of his/her responsibility to the public, an engineer is responsible for knowing and abiding by the code. Additional rules of conduct are also included in the Model Rules. The three major sections of the Model Rules address (1) Licensee's Obligation to the Public, (2) Licensee's Obligation to Employers and Clients, and (3) Licensee's Obligation to Other Licensees. The principles amplified in these sections are important guides to appropriate behavior of professional engineers. Application of the code in many situations is not controversial. However, there may be situations in which applying the code may raise more difficult issues. In particular, there may be circumstances in which terminology in the code is not clearly defined, or in which two sections of the code may be in conflict. For example, what constitutes "valuable consideration" or "adequate" knowledge may be interpreted differently by qualified professionals. These types of questions are called conceptual issues, in which definitions of terms may be in dispute. In other situations, factual issues may also affect ethical dilemmas. Many decisions regarding engineering design may be based upon interpretation of disputed or incomplete information. In addition, tradeoffs revolving around competing issues of risk vs. benefit, or safety vs. economics may require judgments that are not fully addressed simply by application of the code. No code can give immediate and mechanical answers to all ethical and professional problems that an engineer may face. Creative problem solving is often called for in ethics, just as it is in other areas of engineering. Model Rules, Section 240.15 Rules of Professional Conduct To safeguard the health, safety, and welfare of the public and to maintain integrity and high standards of skill and practice in the engineering and surveying professions, the rules of professional conduct provided in this section shall be binding upon every licensee and on all firms authorized to offer or perform engineering or surveying services in this jurisdiction. A. Licensee’s Obligation to the Public 1. Licensees shall be cognizant that their first and foremost responsibility is to safeguard the health, safety, and welfare of the public when performing services for clients and employers. 2. Licensees shall sign and seal only those plans, surveys, and other documents that conform to accepted engineering and surveying standards and that safeguard the health, safety, and welfare of the public. 3. Licensees shall notify their employer or client and such other authority as may be appropriate when their professional judgment is overruled when the health, safety, or welfare of the public is endangered. 4. Licensees shall, to the best of their knowledge, include all relevant and pertinent information in an objective and truthful manner within all professional documents, statements, and testimony. 5. Licensees shall express a professional opinion publicly only when it is founded upon an adequate knowledge of the facts and a competent evaluation of the subject matter. ©2020 NCEES 4  Ethics and Professional Practice 6. Licensees shall issue no statements, criticisms, or arguments on engineering and surveying matters that are inspired or paid for by interested parties, unless they explicitly identify the interested parties on whose behalf they are speaking and reveal any interest they have in the matters. 7. Licensees shall not partner, practice, or offer to practice with any person or firm that they know is engaged in fraudulent or dishonest business or professional practices. 8. Licensees who have knowledge or reason to believe that any person or firm has violated any rules or laws applying to the practice of engineering or surveying shall report it to the board, may report it to appropriate legal authorities, and shall cooperate with the board and those authorities as requested. 9. Licensees shall not knowingly provide false or incomplete information regarding an applicant in obtaining licensure. 10. Licensees shall comply with the licensing laws and rules governing their professional practice in each of the jurisdictions in which they practice. B. Licensee’s Obligation to Employer and Clients 1. Licensees shall undertake assignments only when qualified by education or experience in the specific technical fields of engineering or surveying involved. 2. Licensees shall not affix their signatures or seals to any plans or documents dealing with subject matter in which they lack competence, nor to any such plan or document not prepared under their responsible charge. 3. Licensees may accept assignments and assume responsibility for coordination of an entire project if each technical segment is signed and sealed by the licensee responsible for preparation of that technical segment. 4. Licensees shall not reveal facts, data, or information obtained in a professional capacity without the prior consent of the client, employer, or public body on which they serve except as authorized or required by law or rules. 5. Licensees shall not solicit or accept gratuities, directly or indirectly, from contractors, their agents, or other parties in connection with work for employers or clients. 6. Licensees shall disclose to their employers or clients all known or potential conflicts of interest or other circumstances that could influence or appear to influence their judgment or the quality of their professional service or engagement. 7. Licensees shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from more than one party for services pertaining to the same project, unless the circumstances are fully disclosed and agreed to in writing by all interested parties. 8. Licensees shall not solicit or accept a professional contract from a governmental body on which a principal or officer of their organization serves as a member. Conversely, licensees serving as members, advisors, or employees of a government body or department, who are the principals or employees of a private concern, shall not participate in decisions with respect to professional services offered or provided by said concern to the governmental body that they serve. 9. Licensees shall not use confidential information received in the course of their assignments as a means of making personal profit without the consent of the party from whom the information was obtained. C. Licensee’s Obligation to Other Licensees 1. Licensees shall not falsify or permit misrepresentation of their, or their associates’, academic or professional qualifications. They shall not misrepresent or exaggerate their degree of responsibility in prior assignments nor the complexity of said assignments. Presentations incidental to the solicitation of employment or business shall not misrepresent pertinent facts concerning employers, employees, associates, joint ventures, or past accomplishments. 2. Licensees shall not offer, give, solicit, or receive, either directly or indirectly, any commission, or gift, or other valuable consideration in order to secure work, and shall not make any political contribution with the intent to influence the award of a contract by public authority. 3. Licensees shall not injure or attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, the professional reputation, prospects, practice, or employment of other licensees, nor indiscriminately criticize other licensees’ work. 4. Licensees shall make a reasonable effort to inform another licensee whose work is believed to contain a material discrepancy, error, or omission that may impact the health, safety, or welfare of the public, unless such reporting is legally prohibited. 5 ©2020 NCEES  Ethics and Professional Practice Model Law, Section 110.20 Definitions A. Engineer 1. Engineer—The term "Engineer," within the intent of this Act, shall mean an individual who is qualified to practice engineering by reason of engineering education, training, and experience in the application of engineering principles and the interpretation of engineering data. 2. Professional Engineer—The term "Professional Engineer," as used in this Act, shall mean an individual who has been duly licensed as a professional engineer by the board. The board may designate a professional engineer, on the basis of education, experience, and examination, as being licensed in a specific discipline or branch of engineering signifying the area in which the engineer has demonstrated competence. 3. Professional Engineer, Retired—The term "Professional Engineer, Retired," as used in this Act, shall mean an individual who has been duly licensed as a professional engineer by the board and who chooses to relinquish or not to renew a license and who applies to and is approved by the board to be granted the use of the title "Professional Engineer, Retired." 4. Engineer Intern—The term "Engineer Intern," as used in this Act, shall mean an individual who has been duly certified as an engineer intern by the board. 5. Practice of Engineering—The term "Practice of Engineering," as used in this Act, shall mean any service or creative work requiring engineering education, training, and experience in the application of engineering principles and the interpretation of engineering data to engineering activities that potentially impact the health, safety, and welfare of the public. The services may include, but not be limited to, providing planning, studies, designs, design coordination, drawings, specifications, and other technical submissions; teaching engineering design courses; performing surveying that is incidental to the practice of engineering; and reviewing construction or other design products for the purposes of monitoring compliance with drawings and specifications related to engineered works. Surveying incidental to the practice of engineering excludes the surveying of real property for the establishment of land boundaries, rights of way, easements, and the dependent or independent surveys or resurveys of the public land survey system. An individual shall be construed to practice engineering, within the meaning and intent of this Act, if he or she does any of the following: a. Practices any discipline of the profession of engineering or holds himself or herself out as able and entitled to practice any discipline of engineering b. Represents himself or herself to be a professional engineer by verbal claim, sign, advertisement, letterhead, or card or in any other way c. Through the use of some other title, implies that he or she is a professional engineer under this Act 6. Inactive Status—Licensees who are not engaged in engineering practice that requires licensure in this jurisdiction may be granted inactive status. No licensee granted inactive status may practice or offer to practice engineering in this jurisdiction unless otherwise exempted in this Act. B. Professional Surveyor (Professional Land Surveyor, Professional Surveyor and Mapper, Geomatics Professional, or equivalent term); See Model Law. C. Board—The term "Board," as used in this Act, shall mean the jurisdiction board of licensure for professional engineers and professional surveyors, hereinafter provided by this Act. D. Jurisdiction—The term "Jurisdiction," as used in this Act, shall mean a state, the District of Columbia, or any territory, commonwealth, or possession of the United States that issues licenses to practice and regulates the practice of engineering and/or surveying within its legal boundaries. E. Responsible Charge—The term "Responsible Charge," as used in this Act, shall mean direct control and personal supervision of engineering or surveying work, as the case may be. F. Rules of Professional Conduct—The term "Rules of Professional Conduct," as used in this Act, shall mean those rules of professional conduct, if any, promulgated by the board as authorized by this Act. G. Firm—The term "Firm," as used in this Act, shall mean any form of business or entity other than an individual operating as a sole proprietorship under his or her own name. H. Managing Agent—The term "Managing Agent," as used in this Act, shall mean an individual who is licensed under this Act and who has been designated pursuant to Section 160.20 of this Act by the firm. I. Rules—The term "Rules," as used in this Act, shall mean those rules and regulations adopted pursuant to Section 120.60 A, Board Powers, of this Act. ©2020 NCEES 6  Ethics and Professional Practice J. Signature—The term "Signature," as used in this Act, shall be in accordance with the Rules. K. Seal—The term "Seal," as used in this Act, shall mean a symbol, image, or list of information. L. Licensee—The term "Licensee," as used in this Act, shall mean a professional engineer or a professional surveyor. M. Person—The term "Person," as used in this Act, shall mean an individual or firm. N. Authoritative—The term "Authoritative," as used in this Act or Rules promulgated under this Act, shall mean being presented as trustworthy and competent when used to describe products, processes, applications, or data resulting from the practice of surveying. O. Disciplinary Action—The term "Disciplinary Action," as used in this Act, shall mean any final written decision or settlement taken against an individual or firm by a licensing board based upon a violation of the board’s laws and rules. P. Positional accuracy—The extent to which horizontal and vertical information on a map or in a digital database matches true or accepted values that are relative to the earth’s surface or other reference datum Q. Georeferenced—Being referenced, measured, or described in spatial terms relative to the earth’s surface or other reference datum R. Surveying deliverables—Any map, database, report, or other similar electronic or printed deliverable that shows the authoritative location of features or coordinate systems. Surveying deliverables provide spatial information to a level of positional accuracy, whether that accuracy is stated, regulated, or implied. Model Law, Section 130.10 General Requirements for Licensure Education, experience, and examinations are required for licensure as a professional engineer or professional surveyor as set forth by the jurisdiction. A. Eligibility for Licensure To be eligible for licensure as a professional engineer or professional surveyor, an individual must meet all of the following requirements: 1. Be of good character and reputation 2. Satisfy the education criteria set forth by the board 3. Satisfy the experience criteria set forth by the board 4. Pass the applicable examinations set forth by the board 5. Submit five references acceptable to the board B. Engineering 1. Certification or Enrollment as an Engineer Intern The following shall be considered as minimum evidence that the applicant is qualified for certification as an engineer intern. a. Graduating from an engineering program of four years or more accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission of ABET (EAC/ABET), graduating from an engineering master’s program accredited by EAC/ ABET, or meeting the requirements of the NCEES Engineering Education Standard b. Passing the NCEES Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) examination 2. Licensure as a Professional Engineer a. Initial Licensure as a Professional Engineer An applicant who presents evidence of meeting the applicable education, examination, and experience requirements as described below shall be eligible for licensure as a professional engineer. (1) Education Requirements An individual seeking licensure as a professional engineer shall possess one or more of the following education qualifications: (a) A degree in engineering from an EAC/ABET-accredited bachelor’s program (b) A degree in engineering from an EAC/ABET-accredited master’s program (c) A bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree in engineering from a non-EAC/ABET-accredited program. This individual’s education must be shown to meet the NCEES Engineering Education Standard. (2) Examination Requirements An individual seeking licensure as a professional engineer shall take and pass the NCEES Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) examination and the NCEES Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) examination as described below. (a) The FE examination may be taken by a college senior or graduate of an engineering program of four years or more accredited by EAC/ABET, of a program that meets the requirements of the NCEES Engineering Education Standard, or of an engineering master’s program accredited by EAC/ABET. 7 ©2020 NCEES  Ethics and Professional Practice (b) The PE examination may be taken by an engineer intern. (3) Experience Requirements An individual seeking licensure as a professional engineer shall present evidence of a specific record of four years of progressive engineering experience after a qualifying degree is conferred as described in a(1) above. This experience should be of a grade and character that indicate to the board that the applicant may be competent to practice engineering. The following educational criteria may apply as a substitute to the length of experience set forth above: (a) An individual with a master’s degree in engineering acceptable to the board: three years of experience after the qualifying bachelor’s degree is conferred as described in a(1)(a) or a(1)(c) above (b) An individual with an earned doctoral degree in engineering acceptable to the board and who has passed the FE exam: two years of experience (c) An individual with an earned doctoral degree in engineering acceptable to the board and who has elected not to take the FE exam: four years of experience A graduate degree that is used to satisfy education requirements cannot be applied for experience credit toward licensure. To be eligible for experience credit, graduate degrees shall be relevant to the applicant’s area of professional practice. Experience credit for a graduate degree cannot be earned concurrently with work experience credit. b. Licensure by Comity for a Professional Engineer The following shall be considered as minimum evidence satisfactory to the board that the applicant is qualified for licensure by comity as a professional engineer: (1) An individual holding a certificate of licensure to engage in the practice of engineering issued by a proper authority of any jurisdiction or any foreign country, based on requirements that do not conflict with the provisions of this Act and possessing credentials that are, in the judgment of the board, of a standard that provides proof of minimal competency and is comparable to the applicable licensure act in effect in this jurisdiction at the time such certificate was issued may, upon application, be licensed without further examination except as required to examine the applicant’s knowledge of statutes, rules, and other requirements unique to this jurisdiction; or (2) An individual holding an active Council Record with NCEES, whose qualifications as evidenced by the Council Record meet the requirements of this Act, may, upon application, be licensed without further examination except as required to examine the applicant’s knowledge of statutes, rules, and other requirements unique to this jurisdiction. C. Surveying; See Model Law Model Law, Section 150.10, Grounds for Disciplinary Action—Licensees and Interns A. The board shall have the power to suspend, revoke, place on probation, fine, recover costs, and/or reprimand, or to refuse to issue, restore, or renew a license or intern certification to any licensee or intern that is found guilty of: 1. Any fraud or deceit in obtaining or attempting to obtain or renew a certificate of licensure 2. Any negligence, incompetence, or misconduct in the practice of engineering or surveying 3. Conviction of or entry of a plea of guilty or nolo contendere to any crime that is a felony, whether or not related to the practice of engineering or surveying; and conviction of or entry of a plea of guilty or nolo contendere to any crime, whether a felony, misdemeanor, or otherwise, an essential element of which is dishonesty or which is directly related to the practice of engineering or surveying 4. Failure to comply with any of the provisions of this Act or any of the rules or regulations of the board 5. Discipline (including voluntary surrender of a professional engineer’s or professional surveyor’s license in order to avoid disciplinary action) by another jurisdiction, foreign country, or the United States government, if at least one of the grounds for discipline is the same or substantially equivalent to those contained in this Act 6. Failure to provide information requested by the board as a result of a formal or informal complaint to the board that alleges a violation of this Act 7. Knowingly making false statements or signing false statements, certifications, or affidavits in connection with the practice of engineering or surveying 8. Aiding or assisting another person in violating any provision of this Act or the rules or regulations of the board 9. Violating any terms of any Order imposed or agreed to by the board or using a seal or practicing engineering or surveying while the licensee’s license is inactive or restricted ©2020 NCEES 8  Ethics and Professional Practice 10. Signing, affixing, or permitting the licensee’s seal or signature to be affixed to any specifications, reports, drawings, plans, plats, design information, construction documents or calculations, surveys, or revisions thereof which have not been prepared by the licensee or under the licensee’s responsible charge 11. Engaging in dishonorable, unethical, or unprofessional conduct of a character likely to deceive, defraud, or harm the public 12. Providing false testimony or information to the board 13. Habitual intoxication or addiction to the use of drugs or alcohol 14. Providing engineering or surveying services outside any of the licensee’s areas of competence B. In addition to or in lieu of any other sanction provided in this section, any licensee or intern that violates a provision of this Act or any rule or regulation of the board may be assessed a fine in an amount determined by the board of not more than [insert amount] dollars for each offense 1. Each day of continued violation may constitute a separate offense. 2. In determining the amount of fine to be assessed pursuant to this section, the board may consider such factors as the following: a. Whether the amount imposed will be a substantial economic deterrent to the violation b. The circumstances leading to the violation c. The severity of the violation and the risk of harm to the public d. The economic benefits gained by the violator as a result of noncompliance e. The interest of the public f. Consistency of the fine with past fines for similar offenses, or justification for the fine amount Model Law, Section 150.30 Grounds for Disciplinary Action—Unlicensed Individuals A. In addition to any other provisions of law, the board shall have the power to fine and recover costs from any unlicensed individual who is found guilty of: 1. Engaging in the practice or offer to practice of engineering or surveying in this jurisdiction without being licensed in accordance with the provisions of this Act 2. Using or employing the words "engineer," "engineering," "surveyor," "surveying," or any modification or derivative thereof in his or her name or form of business activity except as licensed in this Act 3. Presenting or attempting to use the certificate of licensure or seal of a licensee 4. Engaging in any fraud or deceit in obtaining or attempting to obtain a certificate of licensure or intern certification 5. Impersonating any licensee 6. Using or attempting to use an expired, suspended, revoked, inactive, retired, or nonexistent certificate of licensure B. A fine assessed under this section may not exceed [insert amount] dollars for each offense. C. Each day of continued violation may constitute a separate offense. D. In determining the amount of fine to be assessed pursuant to this section, the board may consider such factors as the following: 1. Whether the amount imposed will be a substantial economic deterrent to the violation 2. The circumstances leading to the violation 3. The severity of the violation and the risk of harm to the public 4. The economic benefits gained by the violator as a result of noncompliance 5. The interest of the public 6. Consistency of the fine with past fines for similar offenses, or justification for the fine amount Model Law, Section 160.10 General Requirements for Certificates of Authorization A. A firm that practices or offers to practice engineering or surveying is required to obtain a certificate of authorization by the board in accordance with the Rules. B. This section shall not require a certificate of authorization for a firm performing engineering or surveying for the firm itself or for a parent or subsidiary of said firm. C. The secretary of state of this jurisdiction shall not accept organizational papers nor issue a certificate of incorporation, organization, licensure, or authorization to any firm which includes among the objectives for which it is established or within its name, any of the words "engineer," "engineering," "surveyor," "surveying," or any modification or derivation thereof unless the board has issued for said applicant a certificate of authorization or a letter indicating the eligibility of such applicant to receive such a certificate. The firm applying shall supply such certificate or letter from the board with its application for incorporation, organization, licensure, or authorization. 9 ©2020 NCEES  Ethics and Professional Practice D. The secretary of state of this jurisdiction shall decline to authorize any trade name, trademark, or service mark that includes therein such words as set forth in the previous subsection, or any modifications or derivatives thereof, except licensees and those firms holding certificates of authorization issued under the provisions of this section. Model Law, Section 160.70 Grounds for Disciplinary Action—Firms Holding a Certificate of Authorization A. The board shall have the power to suspend, revoke, place on probation, fine, recover costs, and/or reprimand, or to refuse to issue, restore, or renew a certificate of authorization to any firm holding a certificate of authorization that is found guilty of: 1. Any fraud or deceit in obtaining or attempting to obtain or renew a certificate of authorization 2. Any negligence, incompetence, or misconduct in the practice of engineering or surveying 3. Conviction of or entry of a plea of guilty or nolo contendere to any crime that is a felony, whether or not related to the practice of engineering or surveying; and conviction of or entry of a plea of guilty or nolo contendere to any crime, whether a felony, misdemeanor, or otherwise, an essential element of which is dishonesty or which is directly related to the practice of engineering or surveying 4. Failure to comply with any of the provisions of this Act or any of the rules or regulations of the board 5. Discipline (including voluntary surrender of an engineering or surveying license in order to avoid disciplinary action) by another jurisdiction, foreign country, or the United States government, if at least one of the grounds for discipline is the same or substantially equivalent to those contained in this Act 6. Failure to provide information requested by the board as a result of a formal or informal complaint to the board that alleges a violation of this Act 7. Knowingly making false statements or signing false statements, certifications, or affidavits in connection with the practice of engineering or surveying 8. Aiding or assisting another person in violating any provision of this Act or the rules or regulations of the board 9. Violating any terms of any Order imposed or agreed to by the board or using a seal or practicing engineering or surveying while the firm’s certificate of authorization is inactive or restricted 10. Engaging in dishonorable, unethical, or unprofessional conduct of a character likely to deceive, defraud, or harm the public 11. Providing false testimony or information to the board B. In addition to or in lieu of any other sanction provided in this section, any firm holding a certificate of authorization that violates a provision of this Act or any rule or regulation of the board may be assessed a fine in an amount determined by the board of not more than [insert amount] dollars for each offense. 1. Each day of continued violation may constitute a separate offense. 2. In determining the amount of fine to be assessed pursuant to this section, the board may consider such factors as the following: a. Whether the amount imposed will be a substantial economic deterrent to the violation b. The circumstances leading to the violation c. The severity of the violation and the risk of harm to the public d. The economic benefits gained by the violator as a result of noncompliance e. The interest of the public f. Consistency of the fine with past fines for similar offenses, or justification for the fine amount C. In addition to any other sanction provided in this section, the board shall have the power to sanction as follows any firm where one or more of its managing agents, officers, directors, owners, or managers have been found guilty of any conduct which would constitute a violation under the provisions of this Act or any of the rules or regulations of the board: 1. Place on probation, fine, recover costs from, and/or reprimand 2. Revoke, suspend, or refuse to issue, restore, or renew the certificate of authorization ©2020 NCEES 10  Ethics and Professional Practice Model Law, Section 170.30 Exemption Clause This Act shall not be construed to prevent the following: A. Other Professions—The practice of any other legally recognized profession B. Contingent License—A contingent license may be issued by the board or board administrator to an applicant for licensure by comity if the applicant appears to meet the requirements for licensure by comity. Such a contingent license will be in effect from its date of issuance until such time as the board takes final action on the application for licensure by comity. If the board determines that the applicant does not meet the requirements for issuance of a license, the contingent license shall be immediately and automatically revoked upon notice to the applicant and no license will be issued. C. Employees and Subordinates—The work of an employee or a subordinate of an individual holding a certificate of licensure under this Act, or an employee of an individual practicing lawfully under Subsection B of this section, provided such work does not include final engineering or surveying designs or decisions and is done under the responsible charge of and verified by an individual holding a certificate of licensure under this Act or an individual practicing lawfully under Subsection B of this section. Intellectual Property Intellectual property is the creative product of the intellect and normally includes inventions, symbols, literary works, patents, and designs. A number of options are available to individuals who wish to protect their intellectual property from being claimed or misused by others. There are four protection categories used to offer varying degrees of protection to intellectual property owners: Patents, Trademarks, Copyrights, and Trade Secrets. Patents A patent for an invention is the grant of a property right to the inventor, issued by the United States Patent and Trademark Office. Generally, the term of a new patent is 20 years from the date on which the application for the patent was filed in the United States or, in special cases, from the date an earlier related application was filed, subject to the payment of maintenance fees. U.S. patent grants are effective only within the United States, U.S. territories, and U.S. possessions. There are three types of patents: Utility patents may be granted to anyone who invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine, article of manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof; Design patents may be granted to anyone who invents a new, original, and ornamental design for an article of manufacture; and Plant patents may be granted to anyone who invents or discovers and asexually reproduces any distinct and new variety of plant. Trademarks A trademark is a word, name, symbol, or device that is used in trade with goods to indicate the source of the goods and to distinguish them from the goods of others. Trademark rights may be used to prevent others from using a confusingly similar mark, but not to prevent others from making the same goods or from selling the same goods or services under a clearly different mark. Copyrights A copyright is a form of protection provided to the authors of "original works of authorship" including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and certain other intellectual works, both published and unpublished. The 1976 Copyright Act generally gives the owner of copyright the exclusive right to reproduce the copyrighted work, to prepare derivative works, to distribute copies or phonorecords of the copyrighted work, to perform the copyrighted work publicly, or to display the copyrighted work publicly. 11 ©2020 NCEES  Ethics and Professional Practice Trade Secrets A trade secret applies to a formula, pattern, compilation, program, device, method, technique, or process. To meet the most common definition of a trade secret, it must be used in business and give an opportunity to obtain an economic advantage over competitors who do not know or use it. Trade secrets offer little protection without a written agreement between the involved parties. Source: United States Patent and Trademark Office, https://www.uspto.gov/patents-getting-started/general-information-concerning-patents#headings-2. Societal Considerations "Creating a sustainable world that provides a safe, secure, healthy life for all peoples is a priority of the US engineering community. Engineers must deliver solutions that are technically viable, [economically] feasible, and environmentally and socially sustainable." Source: Reddy, K.R., C. Cameselle, and J.A.A. Adams, Sustainable Engineering: Drivers, Metrics, Tools, and Applications, 1st ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2019. Sustainable approaches during planning, design, and construction or manufacture will carry forward throughout a project’s or product’s operation and maintenance to end-of-life. Sustainable principles include consideration of: Safety Public health Quality of life Resource allocation Non-renewable resources Life-cycle analysis (cradle to grave) involves assessing the potential environmental consequences associated with a project or product from design and development through utilization and disposal. Engineers must employ concern for environmental health and public safety by addressing such things as: Landscape aesthetics Protection of ecosystems Resource conservation Air and water pollution Atmospheric emissions Collection and processing of waste Source: Adapted from: United States General Services Administration, “Sustainable Design” page, https://www.gsa.gov/real-estate/design-construction/design-excellence/sustainability/sustainable-design. Dennis, “What is the Triple Bottom Line?” The Education Center (blog), RMA Environmental Services, https://www.rmagreen.com/rma-blog/what-is-the-triple-bottom-line. ©2020 NCEES 12 Safety Definition of Safety Safety is the condition of protecting people from threats or failures that could harm their physical, emotional, occupational, psychological, or financial well-being. Safety is also the control of known threats to attain an acceptable level of risk. The United States relies on public codes and standards, engineering designs, and corporate policies to ensure that a structure or place does what it should do to maintain a steady state of safety—that is, long-term stability and reliability. Some Safety/Regu- latory Agencies that develop codes and standards commonly used in the United States are shown in the table. Abbreviation Name Jurisdiction ANSI American National Standards Institute Nonprofit standards organization CGA Compressed Gas Association Nonprofit trade association CSA Canadian Standards Association Nonprofit standards organization FAA Federal Aviation Administration Federal regulatory agency IEC International Electrotechnical Commission Nonprofit standards organization ITSNA Intertek Testing Services NA (formerly Edison Testing Labs) Nationally recognized testing laboratory MSHA Mine Safety and Health Administration Federal regulatory agency NFPA National Fire Protection Association Nonprofit trade association NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Federal regulatory agency OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration Federal regulatory agency RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Federal law UL Underwriters Laboratories Nationally recognized testing laboratory USCG United States Coast Guard Federal regulatory agency USDOT United States Department of Transportation Federal regulatory agency USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency Federal regulatory agency Safety and Prevention A traditional preventive approach to both accidents and occupational illness involves recognizing, evaluating, and controlling hazards and work conditions that may cause physical or other injuries. Hazard is the capacity to cause harm. It is an inherent quality of a material or a condition. For example, a rotating saw blade or an uncontrolled high-pressure jet of water has the capability (hazard) to slice through flesh. A toxic chemical or a pathogen has the capability (hazard) to cause illness. Risk is the chance or probability that a person will experience harm and is not the same as a hazard. Risk always involves both probability and severity elements. The hazard associated with a rotating saw blade or the water jet continues to exist, but the probability of causing harm, and thus the risk, can be reduced by installing a guard or by controlling the jet's path. Risk is ex- pressed by the equation: Risk = Hazard × Probability When people discuss the hazards of disease-causing agents, the term exposure is typically used more than probability. If a cer- tain type of chemical has a toxicity hazard, the risk of illness rises with the degree to which that chemical contacts your body or enters your lungs. In that case, the equation becomes: Risk = Hazard × Exposure Organizations evaluate hazards using multiple techniques and data sources. 13 ©2020 NCEES  Safety Job Safety Analysis Job safety analysis (JSA) is known by many names, including activity hazard analysis (AHA), or job hazard analysis (JHA). Hazard analysis helps integrate accepted safety and health principles and practices into a specific task. In a JSA, each basic step of the job is reviewed, potential hazards identified, and recommendations documented as to the safest way to do the job. JSA techniques work well when used on a task that the analysts understand well. JSA analysts look for specific types of potential ac- cidents and ask basic questions about each step, such as these: Can the employee strike against or otherwise make injurious contact with the object? Can the employee be caught in, on, or between objects? Can the employee strain muscles by pushing, pulling, or lifting? Is exposure to toxic gases, vapors, dust, heat, electrical currents, or radiation possible? Hazard Assessments Hazard Assessment—Hazardous Materials Classification The fire/hazard diamond below summarizes common hazard data available on the Safety Data Sheet (SDS) and is frequently shown on chemical labels. B A C D Position C – Instability Rating (Yellow) Position A – Health Rating (Blue) 4 = May detonate or have explosive reaction 4 = Can be lethal 3 = Shock and heat may detonate or cause 3 = Serious or permanent injury explosive reaction 2 = Temporary incapacitation or residual injury 2 = Violent chemical change at elevated 1 = Significant irritation temperatures 0 = No hazard beyond ordinary combustibles 1 = Unstable if heated 0 = Normally stable Position B – Flammability Rating (Red) 4 = Rapidly or completely vaporized and burn readily Position D – Special Hazards (White) 3 = Ignite readily in ambient conditions OX = Oxidizers 2 = Ignite when moderately heated W = Water Reactives 1 = Require preheating for ignition SA = Simple Asphyxiants 0 = Will not burn under normal fire conditions No other hazards should be listed in this quadrant. In cases where a unique hazard symbol exists, it must be placed outside of the white special hazard quadrant. ©2020 NCEES 14  Safety GHS The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals, or GHS, is a system for standardizing and harmonizing the classification and labeling of chemicals. GHS is a comprehensive approach to: Defining health, physical, and environmental hazards of chemicals Creating classification processes that use available data on chemicals for comparison with the defined hazard criteria Communicating hazard information, as well as protective measures, on labels and Safety Data Sheets (SDSs), formerly called Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs). GHS label elements include: Precautionary statements and pictograms: Measures to minimize or prevent adverse effects Product identifier (ingredient disclosure): Name or number used for a hazardous product on a label or in the SDS Supplier identification: The name, address, and telephone number of the supplier Supplemental information: nonharmonized information Other label elements include symbols, signal words, and hazard statements. GHS LABEL ELEMENTS Product Name or Identifier (Identify Hazardous Ingredients, where appropriate) Signal Word Physical, Health, Environmental Hazard Statements Supplemental Information Precautionary Measures and Pictograms First Aid Statements Name and Address of Company Telephone Number Source: Occupational Safety and Health Administration, A Guide to The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), United States Department of Labor, https://www.osha.gov/dsg/hazcom/ghsguideoct05.pdf 15 ©2020 NCEES  Safety GHS PICTOGRAMS AND HAZARD CLASSES OXIDIZERS FLAMMABLES EXPLOSIVES SELF-REACTIVES SELF-REACTIVES PYROPHORICS ORGANIC PEROXIDES SELF-HEATING EMITS FLAMMABLE GAS ORGANIC PEROXIDES ACUTE TOXICITY (SEVERE) CORROSIVES GASES UNDER PRESSURE CARCINOGEN ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICITY IRRITANT RESPIRATORY SENSITIZER DERMAL SENSITIZER REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY ACUTE TOXICITY (HARMFUL) TARGET ORGAN TOXICITY NARCOTIC EFFECTS MUTAGENICITY RESPIRATORY TRACT IRRITATION ASPIRATION TOXICITY Source: Occupational Safety and Health Administration, A Guide to The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), United States Department of Labor, https://www.osha.gov/dsg/hazcom/ghsguideoct05.pdf ©2020 NCEES 16  Safety TRANSPORT PICTOGRAMS FLAMMABLE LIQUID FLAMMABLE SOLID PYROPHORICS (SPONTANEOUSLY FLAMMABLE GAS SELF-REACTIVE COMBUSTIBLE) FLAMMABLE AEROSOL SUBSTANCES SELF-HEATING SUBSTANCES 1 SUBSTANCES, WHICH IN OXIDIZING GASES EXPLOSIVE DIVISIONS CONTACT WITH WATER, OXIDIZING LIQUIDS 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 EMIT FLAMMABLE GASES OXIDIZING SOLIDS (DANGEROUS WHEN WET) 1.4 1.5 1.6 1 1 1 EXPLOSIVE DIVISION 1.4 EXPLOSIVE DIVISION 1.5 EXPLOSIVE DIVISION 1.6 2 COMPRESSED GASES ACUTE TOXICITY (POISON): CORROSIVE ORAL, DERMAL, INHALATION MARINE POLLUTANT 5.2 MARINE POLLUTANT ORGANIC PEROXIDES Source: Occupational Safety and Health Administration, A Guide to The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), United States Department of Labor, https://www.osha.gov/dsg/hazcom/ghsguideoct05.pdf 17 ©2020 NCEES  Safety ACUTE ORAL TOXICITY CATEGORY 1 CATEGORY 2 CATEGORY 3 CATEGORY 4 CATEGORY 5 LD50 ≤ 5 mg/kg > 5 < 50 mg/kg ≥ 50 < 300 mg/kg ≥ 300 < 2,000 mg/kg ≥ 2,000 < 5,000 mg/kg PICTOGRAM NO SYMBOL SIGNAL WORD DANGER DANGER DANGER WARNING WARNING HAZARD STATEMENT FATAL IF SWALLOWED FATAL IF SWALLOWED TOXIC IF SWALLOWED HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED MAY BE HARMFUL IF SWALLOWED Safety Data Sheet (SDS) The SDS provides comprehensive information for use in workplace chemical management. Employers and workers use the SDS as a source of information about hazards and to obtain advice on safety precautions. The SDS is product related and, usually, is not able to provide information that is specific for any given workplace where the product may be used. However, the SDS information enables the employer to develop an active program of worker protection measures, including training, which is specific to the individual workplace, and to consider any measures that may be necessary to protect the environment. Information in an SDS also provides a source of information for those involved with the transport of dangerous goods, emergency responders, poison centers, those involved with the professional use of pesticides, and consumers. The SDS has 16 sections in a set order, and minimum information is prescribed. The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) requires chemical manufacturers, distributors, or importers to provide SDSs to communicate the hazards of hazardous chemical products. As of June 1, 2015, the HCS requires new SDSs to be in a uniform format, and include the section numbers, the headings, and associated information under the headings below: Section 1, Identification: Includes product identifier; manufacturer or distributor name, address, phone number; emergency phone number; recommended use; restrictions on use Section 2, Hazard(s) identification: Includes all hazards regarding the chemical; required label elements Section 3, Composition/information on ingredients: Includes information on chemical ingredients; trade secret claims Section 4, First-aid measures: Includes important symptoms/effects, acute, and delayed; required treatment Section 5, Fire-fighting measures: Lists suitable extinguishing techniques, equipment; chemical hazards from fire Section 6, Accidental release measures: Lists emergency procedures; protective equipment; proper methods of containment and cleanup Section 7, Handling and storage: Lists precautions for safe handling and storage, including incompatibilities Section 8, Exposure controls/personal protection: Lists OSHA's Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs); Threshold Limit Values (TLVs); appropriate engineering controls; personal protective equipment (PPE) Section 9, Physical and chemical properties: Lists the chemical's characteristics Section 10, Stability and reactivity: Lists chemical stability and possibility of hazardous reactions Section 11, Toxicological information: Includes routes of exposure; related symptoms, acute and chronic effects; numerical measures of toxicity Section 12, Ecological information* Section 13, Disposal considerations* Section 14, Transport information* Section 15, Regulatory information* Section 16, Other information: Includes the date of preparation or last revision *Note: Since other Agencies regulate this information, OSHA will not be enforcing Sections 12 through 15 (29 CFR 1910.1200(g)(2)). Source: Occupational Safety and Health Administration, A Guide to The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS), United States Department of Labor, https://www.osha.gov/dsg/hazcom/ghsguideoct05.pdf ©2020 NCEES 18  Safety Signal Words The signal word found on every product's label is based on test results from various oral, dermal, and inhalation toxicity tests, as well as skin and eye corrosion assays in some cases. Signal words are placed on labels to convey a level of care that should be taken (especially personal protection) when handling and using a product, from purchase to disposal of the empty container, as demonstrated by the Pesticide Toxicity Table. Pesticide Toxicity Categories Acute-Oral Amount Needed to Kill Signal Word on Label Toxicity Category LD50 for Rats an Average Size Adult Notes Danger−Poison Skull and crossbones; Highly Toxic 50 or less Taste to a teaspoon Keep Out of Reach of Children Warning Moderately Toxic 50 to 500 One to six teaspoons Keep Out of Reach of Children Caution Slightly Toxic 500 to 5,000 One ounce to a pint Keep Out of Reach of Children Caution Relatively Nontoxic >5,000 More than a pint Keep Out of Reach of Children LD50 - See Risk Assessment/Toxicology section. Source: From Regulating Pesticides, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Flammability Flammable describes any solid, liquid, vapor, or gas that will ignite easily and burn rapidly. A flammable liquid is defined by NFPA and USDOT as a liquid with a flash point below 100°F (38°C). Flammability is further defined with lower and upper limits: LFL = lower flammability limit (volume % in air) UFL = upper flammability limit (volume % in air) The LFL is also known as the lower explosive limit (LEL). The UFL is also referred to as the upper explosive limit (UEL). There is no difference between the terms flammable and explosive as applied to the lower and upper limits of flammability. A vapor-air mixture will only ignite and burn over the range of concentrations between LFL and UFL. Examples are: Gas/Compound LFL UFL Acetone 2.6 13.0 Acetylene 2.5 100.0 Ammonia 15.0 28.0 n-butane 1.8 8.4 Carbon disulfide 1.3 50.0 Carbon monoxide 12.5 74.0 Cycloheptane 1.1 6.7 Cyclohexane 1.3 7.8 Cyclopropane 2.4 10.4 Diethyl ether 1.9 36.0 Ethane 3.0 12.4 Ethyl acetate 2.2 11.0 Ethyl alcohol 3.3 19.0 Ethyl ether 1.9 36.0 Ethyl nitrite 3.0 50.0 Ethylene 2.7 36.0 Gasoline 100/130 1.3 7.1 Gasoline 115/145 1.2 7.1 Hydrazine 4.7 100.0 Hydrogen 4.0 75.0 Hydrogen sulfide 4.0 44.0 Isobutane 1.8 8.4 Methane 5.0 15.0 Propane 2.1 9.5 Source: From SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 4th ed., Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 2008. 19 ©2020 NCEES  Safety LOC, limiting oxygen concentration (vol % O2), is the concentration of oxygen below which combustion is not possible. AIT, autoignition temperature, is the lowest temperature above which no external ignition source is required to initiate combustion. Predicting Lower Flammable Limits of Mixtures of Flammable Gases (Le Chatelier's Rule) Based on an empirical rule developed by Le Chatelier, the lower flammable limit of mixtures of multiple flammable gases in air can be determined. A generalization of Le Chatelier's rule is n / _Ci/LFLi i $ 1 i=1 where Ci is the volume percent of fuel gas, i, in the fuel/air mixture and LFLi is the volume percent of fuel gas, i, at its lower flammable limit in air alone. If the indicated sum is greater than unity, the mixture is above the lower flammable limit. This can be restated in terms of the lower flammable limit concentration of the fuel mixture, LFLm, as follows: 100 LFLm = n / _C fi/LFLi i i=1 where Cfi is the volume percent of fuel gas i in the fuel gas mixture. SATURATED VAPOR- AIR MIXTURES UPPER LIMIT COMBUSTIBLE CONCENTRATION AUTO- MIST FLAMMABLE IGNITION MIXTURES B LOWER A LIMIT TL Tu AIT TEMPERATURE Source: The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 1st ed., Society of Fire Protection Association, 1988. With permission. Granular Storage and Process Safety Some materials that are not inherently hazardous can become hazardous during storage or processing. An example is the handling of grain in grain bins. Grain bins should not be entered when the grain is being removed since grains flow to the center of the emptying bin and create suffocation hazards. Bridging may occur at the top surface due to condensation and resulting spoilage creating a crust. Organic vapors and dusts associated with grain handling often contain toxic yeasts or molds and have low oxygen contents. These organic vapors and dusts may also be explosive. Confined Space Safety Many workplaces contain spaces that are considered "confined" because their configurations hinder the activities of employees who must enter, work in, and exit them. A confined space has limited or restricted means for entry or exit and is not designed for continuous employee occupancy. Confined spaces include, but are not limited to, underground vaults, tanks, storage bins, manholes, pits, silos, process vessels, and pipelines. OSHA uses the term "permit-required confined spaces" (permit space) to describe a confined space that has one or more of the following characteristics: contains or has the potential to contain a hazardous atmosphere; contains a material that has the potential to engulf an entrant; has walls that converge inward or floors that slope downward and taper into a smaller area that could trap or asphyxiate an entrant; or contains any other recognized safety or health hazard such as unguarded machinery, exposed live wires or heat stress. Sensor placement in confined spaces should be based on constituent gas molecular weight relative to that of air and, where applicable, source location. OSHA has developed OSHA standards, directives (instructions for compliance officers), standard interpretations (official letters of interpretation of the standards), and national consensus standards related to confined spaces. The following gases are often present in confined spaces: ©2020 NCEES 20  Safety Ammonia: Irritating at 50 ppm and deadly above 1,000 ppm; sharp, cutting odor Hydrogen sulfide: Irritating at 10 ppm and deadly at 500 ppm; accumulates at lower levels and in corners where circulation is minimal; rotten egg odor Methane: Explosive at levels above 50,000 ppm, lighter than air, odorless Carbon dioxide: Heavier than air, accumulates at lower levels and in corners where circulation is minimal, displaces air leading to asphyxiation Electrical Safety Current Level Probable Effect on Human Body (Milliamperes) 1 mA Perception level. Slight tingling sensation. Still dangerous under certain conditions. 5 mA Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing. Average individual can let go. However, strong involuntary reactions to shocks in this range may lead to injuries. 6 mA−16 mA Painful shock, begin to lose muscular control. Commonly referred to as the freezing current or "let-go" range. 17 mA−99 mA Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe muscular contractions. Individual cannot let go. Death is possible. 100 mA−2,000 mA Ventricular fibrillation (uneven, uncoordinated pumping of the heart). Muscular contraction and nerve damage begins to occur. Death is likely. > 2,000 mA Cardiac arrest (stop in effective blood circulation), internal organ damage, and severe burns. Death is probable. Source: Worker Deaths by Electrocution; A Summary of NIOSH Surveillance and Investigative Findings, U.S. Health and Human Services, (NIOSH), 1998. Greenwald E.K., Electrical Hazards and Accidents−Their Cause and Prevention, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991. Risk Assessment/Toxicology Dose-Response Curves The dose-response curve relates toxic response (i.e., percentage of test population exhibiting a specified symptom or dying) to the logarithm of the dosage [i.e., mg/(kg day) ingested]. A typical dose-response curve is shown below. TOXICANT 100 TOXIC RESPONSE (PERCENT) 50 10 LD 10 LD 50 LOGARITHM OF LD50 DOSE LC50 Median lethal concentration in air that, based on laboratory tests, is expected to kill 50% of a group of test animals when administered as a single exposure over 1 or 4 hours. LD50 Median lethal single dose, based on laboratory tests, expected to kill 50% of a group of test animals, usually by oral or skin exposure. Similar definitions exist for LC10 and LD10, where the corresponding percentages are 10%. 21 ©2020 NCEES  Safety Comparative Acutely Lethal Doses Actual Ranking LD 50 (mg/kg) Toxic Chemical No. 1 15,000 PCBs 2 10,000 Alcohol (ethanol) 3 4,000 Table salt—sodium chloride Ferrous sulfate—an iron 4 1,500 supplement 5 1,375 Malathion—pesticide 6 900 Morphine 7 150 Phenobarbital—a sedative 8 142 Tylenol (acetaminophen) 9 2 Strychnine—a rat poison 10 1 Nicotine 11 0.5 Curare—an arrow poison 12 0.001 2,3,7,8-TCDD (dioxin) 13 0.00001 Botulinum toxin (food poison) Source: Republished with permission of John Wiley and Sons, from Principles of Toxicology: Environmental and Industrial Applications, Williams, P.L., R.C. James, and S.M. Roberts, 2 ed, 2000; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. Selected Chemical Interaction Effects Relative toxicity Effect Example (hypothetical) Additive 2+3=5 Organophosphate pesticides Synergistic 2 + 3 = 20 Cigarette smoking