Anti-Apartheid Movement PDF

Anti-Apartheid Movement Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-1994): main features of Apartheid, opposition to Apartheid (Dr Nelson Mandela’s role), transition to black majority rule and the end of Apartheid. Background Formin...

Anti-Apartheid Movement Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa (1948-1994): main features of Apartheid, opposition to Apartheid (Dr Nelson Mandela’s role), transition to black majority rule and the end of Apartheid. Background Forming the Union of South Africa South Africa has had a complicated history. The first Europeans to settle there permanently were members of the Dutch East India Company which founded a colony at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652. It remained a Dutch colony until 1795, and during that time, the Dutch, who were known as Afrikaners or Boers (a word meaning 'farmers'), took land away from the native Africans and forced them to work as labourers, treating them as little better than slaves. They also brought more labourers from Asia, Mozambique and Madagascar. In 1795 the Cape was captured by the British during the French Revolutionary Wars, and the 1814 peace settlement decided that it should remain British. Many British settlers went out to Cape Colony. The Dutch settlers became restless under British rule, especially when the British government made all slaves free throughout the British Empire (1838). The Boer farmers felt that this threatened their livelihood, and many of them decided to leave Cape Colony. They moved northwards (in what became known as 'the Great Trek') and set up their own independent republics of the Transvaal and Orange Free State (1835-40). Some also moved into the area east of Cape Colony known as Natal. There was a cultural clash between the urbanised English who dominated politics, trade, finance, mining and manufacturing and the Boers who were largely uneducated and agricultural. In the Boer War (1899-1902) the British defeated the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, and in 1910 they joined up with Cape Colony and Natal to form the Union of South Africa. The war was about Britain’s control of South Africa and therefore its 'great power' status. The Boers went to war to defend their political rights, to Anti-Apartheid Movement 1  oppose military build-up by Britain and to establish control over gold and diamonds. It was the first major conflict of a century that was to be marked by wars on an international scale. It demonstrated the inadequacy of 19th-century military methods and introduced issues of conscription and concentration camps. The population of the new state was mixed: Approximately 70 per cent were black Africans, known as Bantus 18 per cent were whites of European origin; of these about 60 per cent were Dutch, the rest British 9 per cent were of mixed race, known as 'coloureds' 3 per cent were Asians Pre-Apartheid Discrimination The whites dominated politics and the economic life of the new state, and, with only a few exceptions, blacks were not allowed to vote. Black people had to do most of the manual work in factories, in the gold mines and on farms; the men mostly lived in barracks accommodation away from their wives and children. Black people generally were expected to live in areas reserved for them away from white residential areas. These reserved areas made up only about 7 per cent of the total area of South Africa and were not large enough to enable the Africans to produce sufficient food for themselves and to pay all their taxes. Black Africans were forbidden to buy land outside the reserves. The government controlled the movement of blacks by a system of pass laws. For example, a black person could not live in a town unless he had a pass showing that he was working in a white-owned business. An African could not leave the farm where he worked without a pass from his employer; nor could he get a new job unless his previous employer signed him out officially; many workers were forced to stay in difficult working conditions, even under abusive employers. Anti-Apartheid Movement 2  Living and working conditions for blacks were primitive; for example, in the gold-mining industry, Africans had to live in single-sex compounds with sometimes as many as 90 men sharing a dormitory. By a law of 1911, black workers were forbidden to strike and were barred from holding skilled jobs. Main Features of Apartheid Apartheid Introduced and Developed After the Second World War, there were important changes in the way black Africans were treated. Under Prime Minister Malan (1948-54), a new policy called apartheid (separate-ness) was introduced. This tightened control over blacks still further. Why was apartheid introduced? When India and Pakistan were given independence in 1947, white South Africans became alarmed at the growing racial equality within the Commonwealth, and they were determined to preserve their supremacy. Most of the whites, especially those of Dutch origin. were against racial equality, but the most extreme was the Afrikaner Nationalist Party led by Dr Malan. They claimed that whites were a master race and that non- whites were inferior beings. The Dutch Reformed Church (the official state church of South Africa) supported this view and quoted passages from the Bible which, they claimed, proved their theory. This was very much out of line with the rest of the Christian churches, which believe in racial equality. The Broederbond was a secret Afrikaner organisation which worked to protect and preserve Afrikaner power. The Nationalists won the 1948 elections with promises to rescue the whites from the 'black menace’ and to preserve the racial purity of the whites. This would help to ensure continued white supremacy. Apartheid was continued and developed further by the prime ministers who followed Malan: Strijdom (1954-8), Verwoerd (1958-66) and Vorster (1966- 78). Main Features 1. Separation There was complete separation of blacks and whites as far as possible at all levels. Under Prime Minister Jan Smuts, the South African government passed the Native Urban Areas Act, determining areas Anti-Apartheid Movement 3  where black people could reside and allowing for their relocation. In country areas blacks had to live in special reserves; in urban areas, they had separate townships built at suitable distances from the white residential areas. If an existing black township was thought to be too close to a 'white' area, the whole community was uprooted and 're- grouped' somewhere else to make separation as complete as possible. There were separate buses, coaches, trains, cafes, toilets, benches, hospitals, beaches, picnic areas, sports and even churches. Black children went to separate schools and were given a much inferior education. But there was a flaw in the system: complete separation was impossible because over half of the non-white population worked in white-owned mines, factories and other businesses. The economy would have collapsed if all non-whites had been moved to reserves. In addition, virtually every white household had at least two African servants. 2. Racial Classification Every person was given a racial classification and an identity card. There were strict pass laws which meant that black Africans had to stay in their reserves or in their townships unless they were travelling to a white area to work, in which case they would be issued with passes. Otherwise, all travelling was forbidden without police permission. 3. Marriage and Sexual Relations Under the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act of 1949, marriage and sexual relations between whites and non-whites were forbidden; this was to preserve the purity of the white race. Police spied shamelessly on anybody suspected of breaking the rules. 4. Bantustans The Bantu Self-Government Act (1959) set up seven regions called Bantustans, based on the original African reserves. It was claimed that they would eventually move towards self-government. In 1969 it was announced that the first Bantustan, the Transkei, had become 'independent'. However, the outside world dismissed this with contempt since the South African government continued to control the Transkei's economy and foreign affairs. Anti-Apartheid Movement 4  The whole policy was criticized because the Bantustan areas covered only about 13 per cent of the country's total area; over 8 million black people were crammed into these relatively small areas, which were vastly overcrowded and unable to support the black populations adequately. They became very little better than rural slums, but the government ignored the protests and continued its policy; by 1980 two more African 'homelands', Bophuthatswana and Venda, had received 'independence'. 5. Political Rights Africans lost all political rights, and their representation in parliament, which had been by white MPs, was abolished. 6. Apartheid Laws “Grand” apartheid laws focused on keeping Black people in their own designated “homelands.” And “petty” apartheid laws focused on daily life and restricted almost every facet of Black life in South Africa. The Suppression of Communism Act of 1950 made the Communist Party illegal and gave the government the power to declare any similar organization illegal as well. The Communist Party disbanded itself just before this legislation became law. The Population Registration Act of 1950 classified all South Africans as either Bantu (all Black Africans), Coloured (those of mixed race), or white. A fourth category—Asian (Indian and Pakistani)—was later added. The Group Areas Act of 1950 established residential and business sections in urban areas for each race, and members of other races were barred from living, operating businesses, or owning land in them—which led to thousands of Coloureds, Blacks, and Indians being removed from areas classified for white occupation The Immorality (Amendment) Act of 1950 criminalized extra-marital interracial sex between heterosexual white South Africans and people of other “races.” The Public Safety Act of 1953 enabled the government to declare a state of emergency if it believed that public order was threatened. The Reservation of Separate Amenities Act enforced segregation of all public facilities, including buildings, and transport, in order to limit contact between the different races in South Africa. Anti-Apartheid Movement 5  The government also placed banning orders on political activists. A banned person was restricted to his/her district, had to report to the police twice a day, could not be in the company of more than one person, and could not be quoted. This effectively silenced many activists. Organizations could also be banned, which meant they ceased to exist. Opposition to Apartheid In Africa Difficulties of Opposition to Apartheid Inside South Africa Inside South Africa, opposition to the system was difficult. Anyone who objected - including whites - or broke the apartheid laws, was accused of being a communist and was severely punished under the Suppression of Communism Act. Africans were forbidden to strike, and their political party, the African National Congress (ANC), was helpless. In spite of this, protests did take place. 1. Role of the African National Congress The ANC was formed in 1923 to advocate for land and voting rights. a. Initial Methods Overall, the congress was moderate in composition, tone, and practice. Its founders, all men, felt that British rule had brought considerable benefits, especially Christianity, education, and the rule of law, but they also considered that their careers as teachers, lawyers, and court translators were hindered by the racial discrimination so deeply entrenched in South Africa. b. Leadership Chief Albert Luthuli, the ANC leader, organized a protest campaign in which black Africans stopped work on certain days. c. Defiance Campaign In 1952 the African National Congress launched the Defiance Campaign. A programme of civil disobedience was planned. Mass rallies were held throughout the country and groups of volunteers were sent to break the law. They walked through 'whites only' entrances, sat in parks set aside for whites only, broke the curfew, and refused to carry their passes. As a result, over 8,000 people were arrested. The campaign had an enormous impact on people Anti-Apartheid Movement 6  and ANC membership swelled from 7,000 to 100,000. However, the police responded with extreme violence, especially in the Eastern Cape. The state imposed heavy fines and even jail sentences. Luthuli was deprived of his chieftaincy and put in jail for a time, and the campaign was called off. d. Freedom Charter In 1955 the ANC formed a coalition with Asian and coloured groups, and at a massive open-air meeting at Kliptown (near Johannesburg), they just had time to announce a freedom charter before police broke up the crowd. The charter soon became the main ANC programme. It began by declaring: 'South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white, and no government can claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people.' It went on to demand: equality before the law freedom of assembly, movement, speech, religion and the press the right to vote the right to work, with equal pay for equal work a 40-hour working week, a minimum wage and unemployment benefits free medical care free, compulsory and equal education. The South African government regarded the Freedom Charter as a treasonable document. As a result, 156 members of the Congress Alliance were arrested and charged with treason. The treason trial lasted from 1956 to 1961, but the government failed to prove that treason had been intended so everyone was eventually acquitted. e. Bus Boycott Later the ANC organised other protests including the 1957 bus boycott: instead of paying a fare increase on the bus route from their township to Johannesburg ten miles away, thousands of Africans walked to work and back for three months until fares were reduced. Anti-Apartheid Movement 7  f. Sharpeville Massacre, Umkhonto we Sizwe, and Mandela Protests reached a climax in 1960 when a huge demonstration took place against the pass laws at Sharpeville, an African township near Johannesburg. Police fired on the crowd, killing 67 Africans and wounding many more. After this 15,000 Africans were arrested and police beat hundreds of people. The ANC was banned. This was an important turning point in the campaign: until then most of the protests had been non-violent, but this brutal treatment by the authorities convinced many black leaders that violence could only be met with violence. A small action group of the ANC, known as Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), or MK, was launched; Nelson Mandela was a prominent member. They organized a campaign of sabotaging strategic targets: in 1961 there was a spate of bomb attacks in Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth and Durban. But the police soon clamped down, arresting most of the black leaders, including Mandela, who was sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island. Chief Luthuli still persevered with non-violent protests, and after publishing his moving autobiography Let My People Go, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. He was killed in 1967, the authorities claiming that he had deliberately stepped in front of a train, 2. Church Efforts and White Activists Church leaders and missionaries, both black and white spoke out against apartheid. They included people like Trevor Huddleston. a British missionary who had been working in South Africa since 1943. Harold Wolpe and Arthur Goldreich were prominent white activists 3. Women’s Resistance Partly because African women experienced fewer restrictions than men, they were at the forefront of resistance in the 1940s and the early 1950s. By 1956 their resistance had grown into a national movement. It reached its climax on 9 August 1956 when 20,000 women marched to the Union Buildings in Pretoria and handed over letters of protest against the proposed pass laws to Prime Minister J.G. Strijdom. The women's resistance failed to achieve its objectives and the pass laws were Anti-Apartheid Movement 8  extended to apply to African women in the late 1950s. Today, 9 August is a public holiday on which South Africa celebrates National Women's Day. 4. Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement In the 1970s, however, black resistance took on a new form - black consciousness. Black consciousness (BC) started in South Africa in 1969 as a university student movement led by Steve Biko The main ideas of black consciousness were: pride in being black a determination that blacks should end their dependence on whites. The ideas of BC caught on, particularly among the youth and they formed many organizations in support of BC. 5. Soweto Uprising Discontent and protest increased again in the 1970s because the wages of Africans failed to keep pace with inflation. In 1976, when the Transvaal authorities announced that Afrikaans (the language spoken by whites of Dutch descent) was to be used in black African schools, massive demonstrations took place at Soweto, a black township near Johannesburg. Although there were many children and young people in the crowd, police opened fire, killing at least 200 black Africans. This time the protests did not die down; they spread over the whole country. Again the government responded with brutality: over the next six months a further 500 Africans were killed; among the victims was Steve Biko, a young African leader who had been urging people to be proud of their blackness. He was beaten to death by police (1976). Although the uprising was eventually crushed by the police, it had important results. It was the single biggest challenge to the government and the apartheid system. The government could no longer ignore resistance. In many ways, the Soweto Uprising was a major turning point and marked the beginning of the end of apartheid. 6. Role of Nelson Mandela a. Non-Violent Beginnings In 1944 Mandela joined the African National Congress (ANC), a Black-liberation group, and became a leader of its Youth League. Anti-Apartheid Movement 9  Mandela subsequently held other ANC leadership positions, through which he helped revitalize the organization and oppose the apartheid policies of the ruling National Party. In 1952 in Johannesburg, with fellow ANC leader Oliver Tambo, Mandela established South Africa’s first Black law practice, specializing in cases resulting from the post-1948 apartheid legislation. Also that year, Mandela played an important role in launching the Defiance Campaign. He travelled throughout the country as part of the campaign, trying to build support for nonviolent means of protest against the discriminatory laws. In 1955 he was involved in drafting the Freedom Charter Mandela’s antiapartheid activism made him a frequent target of the authorities. Starting in 1952, he was intermittently banned (severely restricted in travel, association, and speech). In December 1956 he was arrested with more than 100 other people on charges of treason that were designed to harass antiapartheid activists. Mandela went on trial that same year and eventually was acquitted in 1961. b. Turn After Sharpeville After the massacre of unarmed Black South Africans by police forces at Sharpeville in 1960 and the subsequent banning of the ANC, Mandela abandoned his nonviolent stance and began advocating acts of sabotage against the South African regime. He went underground (during which time he became known as the Black Pimpernel for his ability to evade capture) and was one of the founders of Umkhonto we Sizwe (“Spear of the Nation”), the military wing of the ANC. In 1962 he went to Algeria for training in guerrilla warfare and sabotage, returning to South Africa later that year. On August 5, shortly after his return, Mandela was arrested at a roadblock in Natal; he was subsequently sentenced to five years in prison. c. Rivonia Trial In October 1963 the imprisoned Mandela and several other men were tried for sabotage, treason, and violent conspiracy in the infamous Rivonia Trial, named after a fashionable suburb of Anti-Apartheid Movement 10  Johannesburg where raiding police had discovered quantities of arms and equipment at the headquarters of the underground Umkhonto we Sizwe. Mandela’s speech from the dock, in which he admitted the truth of some of the charges made against him, was a classic defence of liberty and defiance of tyranny. (His speech garnered international attention and acclaim and was published later that year as I Am Prepared to Die.) On June 12, 1964, he was sentenced to life imprisonment, narrowly escaping the death penalty. d. Incarceration From 1964 to 1982 Mandela was incarcerated at Robben Island Prison, off Cape Town. He was subsequently kept at the maximum- security Pollsmoor Prison until 1988, when, after being treated for tuberculosis, he was transferred to Victor Verster Prison near Paarl. The South African government periodically made conditional offers of freedom to Mandela, most notably in 1976, on the condition that he recognize the newly independent—and highly controversial— status of the Transkei Bantustan and agree to reside there. An offer made in 1985 required that he renounce the use of violence. Mandela refused both offers, the second on the premise that only free men were able to engage in such negotiations and, as a prisoner, he was not a free man. e. Enduring Appeal During Incarceration Throughout his incarceration, Mandela retained wide support among South Africa’s Black population and his imprisonment became a cause of controversy among the international community that condemned apartheid. As South Africa’s political situation deteriorated after 1983, and particularly after 1988, he was engaged by ministers of President P.W. Botha’s government in exploratory negotiations; he met with Botha’s successor, de Klerk, in December 1989. f. Negotiations and Leading the ANC On February 11, 1990, the South African government under President de Klerk released Mandela from prison. Shortly after his Anti-Apartheid Movement 11  release, Mandela was chosen deputy president of the ANC; he became president of the party in July 1991. Mandela led the ANC in negotiations with de Klerk to end apartheid and bring about a peaceful transition to nonracial democracy in South Africa. g. New Democracy In April 1994 the Mandela-led ANC won South Africa’s first elections by universal suffrage, and on On May 10 Mandela was sworn in as president of the country’s first multiethnic government. He established in 1995 the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), which investigated human rights violations under apartheid He introduced housing, education, and economic development initiatives designed to improve the living standards of the country’s Black population. In 1996 he oversaw the enactment of a new democratic constitution. h. Enduring Legacy After Presidency Mandela did not seek a second term as South African president and was succeeded by Mbeki in 1999. After leaving office Mandela retired from active politics but maintained a strong international presence as an advocate of peace, reconciliation, and social justice, often through the work of the Nelson Mandela Foundation which was established in 1999. Mandela was a man of conviction. In his growing years, he evolved and analysed certain concepts- that racial discrimination was linked to imperialism; the Gandhian way of fight (civil disobedience, strikes, protest marches, boycotts, all kinds of demonstrations) was essential but according to the needs of certain changes could be made; cohesion of people from all walks and ideological backgrounds was mandatory for overthrowing the discriminatory social system. Opposition to Apartheid Outside Africa Commonwealth Outside South Africa there was opposition to apartheid from the rest of the Commonwealth. Early in 1960 the British Conservative prime minister Anti-Apartheid Movement 12  Harold Macmillan had the courage to speak out against it in Cape Town; he spoke about the growing strength of African nationalism. 'the wind of change is blowing through the continent… our national policies must take account of it'. His warnings were ignored, and shortly afterwards, the world was horrified by the Sharpeville massacre. At the 1961 Commonwealth Conference, criticism of South Africa was intense, and many thought the country would be expelled. In the end, Prime Minister Verwoerd withdrew South Africa's application for continued membership (in 1960 it had become a republic instead of a dominion, thereby severing the connection with the British crown; because of this the government had had to apply for readmission to the Commonwealth), and it ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth. United Nations and Organisation of African Unity The United Nations and the Organization of African Unity condemned apartheid and were particularly critical of the continued South African occupation of South West Africa. The UN voted to place an economic boycott on South Africa (1962), but this proved useless because not all member states supported it. Britain, the USA. France, West Germany and Italy condemned apartheid in public but continued to trade with South Africa. Among other things, they sold South Africa massive arms supplies, apparently hoping that it would prove to be a bastion against the spread of communism in Africa. Consequently, Verwoerd (until his assassination in 1966) and his successor Vorster (1966-78) were able to ignore the protests from the outside world until well into the 1970s. Transition to Black Majority Rule and the End of Apartheid P.W. Botha Announces Relaxation of Apartheid The new prime minister, P. W. Botha (elected in 1979), realized that all was not well with the system. He decided that he must reform apartheid, dropping some of the most unpopular aspects in an attempt to preserve white control. Anti-Apartheid Movement 13  In a speech in September 1979 which astonished many of his Nationalist supporters, the newly elected Prime Minister Botha said: A revolution in South Africa is no longer just a remote possibility. Either we adapt or we perish. White domination and legally enforced apartheid are a recipe for permanent conflict. He went on to suggest that the black homelands must be made viable and that unnecessary discrimination must be abolished. Gradually he introduced some important changes which he hoped would be enough to silence the critics both inside and outside South Africa Factors Affecting Botha’s Decision 1. Sharpeville Massacre 2. Criticism from Abroad Criticism from abroad (from the Commonwealth, the United Nations and the Organization of African Unity) gradually gathered momentum. External pressures became much greater in 1975 when the white-ruled Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique achieved independence after a long struggle. 3. African Rule in Africa The African takeover of Zimbabwe (1980) removed the last of the white- ruled states which had been sympathetic to the South African government and apartheid. Now South Africa was surrounded by hostile black states, and many Africans in these new states had sworn never to rest until their fellow Africans in South Africa had been liberated. 4. Economic Problems and Demographic Change There were economic problems South Africa was hit by a recession in the late 1970s, and many white people were worse off. Whites began to emigrate in large numbers, but the black population was increasing. In 1980 whites made up only 16 per cent of the population, whereas between the two world wars, they had formed 21 per cent. 5. Failure of African Homelands The African homelands were a failure: they were poverty-stricken, their rulers were corrupt and no foreign government recognized them as genuinely independent states. 6. USA and Civil Rights Movement Anti-Apartheid Movement 14  The USA, which was treating its own black people better during the 1970s, began to criticize the South African government's racist policy. Changes Under Botha Blacks were allowed to join trade unions and go on strike (1979). Blacks were allowed to elect their own local township councils (but not to vote in national elections) (1981). A new constitution was introduced, setting up two new houses of parliament, one for coloureds and one for Asians (but not for Africans). The new system was weighted so that the whites kept overall control. It came into force in 1984. Sexual relations and marriage were allowed between people of different races (1985). The hated pass laws for non-whites were abolished (1986). Failure of Botha’s Reforms: Domestic Causes 1. ANC Refused To Settle This was as far as Botha was prepared to go. He would not even consider the ANC's main demands (the right to vote and to play a full part in ruling the country). Far from being won over by these concessions, black Africans were incensed that the new constitution made no provision for them, and were determined to settle for nothing less than full political rights. 2. Violence on Both Sides Violence escalated, with both sides guilty of excesses. The ANC used the 'necklace", a tyre placed around the victim's neck and set on fire, to murder black councillors and black police, who were regarded as collaborators with apartheid. On the 25th anniversary of Sharpeville, police opened fire on a procession of black mourners going to a funeral near Uitenhage (Port Elizabeth), killing over forty people (March 1985). 3. Emergency Imposed In July 1985 a state of emergency was declared in the worst affected areas, and it was extended to the whole country in June 1986. Anti-Apartheid Movement 15  This gave the police the power to arrest people without warrants, and freedom from all criminal proceedings, thousands of people were arrested, and newspapers. radio and TV were banned from reporting demonstrations and strikes 4. Education of Blacks The black population was no longer just a mass of uneducated and unskilled labourers; there was a steadily growing number of well- educated, professional, middle-class black people, some of them holding important positions, like Desmond Tutu. who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984 and became Anglican archbishop of Cape Town in 1986. 5. Dutch Reformed Church and White Anxiety The Dutch Reformed Church, which had once supported apartheid, now condemned it as incompatible with Christianity. A majority of white South Africans now recognized that it was difficult to defend the total exclusion of blacks from the country's political life. So although they were nervous about what might happen, they became resigned to the idea of black majority rule at some time in the future. White moderates were therefore prepared to make the best of the situation and get the best deal possible. Failure of Botha’s Reforms: International Causes By the late 1980s international pressure on South Africa was having more effect, and internal attitudes had changed. 1. Commonwealth Sanctions In August 1986 the Commonwealth (except Britain) agreed on a strong package of sanctions (no further loans, no sales of oil, computer equipment or nuclear goods to South Africa, and no cultural and scientific contacts). British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher would commit Britain only to a voluntary ban on investment in South Africa. Her argument was that severe economic sanctions would worsen the plight of black Africans, who would be thrown out of their jobs. This caused the rest of the Commonwealth to feel bitter against Britain: Rajiv Gandhi, the Indian prime minister, accused Mrs Thatcher of 'compromising on basic principles and values for economic ends". 2. USA Sanctions Anti-Apartheid Movement 16  In September 1986 the USA joined the fray when Congress voted (over President Reagan's veto) to stop American loans to South Africa, to cut air links and to ban imports of iron, steel, coal, textiles and uranium from South Africa. Efforts of F.W. de Klerk The new president. F. W. de Klerk (elected 1989), had a reputation for caution, but privately he had decided that apartheid would have to go completely, and he accepted that black majority rule must come eventually. The problem was how to achieve it without further violence and possible civil war. With great courage and determination, and in the face of bitter opposition from right-wing Afrikaner groups, de Klerk gradually moved the country towards black majority rule. Nelson Mandela was released after 27 years in jail (1990) and became the leader of the ANC which was made legal. Most of the remaining apartheid laws were dropped. Namibia, the neighbouring territory ruled by South Africa since 1919, was given independence under a black government (1990). Talks began in 1991 between the government and the ANC to work out a new constitution which would allow blacks full political rights. The negotiations were long and difficult: de Klerk had to face right-wing opposition from his own National Party and from various extreme, white racist groups who claimed that he had betrayed them. African National Congress and Reconciliation Meanwhile, the ANC was doing its best to present itself as a moderate party which had no plans for wholesale nationalization, and to reassure whites that they would be safe and happy under black rule. Nelson Mandela condemned the violence and called for reconciliation between blacks and whites. The ANC was involved in a power struggle with another black party, the Natal-based Zulu Inkatha Freedom Party led by Chief Buthelezi. Establishment of the Republic of South Africa In the spring of 1993, the talks were successful and a power-sharing scheme was worked out to carry through the transition to black majority rule. A general election was held and the ANC won almost two-thirds of the votes. Anti-Apartheid Movement 17  As had been agreed, a coalition government of the ANC, National Party and Inkatha took office, with Nelson Mandela as the first black president of South Africa, two vice-presidents, one black and one white (Thabo Mbeki and F. W. de Klerk), and Chief Buthelezi as Home Affairs Minister (May 1994). A right-wing Afrikaner group, led by Eugene Terreblanche, continued to oppose the new democracy, vowing to provoke civil war, but in the end, it came to nothing. Although there had been violence and bloodshed, it was a remarkable achievement, for which both de Klerk and Mandela deserve credit, that South Africa was able to move from apartheid to black majority rule without civil war. Anti-Apartheid Movement 18