EXPE PSYCH REVIEWER PDF

SLM 1 3. Experimentation: the process undertaken to History of Experimental Psychology demonstrate that particular behavioral events will occur ★ Psychological Science was born in 1879, when Wilhelm reliably in...

SLM 1 3. Experimentation: the process undertaken to History of Experimental Psychology demonstrate that particular behavioral events will occur ★ Psychological Science was born in 1879, when Wilhelm reliably in certain specifiable conditions; a principal tool of Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory in the scientific method. Germany. He studied human sensory phenomena. ★ G. Stanley Hall opened the first experimental Steps in conducting a basic Experimentation psychology laboratory in the US after training with ★ We begin the experimental process with a review of Wundt. related literature to suggest a hypothesis about ★ Several pseudoscientific therapies (phrenology, behavior. physiognomy, spiritualism, and mesmerism) were ★ We design a procedure to test that hypothesis in a adamant before the 1800s. systematic way. Experimental Psychology & the Scientific Method ★ Use statistical procedures to analyze our ★ Researchers rely on Scientific Methodology when observations and to decide whether or not the data conducting psychological research whereas the support the hypothesis. alternative is Commonsense Psychology which is ★ We then reevaluate our procedures and write a non-scientific and subjected to many errors. research report of the findings. ★ Psychological Science shares the same key features as Psychology Experiment modern science: gathering observable data, and the ★ The Psychology experiment is a controlled search for general laws or theories to organize and procedure in which at least two different conditions explain the relationship on the data gathered. are applied to the research participants/subjects. ★ Researchers should have a scientific approach in ★ The subjects’ behavior are measured in different which they should think objectively, organized and conditions (Experimental and controlled) and then rational. compared them to test a hypothesis about the effects ★ Explaining data should be parsimonious or as simple of treatments on the behavior. as possible to be read by anyone. ★ Researchers may also infer cause and effect ★ Researchers are also subjected to self-correction, relationship between the antecedent treatment challenging their findings through testing of new conditions and the subjects’ behavior in order to say hypotheses. that the treatment ★ Results of science are communicated through did affect the behavior. journals and professional meetings, stimulating Thing to remember in conducting an experiment: replication of the researcher’s study. ★ Always remember in conducting an experiment, Psychological Science has four major objectives: hypothesis should be testable, procedures must be Description, Prediction, Explanation & Control achievable and it should be ethical. Scientific Approach ★ Researchers cannot allow their personal feelings or 1. Observation: systematic noting and recording of events. expectations to influence the data that they will We can only make scientific studies of events that are record observable. When can we say that our experiment is successful in 2. Measurement: researchers should measure in a manipulating a behavior? standardized unit (consistent) so that their measurements If we can specify all the circumstances that come before a shall be meaningful. behavior, we can say that we have explained that behavior, and we can expect the same outcome when the same particularly if the study places them at risk. This treatment occurs again. consent must be given freely without any coercion. ★ Researchers must let the participants know that they Review of important features in Statistics that would help in are free to drop out of the experiment at any given Experimental Psychology. time. ★ Subjects must be given as much information about Dependent Vs. Independent Variable the experiment as possible so they can make a A. The independent variable is the variable the reasonable decision whether they will participate or experimenter changes or controls and is assumed to have a not. direct effect on the dependent variable. ★ Even though there is a minimal risk, informed B. The dependent variable is the variable being tested and consent must still be given to the participants measured in an experiment, and is 'dependent' on the Confidentiality in an Experiment independent variable. ★ Data should be collected anonymously and identified only by code numbers. Types of Data & Measurement Scales: Nominal, ★ Once the data has been collected, it must be kept Ordinal, Interval and Ratio confidential. They may not be used for any purpose A. Nominal scales are used for labeling variables, without not explained to the subject. any quantitative value. “Nominal” scales could simply be ★ When the experiment is reported/presented to called “labels.” Examples are gender, marital status, and anyone, data should be identified by code numbers religion. of fictitious names to protect subjects’ identities. B. Ordinal scales, the order of the values is what’s How to make the result of the experiment be true to what it important and significant, but the differences between each intends to measure one is not really known. Examples are the educational level ★ A researcher may need to disguise the true purpose and socio-economic status. of the experiment to ensure that the participants will C. Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know both behave naturally and spontaneously. the order and the exact differences between the values. ★ In subjects that require deception, subjects may be Examples are the temperature measured in degree Celsius or debriefed. Fahrenheit and time measured in minutes or hours. Ethics in conducting experiments on animals D. Ratio scales give us the ultimate–order, interval values, ★ Institutions engaged in animal research must have a plus the ability to calculate ratios since a “true zero” can be review board, called the Institutional Animal Care defined. Examples are weight, height, and age. and Use Committee (IACUC), to evaluate the experiments before they are conducted. Ethics in conducting an Experiment ★ Researchers have a responsibility to promote animal ★ A research institution must have an institutional welfare whenever they use animal subjects. review board (IRB) to approve each study using ★ Animals must receive adequate physical and social human participants. care to stay healthy and comfortable. ★ The IRB’s main task is to ensure the safety of human ★ If drugs, surgery, or any potential painful subjects and to conduct a risk/benefit analysis. procedures are involved, a researcher who is ★ Researchers must obtain an informed consent of all especially trained in the field of animals must closely those who will participate in an experiment, supervise the animal subject. Common Unethical Practices actor) were separated in two rooms where they could only ★ Fraud in science is typically thought as falsifying or hear each other. The test subject then read a series of fabricating data. questions to the actor. Each time the actor would answer a ★ Plagiarism of an experiment/research topic question incorrectly, the test subject would push a button ★ Previously published data may only be republished that administered an electric shock to the actor. Although when the original publication is properly many of the test subjects expressed a desire to stop the acknowledged. experiment at the first signs of screams, nearly every single one continued to push the button when they Examples of Unethical Experiments were told they would not personally be held responsible for A. The Stuttering Doctor's 'Monster Study'- In 1939, 22 any consequences. orphans living in Davenport, Iowa became the test subjects D. Learned Helplessness Experiment (1965) - Martin of Wendell Johnson and Mary Tudor, two researchers from Seligman placed a dog in a box divided down the middle by a the University of Iowa. The study was about stuttering. The low barrier. He then administered a painful shock that the children were separated into two groups. Members of one dog could escape by jumping over the barrier. Not group received positive speech therapy and were consistently surprisingly, every dog quickly learned that if he jumped to praised for their speech fluency. The other group received the other side of the box, he could avoid the pain of a shock. negative speech therapy, which included being belittled for But Seligman took his experiment a step further. He then any speech imperfection they happened to make. In the end, harnessed a group of dogs together so that they were unable children in the second group who spoke normally before the to escape when he shocked them. The next day, he placed experiment developed speech problems that they reportedly those same dogs individually in the original box. But this retained for the rest of their lives. time, though each dog could have simply jum B. Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) - The purpose of E. Little Albert Experiment (1920) - John B. Watson the experiment was to study the causes of conflict between wanted to see if Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning could be prisoners and those who guard them. Twenty-four male used on humans. He, along with his graduate student Rosalie students were randomly assigned the role of either guard or Rayner, carried out the infamous Little Albert Experiment. prisoner, and then set up according to their role in a The Little Albert Experiment was a classical conditioning specifically designed model prison located in the basement of experiment conducted on a little boy named Albert. the psychology building on Stanford’s campus. It soon Experimenters classically conditioned Albert by repeatedly became apparent that those who had been given the role of pairing neutral stimuli, such as rats and rabbits, with feared guard were taking their job very seriously. They began to stimuli, like loud noises. Albert developed a phobia of enforce harsh measures and subjected their “prisoners” to similarly white and fluffy stimuli. various degrees of psychological torture. If that’s surprising, perhaps it is even more surprising that many of the prisoners in the experiment simply accepted the abuses. The Alternative to Experimentation (Non-experimental Designs) authoritarian measures adopted by the guards became so Non-experimental Designs. extreme that the experiment was abruptly stopped after just It is the type of research design that does not include the six days. manipulation of control or independent variables. C. Milgram Experiment (1961) - Psychologist Stanley Milgram set up an experiment meant to measure an In non-experimental research design, researchers measure individual’s willingness to obey an authority figure. In the variables as they naturally happen without any further experiment, two participants (one of which was secretly an manipulation. Validity of Non-experimental Designs ★ Events, Roles, Relationships Internal Validity. The degree to which a research design allows us to make causal statements; focus on accuracy and Common Methods Used strong research methods. ★ Participant Observation. It involves the researcher If A + B= AB, then A+C= AC immersing himself in the daily lives and routines of External Validity. It is the generality or applicability to those being studied. This often requires extensive people and situations outside the research setting. work in the setting being studied. All approaches to research can be described along two major ★ Interviewing. This varies in degree of formality dimensions :( varying from low to high) (informal to semi – structured to structured ★ Degree of manipulation of antecedent conditions interview). ★ Degree of imposition of units 5 Major Purpose of Case Study (Kazdin, 2003) 1. Source of inferences, hypotheses and theories. Five Common Non-experimental Approaches 2. They are a source of developing therapy techniques. ★ Phenomenology. Description of an individual's 3. They allow the study of a rare phenomena immediate experience rather than looking at 4. They provide exceptions or counter instances, to accepted behaviors and events that are external to us. ideas, theories or practices. ○ Personal experience as source of data. e.g. 5. They have persuasive and motivational value. Purkinje effect by Johannes Purkinje ○ William James, one of the earliest ★ Deviant Case Analysis. It is an extension of the phenomenologist evaluative case. Cases of deviant and normal Limitations individuals are compared for significant differences. ★ low in degree of accuracy and objectivity ★ replication is difficult Limitations ★ cannot be used to understand the cause of behavior, ★ Working with only one or few subjects might not it describes but does not explain. represent the general population. ★ Case Study. It is a systematic inquiry into an event ★ If we are not able to observe an individual directly all or a set of related events which aims to describe and the time, we cannot be sure that we are aware of all explain the phenomenon of interest (Bromley, the relevant aspects of that person's life. 1990). This also refers to a descriptive record of a ★ Subjects or others providing data for case studies single experiences, or behaviors, or both kept by an might neglect to mention important information outside observer. ★ Rely on retrospective data ★ Cause and effect statements cannot be made. The case is the center or the core of the inquiry and involves no manipulation of ★ Field Study. These are nonexperimental antecedent conditions. approaches used in the field or in real life settings ○ Naturalistic Observation. This is where Classifications of Case Study according to Focus you observe people or animals in their ★ Individuals natural settings. These observations can ★ Communities occur in the field or in the laboratory. ★ Social Groups ○ Systematic Observation. The researcher ★ Organizations/ Institutions uses a pre-arranged strategy for recording  observations in which observation is Creditable survey research can give these businesses access to recorded using specific rules or guidelines a vast information bank. Organizations in media, other so that observations are more objective. companies, and even governments rely on survey research to ○ Participant-observer studies. The obtain accurate data. researcher becomes part of the group being studied. The traditional definition of survey research is a quantitative ★ Archival Studies. A method where you use method for collecting information from a pool of existing records and select portions of a record to respondents by asking multiple survey questions. This examine. Some examples are census information, research type includes the recruitment of individuals, marriage applications and reports prepared by the collection, and analysis of data. It’s useful for researchers who university. aim at communicating new features or trends to their ★ Qualitative Research. It relies on words rather respondents. than numbers for the data being collected and focuses on self-reports, personal narratives, and Generally, it’s the primary step towards obtaining quick expression of ideas, memories, feelings and information about mainstream topics and conducting more thoughts. rigorous and detailed quantitative research methods like ★ Paradigm. These are set of attitudes, values, surveys/polls or qualitative research methods like focus beliefs, methods and procedures that are generally groups/on-call interviews can follow. There are many accepted within a particular discipline at a certain situations where researchers can conduct research using a point in time. blend of both qualitative and quantitative strategies. Survey Research Methods Survey research methods can be derived based on two critical SLM2 factors: Survey Research Definition ★ Survey research tool Survey Research is defined as the process of conducting ★ Time involved to conduct research. research using surveys that researchers send to survey respondents. The data collected from surveys is then There are three main survey research methods, divided based statistically analyzed to draw meaningful research on the medium of conducting survey research: conclusions. ★ Online/ Email: Online survey research is one of the In the 21st century, every organization’s eager to understand most popular survey research methods today. The what their customers think about their products or services cost involved in online survey research is extremely and make better business decisions. Researchers can conduct minimal, and the responses gathered are highly research in multiple ways, but surveys are proven to be one accurate. of the most effective and trustworthy research methods. An ★ Phone: Survey research conducted over the online survey is a method for extracting information about a telephone (CATI) can be useful in collecting data significant business matter from an individual or a group of from a more extensive section of the target individuals. It consists of structured survey questions that population. There are chances that the money motivate the participants to respond, invested in phone surveys will be higher than other mediums, and the time required will be higher.  ★ Face-to-face: Researchers conduct face-to-face in- important as gaining insights about what customers depth interviews in situations where there is a prefer from the provided options. In such complicated problem to solve. The response rate for situations, a researcher can include multiple-choice this method is the highest, but it can be costly. questions or closed-ended questions. Whereas, if researchers need to obtain details about specific Further, based on the time taken, survey research can be issues, they can consist of open-ended questions to classified into two methods: the questionnaire. Ideally, the surveys should ★ Longitudinal survey research: Longitudinal include a smart balance of open-ended and closed- survey research involves conducting survey research ended questions. Use survey questions like Likert over a continuum of time and spread across years Scale, Semantic Scale, Net Promoter Score question, and decades. The data collected using this survey etc. to avoid fence-sitting. research method from one time period to another is ★ Finalize a target audience: Send out relevant qualitative or quantitative. Respondent behavior, surveys as per the target audience and filter out preferences, attitudes are continuously observed irrelevant questions as per the requirement. The over time to analyze reasons for a change in behavior survey research will be instrumental in case the or preferences. For example, suppose a researcher target population decides a sample. This way, results intends to learn about the eating habits of teenagers. can be according to the desired market and be In that case, he/she will follow a sample of teenagers generalized to the entire population Send out over a considerable period to ensure that the surveys via decided mediums: Distribute the surveys collected information is reliable. Often, cross- to the target audience and patiently wait for the sectional survey research follows a longitudinal feedback and comments- this is the most crucial step study. of the survey research. The survey needs to be ★ Cross-sectional survey research: Researchers scheduled, keeping in mind the nature of the target conduct a cross-sectional survey to collect insights audience and its regions. Surveys can be conducted from a target audience at a particular time interval. via email, embedded in a website, shared via social This survey research method is implemented in media, etc. to gain maximum responses. various sectors such as retail, education, healthcare, ★ Analyze survey results: Analyze the feedback in SME businesses, etc. Cross-sectional survey research real-time and identify patterns in the responses can either be descriptive or analytical. It is quick and which might lead to a much-needed breakthrough helps researchers collect information in a brief for your organization. GAP, TURF, Conjoint period. Researchers rely on cross-sectional survey analysis, Cross tabulation, and many such survey research method in situations where descriptive feedback analysis methods can be used to spot and analysis of a subject is required. shed light on respondent behavior. Researchers can use the results to implement corrective measures to Process of implementing survey research methods: improve customer/employee satisfaction. ★ Decide survey questions: Brainstorm and put together valid survey questions that are Reasons to conduct survey research grammatically and logically appropriate. The most crucial and integral reason for conducting market Understanding the objective and expected research using surveys is that you can collect answers outcomes of the survey helps a lot. There are many regarding specific, essential questions. You can ask these surveys where details of responses are not as questions in multiple formats as per the target audience and the intent of the survey. Before designing a study, every received from this survey to improve the organization must figure out the objective of carrying this product/services. Once the company successfully out so that the study can be structured, planned, and makes the improvements, it can send out another executed to perfection. survey to measure the change in feedback keeping the pilot phase the benchmark. By doing this activity, the organization Questions that need to be on your mind while designing a can track what was effectively improved and what still needs survey are: improvement. ★ What is the primary aim of conducting the survey? ★ How do you plan to utilize the collected survey Benefits Of Survey Research data? In case survey research is used for all the right purposes and is ★ What type of decisions you plan to take based on the implemented properly, marketers can benefit by gaining points mentioned above. useful, trustworthy data that they can use to better the ROI There are three critical reasons why an organization must of the organization. conduct survey research. ★ Understand respondent behavior to get Other benefits of survey research are: solutions to your queries: If you’ve carefully ★ Minimum investment: Mobile surveys and online curated a survey, the respondents will provide surveys have minimal finance invested per insights about what they like about your respondent. Even with the gifts and other incentives organization as well as suggestions for improvement. provided to the people who participate in the study, To motivate them to respond, you must be very online surveys are extremely economical compared vocal about how secure their responses will be and to the paper-based surveys. how you will utilize the answers. This will push ★ Versatile sources for response collection: You can them to be 100% honest about their feedback, conduct surveys via various mediums like online and opinions, and comments. Online surveys or mobile mobile surveys. You can further classify them into surveys have proved their privacy, and due to this, qualitative mediums like focus groups, interviews, more and more respondents feel free to put forth and quantitative mediums like customer-centric their feedback through these mediums. surveys. Due to the offline survey response ★ Present a medium for discussion: A survey can collection option, researchers can conduct surveys be the perfect platform for respondents to provide in remote areas with limited internet connectivity. criticism or applause for an organization. Important This can make data collection and analysis more topics like product quality or quality of customer convenient and extensive. service etc. can be put on the table for discussion. A ★ Reliable for respondents: Surveys are extremely way you can do it is by including open-ended secure as the respondent details and responses are questions where the respondents can write their kept safeguarded. This anonymity makes thoughts. This will make it easy for you to correlate respondents answer the survey questions candidly your survey to what you intend to do with your and with absolute honesty. An organization seeking product or service. to receive explicit responses for its survey research ★ Strategy for never-ending improvements: An must mention that it will be confidential. organization can establish the target audience's attributes from the pilot phase of survey research. Researchers can use the criticism and feedback Survey Research Design 2. Choose simple words and phrases over more specialized Researchers implement a survey research design in cases alternatives. where there is a limited cost involved, and there is a need to 3. Use an appropriate timeframe for questions and responses. access details easily. This method is often used by small and 4. Define abbreviations and acronyms that respondents may large organizations to understand and analyze new trends, not understand. market demands, and opinions. Collecting information 5. Use multiple questions to measure complex concepts through a tactfully designed survey research can be because no single question is a perfect measure of a particular much more effective and productive than a casually concept. conducted survey. Possible Items in a Personality Scale Writing Effective Survey Items ★ I feel happy most of the time Use the BRUSO Model (Peterson, 2000). ★ I enjoy being with other people B-brief ★ I dislike paying attention to details R-reliable ★ When I can, I avoid noisy places. U-unambiguous ★ Sometimes, I feel frightened for no apparent S-specific reasons. O-objective Components of an Item Response Styles: Tendencies to respond to questions or test ★ Stem - The question or statement to which the items in specific ways, regardless of the content; ex: people subject provides a response. Eliminate modifiers differ in response styles, such as: such as “almost everyone” or “usually,” which can ★ Willingness to Answer: comes into play whenever confuse respondents. questions require specific knowledge about facts or ★ Response format. issues; when unsure, people leave questions blank or Two Response Formats guess which makes results harder to interpret. 1. Open – response format. It allows subjects to answer a ★ Position Preference: occurs with multiple choice question in free text. questions; ex: when in doubt you always choose b; 2. Closed – response formats. It gives subjects a structured to avoid, vary the arrangement of correct responses. way to answer items by requiring the subject to choose from ★ Manifest Content: the plain meaning of the words a list of options. that actually appear on the page. Examples: ★ Yea-sayers: apt to agree with a question regardless ★ Check Lists of its manifest content. ★ Likert Scale ★ Nay-sayers: tend to disagree no matter what they ★ Pictorial Scale are asked. ★ Visual Analog Scales Collecting Survey Data ★ Rank Lists ★ Self-administered Questionnaires. Instructions ★ Semantic Differential Scales should be simple and clear. ★ Mail Surveys. Include a cover letter, make sure Guidelines in Writing Survey Questions questionnaire and return procedure protects 1. Identify exactly what kind of information you want anonymity, include return envelope and stamp respondents to provide. ★ Computer and Internet Surveys. Gathering data from respondents via the Internet.  ★ Telephone Surveys. Most widely used method, ○ closed format may not get completely forthright answers; usually Interview not open ended It is a conversation for gathering information which involves ★ Interviews. One of the best ways to get high-quality an interviewer, who coordinates the process of the survey data; expensive. conversation and asks questions, and an interviewee, who ★ Focus Group. Face to face technique used less often responds to those questions. for data collection; good for pretesting; groups have similar Three Types of Interviews characteristics (all women, all black, etc); group is 1. Structured Interview. The interviewer asks a set of brought together by an interviewer called a standard, predetermined questions about particular topics, "facilitator"; facilitator wants group to answer a set in a specific order. of open-ended questions but the discussion is not 2. Semi-structured Interview. The interviewer uses a set of limited. predetermined questions and the respondents answer in their Measuring Responses own words. 1. Nominal. It classifies response 3. Unstructured Interview. The interviewer has no specific items into two or more distinct categories on the basis of guidelines, restrictions, predetermined questions, or list of some common features. options. 2. Ordinal. It is a rank ordering of response items. 3. Interval. It measures magnitude or quantitative size using Criteria for the Interviewer measures with equal intervals between values. However it has 1. Knowledgeable. Being familiar with the topic. no true zero point. 2. Structuring. Outline the procedure of the interview. 4. Ratio. It has an equal intervals between all values and true 3. Clear. Simple, easy and short questions which are spoken zero point distinctly and understandably. 4. Gentle. Being tolerant, sensitive and patient to Evaluating Surveys and Survey Data provocative and unconventional opinions. ★ Validity. The extent to which a survey actually 5. Steering. To control the course of the interview to avoid measures the intended topic. Does the survey digressions from the topic. measure what you want it to measure? 6. Critical. To test the reliability and validity of what the ★ Reliability. The extent to which the survey is interviewee tells. consistent and repeatable. 7.Remembering. Retaining the subject information from the interviewee. Important considerations for Survey items 8. Interpreting. Provide interpretation of what is said by the ★ Get subjects involved right away by asking interviewee. interesting questions Types of Topic Questions in Interview ★ The first question should be something that people 1. Background/ Demographics. Standard background will not mind answering; should have these questions such as age, education. characteristics: 2. Behavior. What a person has done or is doing. ○ relevant to the central topic 3. Opinions/ Values. What a person thinks about a topic. ○ easy to answer 4. Feelings. What a person feels rather than what a person ○ interesting thinks. ○ answerable by most respondents 5. Knowledge. To get facts about the topic. ★ Probability Sampling. It involves selecting 6. Sensory. What people have seen, touched, heard, tasted subjects in a way that the odds of their being in the and smelled. study are known or can be calculated. ○ Define who you want to be studied. Preparation for the Interview ○ unbiased methods of choosing (random 1. Choose a setting with the least distraction. sampling) 2. Explain the purpose of the interview. 3. Address terms of confidentiality. 4. Explain the format of the interview. 5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes. Kinds of Probability Sampling 6. Provide contact information of the interviewer. 1. Simple Random. It is one in which every sample of a 7. Allow the interviewee to clarify any doubts about the given size is equally likely to be chosen. interview. 2. Systematic Random. It requires selecting samples based 8. Prepare a method for recording data. on a system of intervals in a numbered population. 3. Stratified. It involves defining groups, or strata, based on characteristics known for everyone in the population, and Procedure of the Interview then taking independent samples within each stratum. 1. Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working. 4. Cluster. Every member of the population is assigned to 2. Ask one question at a time. one, and only one, group. Each group is called a cluster. 3. Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. 4. Encourage responses. Non-probability Sampling 5. Be careful about the appearance when note taking. Not all members of the population have an equal chance of 6. Provide transition between major topics. participating in the study 7. Don’t lose control of the interview.. Kinds of Non-probability Sampling After the Interview 1. Quota. The researcher is given quotas to fill from specified 1. Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the sub-groups of the population. interview. 2. Convenience. It involves collecting a sample from 2. Make any notes on your written notes. somewhere convenient to you. 3. Write down any observations made during the interview. 3. Purposive. The researcher chooses a sample based on their knowledge about the population and the study itself. Sampling 4. Snowball. The research participants recruit other 1. Sampling. It is a method of selection; decision and members for the study. selection of subjects who will participate in the study. 2. Population. It consists of all people, animals or subjects Correlational Design or objects that have at least one characteristic in common. It describes and measures the degree of association (or 3. Sample of Subjects. A group that is a subset of the relationship) between two or more variables or sets of scores. population of interest. ★ Pearson Product Moment of Correlation ★ Pearson r Types of Correlation 1. Positive correlation. A positive relationship between In this method, a random sample of participants completes a two variables is when an increase in one variable leads to a rise survey, test, or questionnaire that relates to the variables in the other variable. A decrease in one variable will see a of interest. reduction in the other variable. Advantages: 2. Negative correlation. A negative correlation is quite ★ Fast, cheap, and easy—researchers can collect large literally the opposite of a positive relationship. amounts of data in a relatively short amount of time. 3. No correlation. There is no correlation between the two ★ More flexible than some other methods variables. A change in one variable may not necessarily see a Disadvantages: difference in the other variable. ★ Can be affected by an unrepresentative sample or poor survey questions Uses of Correlation ★ Participants can affect the outcome—some ★ Prediction. If there is a relationship between two participants try to please the researcher, lie to make variables. themselves look better, or have mistaken memories ★ Validity 3. Archival Research. This is performed by analyzing ★ Concurrent validity (correlation between a new studies conducted by other researchers or by looking at measure and existing one). historical patient records. Instead of collecting original data, we use data that has already been collected for a different Reliability purpose, such as official records, polls, or previous studies. Test- retest Reliability. Are measures consistent? Advantages: Inter-rater Reliability. Are observers consistent? ★ The experimenter cannot introduce changes in participant behavior Three Types of Correlational Research ★ Enormous amounts of data provide a1 better view 1. Naturalistic Observation. This method involves of trends, relationships, and outcomes observing and recording the variables of interest in the ★ Often less expensive than other study methods— natural environment without interference or manipulation researchers can often access data through free by the experimenter. archives or records databases Advantages: Disadvantages: ★ Gives the experimenter the opportunity to view the ★ The researchers have no control over how data was variable of interest in a natural setting. collected ★ Can offer ideas for further research. ★ Important dates may be missing from the records ★ Might be the only option if lab experimentation is ★ Previous research may be unreliable not possible. Disadvantages: Strengths of Correlation ★ Can be time-consuming and expensive ★ Correlation allows the researcher to investigate ★ Does not allow for scientific control of variables. naturally occurring variables that may be unethical ★ Experimenters can't control extraneous variables. or impractical to test experimentally. ★ Subjects may be aware of the observer and may act ★ Correlation allows the researcher to clearly and differently as a result. easily see if there is a relationship between variables. 2. Survey Method. Surveys and questionnaires are among the most common methods used in psychological research. Limitations of Correlation  ★ Correlation is not and cannot be taken to imply ★ Researcher systematically examines the effects of causation. Even if there is a very strong association subject characteristics but without actually between two variables we cannot assume that one manipulating them causes the other. ★ Researchers form treatment groups by selecting ★ Correlation does not allow us to go beyond the data subjects on the basis of differences that already exist. that is given. 2. Non-equivalent Designs ★ One in which the researcher compares the effects of Causal Modeling different treatment conditions on pre-existing Creating and testing models that may suggest cause and groups of participants. effect relationships among behaviors. ★ Random assignment is not possible. Path Analysis 3. Longitudinal Design ★ A method that can be used when subjects are ★ Measuring behavior of the same subjects at different measured on several related behaviors; researcher points in time. creates models of possible causal sequences. 4. Cross-sectional Studies ★ It generates more information for prediction and ★ Just like longitudinal design but instead of tracking can generate experimental hypotheses. the same group over a long period of time, subjects who are already at different stages are compared at a Cross – lagged Panel Design single point in time. ★ Uses relationships measured over time to suggest the 5. Pre-test/ Post-test causal path. ★ Measuring people’s behavior before and after the ★ Subjects are measured at 2 separate points in time on event and comparing these levels. the same pair of related behaviors or characteristics. Advantages: ★ It is more frequently used because they is more Quasi-experimental Design practical and feasible to conduct research. The prefix quasi means “resembling; resemble to those of ★ Where the sample size is small and where true experiments. It involves the manipulation of randomization and availability of control groups is independent variables to observe the effect on the dependent not possible, this design is preferred. variable. ★ It allows the researchers to evaluate the impact of quasi-independent variables under naturally It generally used to establish the causality (effect of occurring conditions. independent variable to dependent variable) in situations Disadvantages: where the researchers are not able to randomly assign the ★ There is no control over extraneous variables subjects to groups for various reasons. influencing the dependent variable ★ The absence of a control group and absence of Kinds of Quasi-experimental Design control over research setting makes the result of this 1. Ex Post Facto Studies design less reliable and weak for the establishment of ★ This is use if you are interested to study the effect of causal relationship between independent and traits, behavior or naturally occurring events that dependent variable cannot or should not be manipulated