Examen Quality Management Januari PDF

Examen Quality management januari Inhoudsopgave 1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 2 1.1 Quality criteria............................................................................................ 5 2...

Examen Quality management januari Inhoudsopgave 1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 2 1.1 Quality criteria............................................................................................ 5 2 QM models & quality culture (PLAN)................................................................... 9 2.1 Phases in development of QM..................................................................... 9 2.2 Cost of quality............................................................................................ 9 2.3 Quality management model...................................................................... 11 2.4 Quality culture......................................................................................... 13 3 Mission, vision and strategy (PLAN)................................................................... 14 3.1 Mission and vision.................................................................................... 14 3.2 Strategy................................................................................................... 15 3.3 Input – SWOT............................................................................................ 15 3.4 Risk management..................................................................................... 16 3.5 Strategic goals.......................................................................................... 18 4 Process management & optimization (DO)........................................................ 19 4.1 Process management............................................................................... 19 4.2 Process optimization................................................................................ 22 5 Internal audits and certification (ACT)............................................................... 25 5.1 Audit........................................................................................................ 25 5.2 Certification............................................................................................. 26 6 Reflection and improvement (ACT).................................................................... 28 7 Measuring quality............................................................................................ 31 8 Customer satisfaction..................................................................................... 32 1 1 Introduction PDCA cycle = base - Plan o Quality management models o Quality culture o Mission, vision, strategy - Do o Process management and optimalisation - Check o Customer satisfaction o Measuring quality o Complaints management o Audits & certification - Act o Reflection & improvement 5 approaches to defining quality: 1) Transcedent 2) Product-based 3) User-based 4) Manufacting-based 5) Value-based These approaches can exist within the same company. Within a company it is important to look at several approaches at the same time. Vb A product or service needs to meet the expectations of the consumer BUT these expectations can differ from one customer to another. Explained: Transcendent approach: - Quality = innate excellence - Absolute and universally recognizable - BUT cannot be defined - Learn to recognize? → experience - Image / gut feeling o In general people don’t even question the quality of a 3 star Michelin restaurant - Based on trust Transcendent approach of philosophy? - Recognizable after being exposed to it - Ideal forms exist in the mind of a creator 2 The product-based approach: - Objective / quantitative approach - Quality = according to requirements o A lot of time goes to defining these requirements and check afterwards if the product/service meets these requirements - Quality = precise and measurable variable - Difference of quality = difference of quantity of ingredient/attribute o Bv: fine rugs: large number of knots per m2 - Vertical, hierarchical dimension to quality (ranking) - However unambiguous ranking o Consensus on preferable attributes needed Product-based approach of economics: - Early econ research on quality: focus on durability - Quality treated as differences in quantity Impact? - Higher quality = higher cost because: o Quality reflects quantity of attributes → attributes are expensive - Quality = inherent characteristic of goods (≠ ascribed) because: o Quality reflects presence/absence of measurable product attributes o = can be assessed objectively (≠ preferences) Definitions (examples) - Differences in quality amount to differences in the quantity of some desired ingredient or attribute - Quality refers to the amounts of the unpriced attributes contained in each unit of the priced attribute The user-based approach: - Opposite premise! - Individual consumers: different wants and needs o Satisfied preferences = high quality - Personal view → Highly subjective - Basic problem: equitation of quality = maximum satisfaction related, but not identical. o More preferable ≠ better o Bv. enjoy a brand (unusual features) vs considering good quality → marketing approach 3 The user-based approach of economics, marketing & operations management: Marketing literature: “ideal points” = precise combinations of product attributes that provide the greatest satisfaction to a specified customer Economics literature: quality differences are captured by shifts in a product’s demand curve Operations Management literature: “fitness for use” essential requirement for products: meet the needs of who will actually use them All face 2 problems: 1) PRACTICAL - how to: unify widely varying individual preferences for meaningful definitions of quality at market level? 2) FUNDAMENTAL - how to distinguish those product attributes that connote quality from those that simply maximize consumer satisfaction? Solutions for problem 1: Practical: majority of customers = consensus is implied + ignored by theorists and economists The manufacturing-based approach: (Compare: User-based: subjective, consumer preferences → determinants of demand) - Primary focus on supply side = internal - Primarily concerned with engineering and manufacturing practice - Quality = conformance to requirements - Excellence = meeting specifications → well-made Mercedes is high quality, as is a well-made Renault - Also PROCES-based approach: map work processes Led to emphasis on: - Design: reliability engineering - Manufacturing: statistical quality control Both techniques will: ➔ Weed out deviations early (proposing alternative design) ➔ Monitor performance of production process Both techniques’s goal: Cost reduction ➔ Improvements in quality: fewer costs (prevention < repairing, reworking) ➔ Philip Crosby: when there are zero defects, there are no costs associated with issues of poor quality -> quality becomes free!!! 4 The value-based approach : (Compare: Manufacturing-based → Value-based is one step further) VALUE FOR MONEY - Define quality in costs of terms and prices - Quality product = performance at an acceptable price / cost e.g. a running shoe of €500 - Difficulty: hybrid blend of 2 distinct concepts o Quality: measure of excellence o Value: measure of worth ➔ Affordable excellence (lacks definition, difficult in practice) Running shoe: will not have many buyers, no matter how well constructed 1.1 Quality criteria 8 dimensions of quality by Garvin (op examen, paar kunnen uitleggen) Conformance: the proces of a product being made as it was designed, without mistakes or faults. 5 prestaties: de primaire productattributen. Verschillende producten kunnen naar kwaliteit worden gerangschikt op basis van bepaalde prestaties. Bij voorbeeld een auto: vermogen, verbruik, comfort. Niet alle prestatieverschillen zullen echter als kwaliteitsverschil ervaren worden; (overige) kenmerken: de secundaire productkarakteristieken, opties of bepaalde bijkomstige attributen Bij een auto: metaalglanslak, open dak, radio; betrouwbaarheid: de waarschijnlijkheid dat een product gedurende een bepaalde periode foutloos functioneert; conformiteit: de mate waarin de werkelijke eigenschappen van een product overeenstemmen met de beschrijving ervan in een offerte, standaard, catalogus, etc. oftewel de mate waarin een product ‘binnen specificaties” is. Dit is meestal objectief meetbaar; duurzaamheid: de mate en duur van gebruik voordat het product slecht(er) begint te functioneren; onderhoudbaarheid: de snelheid en het gemak waarmee onderhoud of een herstelling kan worden uitgevoerd. esthetische waarde: hoe voelt, smaakt, klinkt ruikt een product. Dit is zeer subjectief; ervaren kwaliteit: subjectieve perceptie van de kwaliteit van een product, gevormd door imago, reclame, verpakking, merkbekendheid, reputatie. Hierdoor wordt de kwaliteit van merkproducten hoger ingeschat dan die van merkloze producten. Betrouwbaarheid (reliability): vinden klanten dat de dienst accuraat en eerlijk is? Responsiviteit (responsiveness): hoe snel en goed wordt er gereageerd op vragen en klachten? Zekerheid (assurance): kunnen klanten zeker zijn van de service en zijn ze daarmee verzekerd van de juiste informatie? Empathie (empathy): worden klanten persoonlijk benaderd en speelt het bedrijf in op hun wensen en behoeften? Uitstraling (tangibles): hoe komt de tastbare informatie, zoals de werkkleding van het personeel en de inrichting en netheid van de locatie, over op de klant? Veiligheid: Risico’s en schade van de zorg voor de gebruiker, zijn context en zorgverlener worden maximaal vermeden. Ongewenste gebeurtenissen (bijv. incidenten, ongevallen, 6 etc) worden gemeld, geanalyseerd en gedeeld zodat ze in de toekomst kunnen worden vermeden. Effectiviteit: De zorg verloopt de laatste wetenschappelijk onderbouwde ('evidence- based') richtlijnen. Persoonsgericht: Zorg wordt respectvol geleverd, op basis van de voorkeuren en noden van de gebruiker, en rekening houdend met de context. Tijdigheid: De zorg wordt aangeboden met zo kort mogelijke wachttijden. Efficiëntie: Beschikbare middelen worden correct, verantwoord ingezet. Activiteiten die geen toegevoegde waarde bieden, worden vermeden. Bijvoorbeeld te veelvuldig gebruik van medische beeldvorming. Gelijkwaardig: Elke gebruiker heeft toegang tot kwaliteitsvolle zorg, los van zijn persoonlijke kenmerken zoals leeftijd, inkomen, geslacht, enz. Operations management = the control of the activities involved in producing goods and providing services, and the study of the best ways to do this. = the administration of business practices to create the highest level of efficiency possible within an organization e.g. furniture production: OM will be purchasing wood and fabric, hiring and training workers, location and layout of the factory, purchase cutting tools and other equipment. Quality management: - Branch of business administration - That strives for the highest possible quality of a product or service, process or project, person, organisation, chain or network or society - By purposfully managing a continuous improvement process in order to permanently increase quality and structurally improve performance Quality management seeks to ensure the consistency of products and services. Achieving such consistency requires that one determine exactly what one means by “quality.” Within the discipline of quality management, scholars have developed frameworks for determining quality. In this article, we present one such framework. After presenting that framework, we supplement it with the work of several other leaders in quality-management. 7 Quality (Assurance/Management) System (QMS) - Organisational structure, responsibilities, procedures, processes and facilities to implemt quality assurance / care component: Plan, Do, Check, Act Quality planning: - Take time to identify your goals and what you want to achieve → determine quality standards, requirements to meet the standards, procedures to be used to check criteria o What your stakeholder’s expectations and priorities are, if applicable o What your company’s definition of success is o What legal standards or requirements are in place that must be abided by o Who will handle each role in the quality management process (supervision, testing, etc.) o How often processes will be evaluated for improvement Quality control & assurance - Quality Control (QC) o Physically check, test, inspect what has been put in the planning to make sure it is obtainable o Confirm standards are met, identify mishaps or errors o Display the data you have collected (chart, …) o ‘make sure you meet your quality objectives’ - Quality Assurance (QA) o Plans and requirements created to provide quality products or services to your customers; identify opportunities - QMS → both processes are included - ! Structured approach needed for both QC and QA 8 2 QM models & quality culture (PLAN) 2.1 Phases in development of QM - Quality inspection (part of QC): to guarantee the quality of the product. Inspector uses checklist based on requirements. - Quality control: quality of manufacturing process is central. Staff check their own processes and products. - Quality assurance: guarantee quality by using a quality system (covers all phases from design – production) that checks all processes, regulations, procedures, … Importance of audits and certificates. - Quality management: customers and other stakeholders are highly valued. Focus on culture of the organization, improvement, innovation. Involvement of management. 2.2 Cost of quality “quality is free” Philip Crosby was right when he said, "Quality is free," meaning that an investment in improving quality pays itself back very quickly. While completely true, that assumes that the customer can differentiate quality levels of products at the cash register. Cost of quality = the losses suffered because the quality of product of services is not achieved + Expenditure on all activities to prevent or reduce such losses ir maintain/improve quality PAF-model: - Prevention: Costs suffered to prevent or avoid quality problems. Associated with design, implementation and maintenance of the Quality Management System o Cost of good quality o Reduce the chance of quality deficiencies occurring o Quality of planning, quality assurance, training, … - Appraisal: costs associated with measuring and monitoring activities related to quality; associated with customers’ evaluation of products/services to ensure that they are conform to specifications o Keep the effect of shortcomings as small as possible o Audit, supplier rating , … o Cost of good quality - Failure: costs suffered to repair defects in products or services or to destroy products o May be internal or external o Cost of poor quality 9 Internal failure costs: occur incurred to remedy defects discovered before the product or service is delivered to the customer. These costs occur when the results of work fail to reach design quality standards and are detected before they are transferred to the customer. They could include: - Waste: Performance of unnecessary work or holding of stock as a result of errors, poor organization, or communication - Scrap: Defective product or material that cannot be repaired, used, or sold - Rework or rectification: Correction of defective material or errors - Failure analysis: Activity required to establish the causes of internal product or service failure - (eventueel ook uitval, terugvordering door leverancier) External failure costs: occur to remedy defects discovered by customers. These costs occur when products or services that fail to reach design quality standards are not detected until after transfer to the customer. They could include: - Repairs and servicing: Of both returned products and those in the field - Warranty claims: Failed products that are replaced or services that are re- performed under a guarantee - Complaints: All work and costs associated with handling and servicing customers’ complaints - Returns: Handling and investigation of rejected or recalled products, including transport costs - (eventueel ook sancties/boetes bij niet-conformiteit, versnelde vracht/verzending om aan timing te voldoen, schadekosten, kosten door schikkingen, …) 10 2.3 Quality management model - European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) o Founded in 1988 with the aim of creating a platform where organisations can learn from each other and continuously improve themselves (Business Excellence model) - The Excellence Model Framework o Originally designed to select quality award winners o Frame of reference o Self-assessment tool o Development model o Governance model 11 Enablers Leadership: - Have vision for the future + realize this vision - Acting as role models - Flexible - Enable org to anticipate and respond on time - Bv: working in process and result-oriented way, delegating, exemplary behaviour Strategy & policy: - Implement mission & vision by developing stakeholder-focused strategy - Bv. Goals and mission, culture, strategic management People: - Value staff - Create culture where achievement on organizational and personal goals - Promote fairness and equality - Develop capabilities of staff - Good communication - Reward and recognize them - Bv. Workload, career development, involvement in policy-making, performance reviews Partnerships & resources: - Plan and manage external/internal relations and suppliers - Effectively manage their environmental and social impact - Bv. Use of financial resources, grantors, computer facilities Processes, products, services: - Design, manage and improve processes/products/services → increase value for customers / other stakeholders - Bv. Description of processes, information flows, result-oriented work Results People: - Achieve and sustain excellent results that meet the needs/expectations of staff Customers: - Achieve and sustain excellent results that meet the needs/expectations of customers 12 Society: - Achieve and sustain excellent results that meet the needs/expectations of relevant stakeholders in society Business results: (Governance and Finance) - Achieve and sustain excellent results that meet the needs/expectations of economic stakeholder Innovation and learning: - The approach to change that the org uses to seize opportunities for improvement and renewal - About the way in which this approach is matched to the goals that are to be achieved Link with PDCA? 2.4 Quality culture Culture of an org: is the set of often unwritten, but in any case shared, norms, values and rules of conduct that influence the functioning of your employees. Culture is the way things are done in your organization. Quality culture: When all employees of an org are passionate about quality as a personal value rather than it being imposed from above Everyone in the org, not just the qualitycontrollers, are responsible for quality → influenceable! 4 conditions for the emergence of a quality culture: 1) Consistent leadership a. Words match actions 2) Communication quality a. Communication must be personal, from respected sources, easy to understand 3) Involve colleagues a. Show employees how other colleagues are making quality a priority, bv organise quality competitions or showcase good ideas 4) Encourage ownership a. Let employees make their own decisions on quality matters Examen questions examples: What sentence does not fit with TQM approach? - We continuously keep improving 13  - The quality department is responsible for all improvement projects - We do not only look at the end result but also the process - We mainly focus on prevention of errors Do you agree with “Quality is free”’? Give your arguments Carrefour does a recall on strawberry jam. What kind of cost of quality is this? How do the EFQM-model and the PCDA-cycle relate to each other? What are the 10 areas of focus in the EFQM-model? Explain You are appointed as CEO in an organisation where there seems to be no quality culture. What can you do as CEO to develop and sustain such quality culture? 3 Mission, vision and strategy (PLAN) 3.1 Mission and vision Mission = What the organisation is there for, what it is good at and why people want to buy its products or services = the reason for the org’s existence ➔ Makes it clear why the org exists and what it can do for you as a customer A mission statement should help foundations… - Clarify their reason for exiting - Identify their purpose - Operate efficiently - Promote inclusion More characteristics? - Ambitious - Motivating - Distinctive - Relevant and directing stakeholders - Authentic Vision: - Indicates how the mission will be achieved - It describes an ambitious shared vision of the future. It functions as an ethical compass for the organisation. The vision provides an answer to the question: What do you want to be? What do you believe in? - Often linked to the core values - = an ideal that is seen as worth striving for in an organisation 14 3.2 Strategy Strategy = Describes how the images and goals set out in the vision will be achieved and provides a coherent set of actions for maintaining continuity in the longer term. Based on mission, vision, evaluation of current situation and environmental analysis - Analysis of the most important influences, developments from the external (direct and wider) environment - For example, according to DESTEP: o Demographic: evolutions regarding student numbers, ageing, etc o Ecological: sustainability trends, etc. o Socio-cultural: youth culture, etc. o Political: decrees, legislation,.... o Economic: employment trends, labour trends, etc. o Technological: communication possibilities, ICT,... 3.3 Input – SWOT Strengths (internal, helpful to achieve the objective) - These are the strengths of an organisation. It shows what you are good at, what is going well, what you are proud of, what you can build on, etc. 15 Weaknesses (internal, harmful to achieve the objective) - These are the weaknesses of an organisation. They reflect what is not going well, what could be improved, what causes problems, what hinders the work,... Opportunities (external, helpful to achieve the objective) - These are external opportunities that benefit the organisation. This shows what possibilities/opportunities there are, which can be used,... Threats (external, harmful to achieve the objective) - These are external threats that can hinder or slow down the organisation. This indicates the dangers that lurk, for which precautions should be taken, what you should be careful of,... Possible Add-ons: SWOART Aspirations - This is the ambition that the organisation has. It reflects your vision, what you want to be known for, where you want to go. Results - These are the tangible results that the organisation achieves. It shows how you translate the vision of success into concrete, measurable results. Confrontation matrix: How to use: Asses the effect of each opportunity and threat for each strength and weakness. Very promising (++)-(+) neutralizing (0) very threatening (--)-(-) No effect: put nothing calculate the total score, so that the most important relations emerge 3.4 Risk management Risk = un uncertain, future event that can have a negative impact on the achievement of business objectives 16 Risk management: 1) Risk identification 2) Risk analysis and assessment 3) Risk management Risk identification Based on categorization of risks: - Strategic risks o Related to the strategic choices (e.g. competition, change in customer requirements, acquisition,...) - Financial risks o These are all risks related to the financial aspects of the organisation, including e.g. interest rate fluctuations externally - Operational risks o These risks are directly related to the actual operations or the value chain (production, purchasing, logistics...). They can be further subdivided according to the nature of the business; - IT risks o They arise from the operation of the ICT environment, including the IT assets, organisation and processes; - Compliance and legal risks o These risks relate to complying with and following legislation, contracts and other specific obligations, rules and standards with which a company or organisation must comply; - Reputational risks o They threaten the name and reputation of the company or its products and services. Risk analysis and assessment Analysis of the probability of occurrence and the severity of its impact Risk score = probability x impact Estimation of impact: - The past: To what extent has the risk occurred before? (Damage statistics etc.) - The familiarity: have we done the activities before and do we know what the possible impact could be? - The circumstances: under what conditions does it occur? Have measures already been taken to control the risk? - The available resources: is the risk budgeted or otherwise foreseen? - The risk sensitivity in time: does the impact increase or decrease? 17 Risk management Different approaches: - Accept: o Usually smaller risks o “that’s just part of doing business” o No time/resources will be invested in prevention o Low probability, low impact - Avoidance: o Org decides not to do a certain activity to avoid the risk o High probability, high impact - Transfer: o Insurance o In exchange for a fee, the risk is transferred to a third party o Low probability, high impact - Mitigate: (beperken) o Actively try to contain (mitigate) the risk through internal controls o High probability, high impact Exercise: 3.5 Strategic goals Determine the objectives to realise the vision: From 4 perspective that are in balance (Balanced Scorecard): - Financial: what (financial) results must we achieve? - Customer: how do the customer asses us? - Internal: in which processes should we excel? - Learning and r-growing: how can we continue to innovate, grow and improve? Setting strategic goals → SMART CSFs → Critical Succes Factors = determine how the organisation will achieve its goals KPIs → Key Performance Indicators - Are used to measure the progress of the targets - Requirements: o Relevant: link with objective and CSF 18  o Valid: measures what we want to measure o Reliable: measurement is accurate, not dependent on random factors o Timeless: measurement is sufficiently up to date o Efficient - Possibility of standardization and benchmarking - Beware of unintended effect: o Abnormal behaviour o Manipulation o Resistance. Example exam questions: - What statement is not correct? o The mission reflects the ‘raison d’être’ of an organisation o The vision states how we want to realize the mission o The mission states how we want to realize the vision o The vision reflects the long term / future image of an organisation - Is this goal written “SMART”? Why (not)? o All students have a good result on the exam - Case Study o Write down KSF and KPI 4 Process management & optimization (DO) 4.1 Process management Processes = a series of coherent and recurring activities aimed at achieving a certain goal: - “this is how we do it for you” - Concrete (business) objective - Runs from customer to customer - Runs from trigger to result - Can run across different departments/companies Advantages: creating routine & prevent errors Focus area in QM (EFQM, PDCA) + lean management 19 3 types of processes: 1) Primary or operational process a. Process that the customer is most involved with b. Is linked to the mission c. Where core activity is developed + delivered 2) Management process a. Determine what results want to be achieved and how this is monitored b. Involves planning, monitoring and general oversee 3) Secondary or supporting process a. Processes that org needs to work properly b. Essential to success of primary process c. Brings value, not just in the way of money Levels of process maps: Process flow diagram Meaning of the flowchart symbols: 20 Roles and responsibilities (RACI) - Responsible: person who performs an activity or does the work - Accountable: person who is ultimately accountable and has yes/no/veto - Consulted: person that need to feedback and contribute to the activity (normally before decision is made) - Informed: person that needs to know of the decision/activity (mostly after) Work instruction = instruction for a specific user to be able to perform specific tasks and activities independently SOP = standard operating procedure = procedure specific to an org that describes activities necessary to complete tasks in accordance with standards of the org. bv. “how to”, step-by-step production line procedures ➔ Goal to create uniformity Work instructions: Advantages: - Save time on training new employees - Reduce risks of human error - Safeguard the knowledge of an org - Provide structure and clarity Disadvantages: - Can lead to bureaucracy - Can limit innovation and improvisation How to write a SOP? - Think of clear title - Explain step by step what to do - Start every step with an action (take, use, go,..) - Put the steps in the correct order (flow) - Use a different line for each step - Use numbers to define steps Pay attention to: - Language use - Short and clear - Avoid passive words, avoid would, should, could - Avoid names, use functions (marketing manager,…) - Use appropriate visual as an aid - Use signal words: first, then, meanwhile, because, therefore,… 21 Managing of processes: Requires horizontal thinking: - Employees don’t only look up (bosses) or down (subordinates) but especially left and right (partners in the process) - Processes run across different departments and require coordination of work between different teams Managing of processes: Recognizing: where processes start and stop, sub- processes, where processes overlap Analyzing/model: what are the different process steps? Who is involved? What belongs to the environment? What kind of relationships exist between the different stages? (re)design: make process descriptions and process diagrams. Check whether this is done efficiently and effectively. Does process optimization need to be done? Execute: rolling out the designed processes Monitor: and coordinate with the various stakeholder Optimize / adjust: does the process still meet the right criteria, is the output still sufficient and desired? 4.2 Process optimization BPO → business process optimization Fall into 2 categories: focus on the processes and steps to take. OR focuses on the human response to change 22 Critical to every org because: need to be change faster than competition Critical question: how can I ensure that my change initiative is successful? → change management models Process focus models Kotter’s 8 step change model: 1) Create a climate for change 2) Engage & enable the org 3) Implement & sustain Unfreeze, change, refreeze - Begin by preparing for the change - Implement the change - Embed the change into the org PDCA Cycle - Plan, do, check, act - Use over and over again for continuous improvement McKinsey 7S Framework - Contains people and process focus - All areas are connected - All areas are equally important - Divided in hard and soft elements o Hard are easy to change like: strategy, structure and systems o Soft are harder to change: skills, staff, style (culture of the org) - Shared values in the center People focused models ADKAR model of change - Awareness - Desire - Knowledge - Ability - Reinforcement - Focuses on the individual rather than the org Nudge theory: - Based on that people have the nudge to make the right choice without restricting their freedom - Everyone has a cognitive bias (ex: I love paris in the the springtime. No one notices the second the) 23 Satir change model: - Help people how to cope with major changes - At the hart is the conviction that everything can get better but it takes time and it usually gets worse first Bridges transition model: - Maps out the human response to change in 3 zones o Ending, losing and letting go o The neutral zone o The new beginning The change curve: - From shock to integration - Emotional response to change - Can show manager how to interact with people during change Maurer 3 levels of resistance: 1) I don’t get it (don’t understand why change is necessary) 2) I don’t like it (understand but don’t like it) 3) I don’t like you (not resisting the change but don’t trust you to deliver it) - Based on the idea that people resist change Summary: - Change management models provide guidelines to help you lead change - You can mix and match the models to suit your needs 8 types of waste: !! 1) Defects a. Rework, or audits to compensate for potential process failure 2) Overproduction a. Producing more than immediately needed 3) Stagnation a. Idle equipment, employees, or customer care 4) Untapped potential a. Underutilized employee creativity and knowledge 5) Transportation a. Excessive movement of products and information 6) Inventory a. Inventory without immediate defined purpose 7) Motion a. Excessive human movement while performing a task 8) Over-processing a. Performing process steps in excess of customer requirements 24 Example exam questions: What type of processes do we define? Give an example for each type of process in a supermarket setting. What statement is correct about RACI? - Responsible is the person that is ultimately held accountable - Accountable is the person that needs to report to the responsible - Consulted is the person informed after the decision - Informed is the person informed after the decision What are the criteria for a good work instruction? - The more information/explanation, the better - Visuals can help - Simple language - Passive construction / use of words 5 Internal audits and certification (ACT) 5.1 Audit = an official inspection of an org’s accounts, typically by an independent person Objective examination + meets predetermined requirements Key words: independent, objective, systematic, documented, expert, observations, requirements Types of audits: - Internal audits o By employees of the own org - External audits o By customers or suppliers o By an independent party Subject of the audit: - Product o Assess quality of the product/service o Extra attention to things customers find important - Process o Goes through whole process step by step o Checks if daily practice on the work floor corresponds with description - System o Tests if QM system meets the set system requirements o If system is effective enough and function as desired 25 Audit strategy: - License to operate – are we working according to plan? - Learning and improving – how are we doing and what could be improved Process - Demarcation (afbakening) of the audit mandate o Scope o Themes o Requirements o Time plan - Document examination o Documentation and records - Prepare for audit visit - Audit visit: question – observe – evaluate o Is it there? o Is it being used? o Is it working as intended? o Who adjusts it? - Audit report o Observations, assessments and possible advice o Opportunity to respond to factual inaccuracies - Audit as input for continuous improvement 5.2 Certification = a written statement. States that a product/process/person/service/QM-system meets certain requirements = a quality mark Types of certification: - Product/process/service o Proves that it meets certain requirements o Bv. CE marking - System o Shows that org has bv an environmental management system that meets certain quality standards o Bv. ISO 9001 - Person o Indicates that the person has certain knowledge and skills o Bv. Pilots ISO 9001: - International Organisation for Standardization - ISO is org that monitors the pursuit of its standards. 26 Standardization is applied within almost every org There are over 18 000 different ISO standards active The ISO 9000 series are standards of the ISO institute that define how an organisation can guarantee its quality. ISO 9001: internationally recognized standard that bundles all the expertise regarding QM from the past decades in 1 document - Can be used to asses compliance with customer requirements, applicable legislation and requirements of the org itself - To summarize: o Say what you do o Do what you say o Prove you do ISO 9001: ISO 9001 certification: - Correct implementation of the standard, checked by an independent person - Written proof that you meet all the requirements, valid for 3 years. - Benefits: o More chance in tenders and licenses o Strong reputation and image to outside world o Continuous improvement of your org o Input from experienced experts Step-by-step plan for ISO 9001 certification 1. Support 2. Training 3. Zero measurement 4. Preparation 27  5. Communication 6. Implementation 7. Audit ▪ Phase 1: a thorough check of all required documents ▪ Phase 2: an analysis (on-site) of the operation of the management system 8. Certification 6 Reflection and improvement (ACT) PDCA as a learning cycle: Learning to improve at an individual level - Individual qualities of employees -> important for the successful completion of the PDCA cycle of the team/org - 2 professional drivers: o Professional curiosity ▪ Focused on professional, organizational and relational dimensions ▪ How can I improve professionally? ▪ How can I best organize my work to achieve this ▪ What do I add to the org? ▪ What does this mean for the way I deal with colleagues/managers? o Ambition and dare Personal PDCA-cycle: - Reflection models: - STARR - Korthagen 28 STARR: - Situation o Information about the situation where the experience was gained. Where, when, who, how, … - Task o Tasks performed, roles executed, skills applied and learning goals to be achieved - Actions o How did you contribute to the situation? Actions, decisions, obstacles and reactions. Provide proof - Results o Most important results, effects and skills developed. How were they of use? - Reflection o Insight, eye-openers, lessons learned? How will you improve? What will you do differently next time? What is needed for that? Not good/bad Meer uitleg/vragen op slide 7 van ppt reflection and improvement Learning to improve at team level Team learning: - Set objectives together + discuss what is needed to achieve them - Regularly looks back together + adjust working methods - Leads to continuous improvement - → team will improve level/maintain its high level of functioning even when circumstances change Team of learning professionals ≠ learning team - Team leader important and stimulating role - Conditions for team learning o Taking time for reflection and discussion o Psychologically safe environment o Ability to implement proposed improvements - Characteristics of teams that reflect and implement changes: o Not hierarchical o Leaders encourage input into the discussion o There is a mutual task dependency o Decision-making based on facts rather than opinions 29 Learning to improve at the organizational level Learning teams → not automatically a learning org 7 limitations to learning in an org - I am my position o (when you only identify with your own position, no longer feel responsible for the whole) - The enemy is outside o (people put blame outside themselves) - Illusion of decisiveness o (people react to problems instead of being proactive) - Focus on events o (people think of short-term events and are therefore not able to respond optimally to events - Metaphor of a boiled frog o (sometimes, due to the slowness with which a development occurs, an org does not realize that a problem has arisen) - Illusion of learning by experience o (we learn best through experience but we rarely see the consequences of important decisions immediately - Management has the answer o The rest of the org does not have to develop because management will know 5 learning disciplines: 1) Personal mastery a. Create individual commitment to the process of learning b. Self-critical and self)reflective employee c. Learning capacity of individual employees determines boundaries of the learning org 2) Mental models a. Unlearn unwanted values: learn new and applicable ones b. Org and employees must be aware they look at ‘reality’ through colored glasses c. Continuous research into the hidden basic assumptions (mental models) that underlie the actions of employees and org i. Discussed and adjusted 3) Common vision a. Learning org has a strong common vision b. Vision outlines a future in which employees recognize themselves c. Employees then act from intrinsic motivation 4) Team learning a. Entering into dialogue about the often hidden assumptions 30  b. Recognize and let go of prejudices 5) Systems thinking a. Working together as a whole system (with all functions) b. Lies like a shell over the other 4 and integrates them into a coherent whole c. Does not look at individual parts of the system, but at processes and their mutual relationships d. The essence of learning to systematically think is discovering the mutual relationships between these factors and then using this insight to influence the system Kaizen-method (LEAN) 1) Get employees involved 2) Gather a list of problems 3) Encourage solutions, then choose an idea 4) Test the solution 5) Regularly measure and analyze the results 6) If successful, adopt the solution 7) Repeat on an ongoing basis Example exam questions: Work out STARR for a certain activity Explain Korthagen model with an example 7 Measuring quality Measuring quality: - KPI - Appreciation from stakeholder o Client satisfaction - Complaints and incidents - Compliance to standards and audits - Financial results Rest of ppt is informational, read it thoroughly!! Research roadmap: Step 1: Orientation – define research problem Step 2: Preparation – create research plan Step 3: Execution – conduct research Step 4: Reflection – reflect and report on research 31 8 Customer satisfaction Important for org that their product/services meet the clients expectations. However, this does not always happen Model 1: GAP model / SERVQUAL (service + quality) = 5 gaps between customer’s expectations and reality Gap 1: the knowledge gap - Difference between customer's expectations of the service and the management’s perceptions of these customers’ expectations - When management does not know what customers want, they cannot provide it - Causes: too many layers in management, insufficient marketing research, … - Solution: conduct regular market research (surveys, feedback,…) Gap 2: the policy gap - Difference between the perception of the management of what the customer wants and the translation of this - Cause: management did not put enough effort into exploring the ways in which service quality can be reached, employees ‘giving up’ attitude - No goals set by the management for the employees to meet - Involve frontline employees in decision-making to ensure achievability and practicality of policies. Gap 3: the delivery gap - Difference between service quality specifications that employees get and the service delivery those employees have to establish - Cause: poor employee-job fit, insufficient supervisory, lack of teamwork - Solution: employees must be trained and supervised to make sure they can deliver the service to customers as described in the service quality specifications Gap 4: the communication gap - Difference between the service the employees deliver and what the management tells customers will be delivered - Cause: bad internal communication, promise too much to customers - Solution: same communication internally and externally, no over-promising Gap 5: the customer gap - When service delivered is perceived higher than was expected by the same customer 32  - Cause: bad word of mouth (stories from peers), bad past experiences - Solution: Consistently exceed customer expectations and follow up to ensure satisfaction Short: - Gap 1: knowledge gap o : The company doesn't fully understand what customers expect. - Gap 2: policy gap o The company's policies and service plans don’t match customer expectations. - Gap 3: delivery gap o Employees fail to deliver services as planned. - Gap 4: communication gap o The company promises more in ads than it delivers. - Gap 5: perception gap o Customers perceive the service as worse than expected. Kijk naar vb van GAP model in leerpad customer satisfaction Model 2: expectation confirmation theory (ECT) ➔ Sees customer satisfaction (after purchasing product/service) as determined by 4 factors: o Expectations ▪ Before buying/using something, people have certain expectations o Perceived performance ▪ After using a product/service, they evaluate their actual experience o Disconfirmation of beliefs ▪ If the experience matches or exceeds expectations → confirmation ▪ If it falls short of expectations → disconfirmation o Satisfaction ▪ Positive confirmation -> satisfaction ▪ Negative disconfirmation -> dissatisfaction In short: satisfaction depends on the gap between what people expect and what they get Model 3: Thomassen Value-proposition = why should the customer choose you instead of somebody else? Both value proposition + other influences have an impact on final customer satisfaction Allows us to determine how satisfied customers are + where improvements can be 33 Model 4: Zeithaml SERVQUAL uses 5 dimensions to rate the quality of a service: Explain + how to recognize in a company - Reliability: o Ability to deliver the promised service dependably & accurately o Are products delivered on time? Are refunds/warranties honored? - Assurance: o The knowledge, competence, and courtesy of employees, and their ability to inspire trust and confidence. o Are staff knowledgeable and confident in their roles? - Tangibles: o The physical appearance of facilities, equipment, personnel, and materials used in the service. o Cleanliness of org, professional appearance from staff - Empathy: o The level of care and personalized attention given to customers. o Employees patient with difficult clients? Empl. remember client history? - Responsiveness: o The willingness to help customers and provide prompt service o Are empl. approachable? How quickly are complaints addressed? 34 Exercise: You are a customer yourself in day to day life. Reflect on your position as a customer: which positive and/or negative experiences have you had as a customer so far? Link these experiences to one of the theoretical models and analyse them. From models to methods Both SERVQUAL and SERVPERF are metrics for service quality measurement. Even though they are closely related and share the same origins, they offer a different focus for research that uses them. The combined use of both metrics can provide an organisation with a list of strengths and weaknesses to include in their quality management. Servqual is based on the GAP model and designed to measure gap 5. It consists of a questionnaire for customers, built up of two parts: 1) 22 statements that question customers' expectations for each of the five dimensions of quality service 2) 22 statements that measure customers' perceptions for each of the five dimensions The final outcome for this metric is calculated by subtracting the perception score from the expectation score. SERVPERF metric uses the same 5 dimensions, but the questionnaire only looks into the perception of customers 3 methods to measure customer satisfaction: CSAT: Customer Satisfaction Score - Measure customer satisfaction with a specific interaction/purchase/feature - Typically uses a 5-point scale (1-5) but can also include visual scales like stars o On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied were you with…? CES: Customer Effort Score - Measures the effort a customer had to make to solve a problem/complete task - Typically uses a 5-point scale o An a scale of 1-5, how easy did the org make it for you to…? NPS: Net Promoter Score - Measures how likely a customer is to recommend an org/product/service - Focused on long-term customer relationships - Uses a 0-10 scale - Segments customers into: Promoters (9-10), Passives (7-8), Detractors (0-6) o On a scale of 0-10, how likely are you to recommend X to a friend? 35 Similarities: - All 3 measure aspects of customer satisfaction - They use quantitative scales to collect feedback - They help identify areas for improvement and optimize customer experience Differences: - Focus is different: o CSAT → general satisfaction o CES → effort experienced o NPS → willingness to recommend - Time horizon is different o CSAT → short- and long-term o CES → short-term o NPS → long-term Importance/performance chart: Visualizes the relation between the importance and the appreciation (performance) of specific aspects. Importance -> y-axis Satisfaction -> x-axis Journey map: a visual representation of all interactions a customer has with a service, brand, or product. It acts as a storyline that maps all touchpoints, from the moment a customer first hears about you to post-service care. By visualizing this journey, you step into the customer’s shoes and gain insights into their experiences, needs, and emotions. You can add different things: - Storyboard (pictures) - Textlane (extra details) - Emotionlane (see how the client feels during) - To do Apply this to UCLL: - Bv: Enhancing satisfaction during studies o Capture students’ experiences throughout their education: interactions with lecturers, the usability of learning platforms, accessibility of study materials, and support during internships. - Persona: students, alumni, first-year students 36 Not only customers matter, also stakeholders. 3 groups of stakeholders: 1) Employees / staff a. Research appreciation of staff for your company b. Topics: i. General appreciation ii. Management and leadership iii. Strategy and mission iv. HR management c. Measure how well they perform trough: use of intranet, absence,… d. Customer satisfaction techniques can also be used on staff 2) Society (people, planet, profit) a. Global reporting initiative: focus on economical aspects, environment (waste,…) and social aspects (discrimination, inclusive,…) b. Society appreciation study 3) Shareholders / board members a. Will mainly focus on goals for revenue and strategic goals b. Return on investment c. Strategic goals (KPIs) 37