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Feudalism roughly started around 500 AD Manorialism was the primary economic system of medieval -​ Lord’s estate was called a manor -​ Rights and obligation between lord and his serfs - contract -​ Lord provided housing, farmland, and protection -​ Serf’s tended lord’s land, cared for an...

Feudalism roughly started around 500 AD Manorialism was the primary economic system of medieval -​ Lord’s estate was called a manor -​ Rights and obligation between lord and his serfs - contract -​ Lord provided housing, farmland, and protection -​ Serf’s tended lord’s land, cared for animals, maintenance -​ Consisting of the Lord’s manor house, a church, and -​ workshops -​ 15-30 families in a village -​ Fields, pastures and woodlands -​ A self-sufficient community -​ But it came at a price -​ pay tax on all grain ground in the lord’s mill -​ Tax on marriage -​ Tithes (church tax) – 10% of their income -​ Crowded and unsanitary conditions – it was VILE Bubonic Plague: -​ Worldwide pandemic starting in mid 14th century -​ Filling about third of Europe's population, estimated about 34 million people -​ Historically thought to be bacterial infection spread by fleas with help of animals like black rats -​ Expert’s are not sure of this -​ painful lymph node swellings called buboes -​ buboes in the groin and armpits, which ooze pus and blood. -​ damage to the skin and underlying tissue until they were -​ covered in dark blotches. -​ Therefore, "Black" plague -​ Most victims died within four to seven days after infection Renaissance: -​ In 1453 the Muslim Ottoman Empire defeated Constantinople and took control of the Eastern Mediterranean. -​ This forced Europe to find another port into Asia. -​ Wealth poured into the Italian city-states as they became the middlemen in these trades -​ Italian city-states were well developed urban centres rich in wealth,freedom and the arts. -​ There were many visible reminders of Roman architecture and artaround. -​ Major accomplishments: Humanists philosophy, new form of art and architecture, classical literature, religious and political ideas -​ Major figures: Leonardo da vinci, William Shakespeare, Mona lisa, Michelangelo, Printing press: -​ Johannes Gutenberg -​ Helped spread information and knowledge, quicker access to information, altering culture etc. Reformation: -​ Martin Luther -​ Devout German Clergyman who struggled with personal salvation. By studying scripture, he believed justification was through faith alone -​ October 31 1517, nailed 95 theses to church door in wittenberg -​ This sparked protestant reformation during which various groups through Europe broke Catholic Church and formed their own denomination -​ Fear of offending German princes caused the pope to delay dealing with Martin Luther. When the pope tried to act against Luther in 1520, it was too late. He had grown support in germany He burned a papal bull excommunicating him and called the Pope the anti- Christ and the Church the most lawless den of robbers, the most shameless of all brothels, the very Kingdom of sin,death, and Hell.”German resentment of foreign papal intervention fuelled the Reformation. Witchcraft: Faustian Bargain ​ A person trades their soul to the devil for personal gain (e.g., wealth). ​ Also refers to the Catholic practice of buying indulgences to reduce time in purgatory, as seen in the Salem Witch Trials. Famous Explorers ​ Vasco de Gama: First to sail to India around Africa. ​ Ferdinand and Isabella: Sponsored Columbus’ journey to the New World. ​ Christopher Columbus: Reached the Bahamas, thinking it was Asia. ​ Ferdinand Magellan: First to circumnavigate the Earth. ​ James Cook: Explored Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii for England. Motivations for Exploration ​ Gold: Merchants sought direct trade routes to Asia to avoid middlemen and increase profits. ​ Glory: Kings gained power, wealth, and fame by sponsoring exploration. ​ God: Missionaries aimed to spread Christianity to non-Christians. ​ Tools: Improved maps, magnetic compasses, and astrolabes enabled better navigation. Portuguese and Spanish Exploration ​ Prince Henry of Portugal founded navigation schools, leading Portugal in early exploration, especially along Africa’s coast. ​ Columbus believed he could reach Asia by sailing west but instead found the Americas. ​ Magellan aimed for Asia by sailing west and became the first to circumnavigate the globe. ​ Cook made significant contact with Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii. The Columbian Exchange  ​ The exchange of people, goods, and ideas between the Old and New Worlds after 1492. ​ Impact: European diseases like smallpox devastated native populations in the Americas, killing up to 90% of them. -​ Absolutism -​ A form of absolute monarchy inspired by Enlightenment ideals. Royal power is derived from a social contract, not divine right. Monarchs aim to improve the lives of their subjects while maintaining control -​ Ivan used terror to centralize the Russian state, and his disastrous involvement in the Livonian War nearly bankrupted his newly established empire. He also promoted the Orthodox Church and oriented Russian foreign policy toward Europe. -​ a nation's wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and reducing imports. -​ Catherine: Ruled from 1762 to 1796; modernized Russia along Western lines. Focused on arts, sciences, and education reforms. Established the Smolny Institute for Noble Girls.Cultivated relationships with prominent Enlightenment Thinkers. Wrote letters to Voltaire Introduced administrative reforms and economic changes. Despite reforms, relied heavily on serfdom for economic stability -​ Peter the Great: Wanted to westernize Russia, ordered construction new city called St. petersburg, mandated nobles build palace to live for half a year, unpopular since it was built on swamp and ground was not great for farming Enlightenment -​ Beard Law: Mandated Russian men had to shave beards, was a way to challenge church as some argued to to shave affront to god, eventually replaced by beard tax as a way to appease masses, and raise money for Tsars -​ Locke vs Hobbes: -​ Locke: People are reasonable and able to make decisions, freedom and liberty are important than order and society, people should be able to overthrow kings who abuses power -​ Hobbes: People are naturally selfish and act out of self-interest, without government control, society would be chaotic. People are like children and need strong ‘father’ to keep them in line -​ Voltaire once said: “I may disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.” -​ Other ideas: Montesquie said “Take power from one king and divide it among 3 branches of government that each can limit other branches’ powers”. While Rousseau said “Let the people make all decisions directly to ensure that what the majority wants, the majority gets” Scientific revolution -​ Scientific revolution brought Mathematical views, nature was seen as being composed into matter Rediscovery of Ancient texts (Plato) and the growth of universities planted the seeds of doubt about accepted views of the world  by Aristotle and Ptolemy. It was thought that the heavens revolved around the Earth. Called Geocentric view. Galileo’s Discoveries The Scientific Revolution Major Discoveries and Advancements: ​ Heliocentric Theory: Copernicus proposed that the Earth revolves around the Sun, challenging the geocentric model. ​ Galileo Galilei: Improved the telescope, supporting the heliocentric theory and discovering Jupiter’s moons. ​ Kepler: Found that planets move in elliptical orbits, refining the heliocentric model. ​ Isaac Newton: Developed the Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation, laying the groundwork for classical physics. ​ Advancement of Western Medicine: Scientists like Andreas Vesalius advanced anatomy, and William Harvey discovered blood circulation. How the Scientific Revolution Changed Our World: ​ Shift in Thinking: Moved society away from religious explanations of the universe to evidence-based reasoning and experimentation. ​ Scientific Method: Pioneered by thinkers like Francis Bacon, the method emphasized observation, experimentation, and rational analysis, shaping modern science. ​ Technological Advancements: Led to technological innovations, such as improved navigation tools and new medical techniques. ​ Impact on Medicine: Enhanced understanding of the human body, leading to better treatments and surgeries, and ultimately modern medicine. ​ Long-Term Influence: Paved the way for later figures like Einstein, whose theory of relativity further revolutionized physics. In essence, the Scientific Revolution redefined humanity’s understanding of the universe and laid the foundation for modern science and technology. Newton's theory of universal gravitation gets honorable mention. I'd say that three of the most important discoveries of the Scientific Revolution were the heliocentric solar system, the discovery of microscopic organisms, and Newton's three laws of motion Seven years war -​ Russia, France, Great Britain, Prussia  -​ Aboriginal Tribes would often play the French and British off each other to maintain their position -​ India Europe and North America -​ Quebec was a pivotal moment in the Seven Years’ War and in the history of Canada. A British invasion force led by General James Wolfe defeated French troops under the Marquis de Montcalm, leading to the surrender of Quebec to the British. Both commanding officers died from wounds sustained during the battle. The French never recaptured Quebec and effectively lost control of New France in 1760. At the end of the war in 1763 France surrendered many of its colonial possessions — including Canada — to the British. -​ British navy had an impact on the war, France gave up on Canada and lands of East Mississippi, France withdrew from India making Great Britain world’s greatest power, King George roman numeral 3III issued a Royal Proclamation establishing a new administrative structure for the recently acquired territories in North America Similarities: 1.​ Challenging Authority: All three revolutions involved challenges to established systems of power (monarchy, colonial rule, or aristocratic control). 2.​ Ideas of Liberty and Equality: They were inspired by Enlightenment ideals such as liberty, equality, and the right to self-government. 3.​ Impact on Society: Each revolution radically changed political, social, and economic structures in their respective regions. Differences: 1.​ American Revolution: Focused on independence from Britain and the creation of a republic based on democratic principles. 2.​ French Revolution: Aimed to overthrow the monarchy, eliminate feudal privileges, and establish a more radical change in political and social systems. 3.​ Industrial Revolution: An economic and technological shift from agrarian economies to industrialized ones, primarily in Britain, but spreading across Europe and the U.S. Causes: 1.​ American Revolution: Taxation without representation, desire for independence from British colonial rule. 2.​ French Revolution: Economic hardship, inequality, Enlightenment ideas, and dissatisfaction with Louis XVI’s monarchy. 3.​ Industrial Revolution: Technological innovations (like the steam engine), demand for goods, population growth, and access to resources like coal and iron. Key Historical Figures: 1.​ American Revolution: George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin. 2.​ French Revolution: Maximilien Robespierre, Napoleon Bonaparte, King Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette.  3.​ Industrial Revolution: Eli Whitney (Cotton Gin), James Watt (steam engine), Richard Arkwright (spinning frame). Impact on People in Cities (Industrial Revolution): 1.​ Problems: ○​ Overcrowding and poor living conditions in cities. ○​ Long working hours, low wages, and dangerous factory environments. ○​ Child labor and lack of workers’ rights. 2.​ Benefits: ○​ Economic growth, more job opportunities. ○​ Increased production of goods, leading to lower prices. ○​ Innovations in transportation (e.g., railroads) and communication. How Did the Revolutions Change the World? 1.​ American Revolution: Sparked global movements for independence, inspired democratic republics worldwide. 2.​ French Revolution: Promoted ideas of secularism, human rights, and the rise of nationalism; inspired future revolutions in Europe and beyond. 3.​ Industrial Revolution: Led to urbanization, mass production, and global trade. Innovations from this period (e.g., steam engines, mechanized manufacturing) laid the foundation for modern economies. Impact Today: ​ Political and Social: Concepts of democracy, human rights, and citizenship stem from the revolutions. ​ Technology and Economy: Industrial innovations like the cotton gin and steam engine still influence manufacturing, transportation, and technology today. ​ Social Structures: Changes in class structures, urbanization, and labor continue to shape societies worldwide. Nationalism ​ What It Is: A political ideology focused on the interests and culture of a specific nation, emphasizing unity and independence. ​ How It Changed the World: Led to the unification of countries (e.g., Germany and Italy) and independence movements (e.g., Latin American revolutions). ​ Why It Started: Reaction to empires, monarchies, and foreign rule; desire for self-governance. ​ Key Figures: Giuseppe Mazzini, Otto von Bismarck. Liberalism ​ What It Is: A political ideology advocating for individual rights, democracy, and limited government. ​ How It Changed the World: Inspired revolutions and reforms, such as the French Revolution and democratic movements. ​ Why It Started: Reaction to absolute monarchies and the desire for political freedoms.  ​ Key Figures: John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Romanticism ​ What It Is: A cultural and artistic movement emphasizing emotion, nature, and individualism over reason. ​ How It Changed the World: Influenced literature, art, and music, rejecting the Enlightenment’s focus on reason. ​ Why It Started: Reaction against the Industrial Revolution’s dehumanizing effects and rationalism. ​ Key Figures: William Wordsworth, Ludwig van Beethoven, Eugène Delacroix. Communism ​ What It Is: A political and economic theory advocating for a classless society and the abolition of private property. ​ How It Changed the World: Led to revolutions and the establishment of communist states (e.g., Soviet Union, China). ​ Why It Started: Response to industrial capitalism and inequality, inspired by Marxist ideas. ​ Key Figures: Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin. Imperialism ​ What It Is: A policy of extending a country's power through military force or colonization. ​ How It Changed the World: Led to global empires, exploitation of colonies, and spread of European culture and politics. ​ Why It Started: Economic need for resources, nationalism, and belief in racial superiority. ​ Key Figures: Cecil Rhodes, King Leopold II. Feminism ​ What It Is: A movement advocating for gender equality and women's rights. ​ How It Changed the World: Led to women’s suffrage, legal rights, and broader social changes regarding gender equality. ​ Why It Started: Reaction to patriarchal systems and the denial of women’s rights. ​ Key Figures: Mary Wollstonecraft, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Simone de Beauvoir. during and after his reign. The Congress of Vienna (1815)is called to figure out how to create peace between nations. After his defeat, Europe experiences relative peace between nations for 100 years until WWI Three mistakes: Continental system, Peninsula War, Invasion of Russia Unifications of Germany and Italy (19th Century) ​ Germany: Led by Otto von Bismarck (Prussia), Germany unified through "Blood and Iron," using military strategy, diplomacy, and the wars against Denmark, Austria, and France. This created the German Empire in 1871. ​ Italy: Victor Emmanuel II (King of Sardinia) and Giuseppe Garibaldi led efforts to unify Italy by 1870, combining kingdoms like Sardinia, the Papal States, and others. New Imperialism ​ European powers aggressively expanded their empires (e.g., Africa, Asia) for resources, markets, and prestige. It was driven by economic, political, and social factors, such as the Industrial Revolution and nationalism. The Restoration and Revolutions of 1848 ​ After Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna (1815) restored monarchies in Europe. The 1848 revolutions across Europe (France, Germany, Hungary) aimed at greater political freedom but were mostly crushed, though they led to some long-term reforms. Crimean and Opium Wars ​ Crimean War (1853-56): Russia vs. the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France. It marked the decline of Russian influence and the end of the Concert of Europe. ​ Opium Wars (1839-42, 1856-60): Between Britain and China, these wars were about trade (mainly opium) and led to the forced opening of Chinese ports and the weakening of China. Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) ​ War between France and Prussia, leading to the defeat of France, the fall of Napoleon III, and the unification of Germany under Bismarck. Paris Commune (1871) ​ A socialist government that briefly ruled Paris after France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. It was crushed by the French army, but it inspired later socialist movements. Darwin and Freud ​ Charles Darwin (Theory of Evolution, 1859) revolutionized biology with the idea of natural selection. ​ Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalysis) explored the unconscious mind, impacting psychology and later culture. Japan, China, and India in the 19th Century ​ Japan: The Meiji Restoration (1868) modernized Japan, making it a world power. ​ China: Declined due to internal rebellions (Taiping) and external pressures from imperial powers (Opium Wars), eventually leading to the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. ​ India: Under British colonial rule, India saw the rise of nationalist movements, culminating in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny), which was a precursor to later independence efforts.