PSYC 2000 Exam 3 Study Guide PDF

PSYC 2000 -- Exam 3 Study Guide Chapter 7 = 17 Chapter 9 = 21 Chapter 14 = 15 The "what you need to know" to guide your studying **Chapter 7** - What is a heuristic? - A mental shortcut that helps people make decisions quickly - What are two common heuristics that people use when a...

PSYC 2000 -- Exam 3 Study Guide Chapter 7 = 17 Chapter 9 = 21 Chapter 14 = 15 The "what you need to know" to guide your studying **Chapter 7** - What is a heuristic? - A mental shortcut that helps people make decisions quickly - What are two common heuristics that people use when asked to reason about a problem? - Trail and Error - One possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found - Algorithms - Always result in the correct answer - Mathematical Formulas - How are heuristics and biases involved in judgments and decision-making? - Heuristics are mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making, while biases are systematic errors that arise from these shortcuts, often leading to faulty judgments. - What is functional fixedness? - thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions - How does it apply to problem solving? -  limiting a person\'s ability to see a problem from multiple perspectives:  - Do people reason logically? - Cite at least one specific example to support your answer. - No, people don\'t always reason logically, as biases like confirmation bias can distort how they interpret information. - Flat earth and vaccines, they ignore evidence that don't fit there beliefs - What are some ways to improve thinking? - **Convergent thinking:** - **Divergent thinking:** - What do the authors of your book conclude about emotional intelligence as a construct? - Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand and use emotions - What is intelligence? - The ability to learn from experience, acquire knowledge, and use resources in adapting to new situations or solving problems - One way to answer this question might be to compare and contrast the major theories of intelligence that we discussed in class. - Is it a single skill or a set of skills and abilities? - set - What is *g*? - General intelligence - How is it different from Gardner's multiple intelligences or Sternberg's Triarchic theory? - It just focuses on a single factor where the others have multiple layers - What does IQ stand for, and who originally developed the first IQ test? - Intelligence quotient - Alfred Binet - Why was it developed? - help those identified as potentially having trouble in school - How was IQ measured in the beginning (Hint: mental age and chronological age)? - (mental age/chronological age)\*100 - Can you define validity and reliability? - Reliability- produce similar scores from one test time to the next. - Validity- how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure. - Why are these important to consider? -  they ensure that research findings are accurate and trustworthy - What role do IQ tests play in neuropsychology? - They measure a clients intellectual abilites - Can a person inherit intelligence? - yes - What role do genes play in determining a person's IQ score? - certain genes regulate the growth of synapses and neurotransmitter activity, which can affect learning, memory, and problem-solving skills.  - What are the 4 characteristics of languages? - Phonology- The structure of sounds that can be used to produce words in a language - /p/ and /b/ are distinct phonemes because changing one for the other can change the meaning of a word (e.g., \"pat\" vs. \"bat\"). - Semantics- The meaning of individual words and how they combine to create meaning in context - (e.g., \"bank\" can refer to a financial institution or the side of a river, - Syntax- The rules for **combining** words into grammatically correct (sensible) sentences - English syntactical rule is that adjectives come before nouns; *white house*. In Spanish it is reversed; *casa Blanca* (the house white). - Pragmatics- the branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the interpretation of meaning in communication - right?, right! and *right* - How are the two hemispheres involved in language? - Right Hemisphere - **Pragmatics**: Understanding context - **non-literal** aspects of language - Left Hemisphere - dominant for language - **Speech production**: - **Speech comprehension**: - **Grammar and syntax**:  - What are the parts of the brain responsible for language production and comprehension? - Broca\'s area (language production) and Wernicke\'s area (language comprehension), **Chapter 9** - What is the nature vs. nurture debate? - How do genetic inheritance (*our nature*) and experience (*the nurture we receive*) influence our development - What are some of the cognitive capacities of a newborn? - Grasping - Moro (startle) - Rooting - Stepping - Sucking - What does a typical child exhibit in terms of motor development? - Control over head and chest - Then balance - Then crawling/walking - Explain Piaget's theory of cognitive development. - children actively construct their understanding of the world through interactions with their environment. - What are the stages, and what characteristics are associated with each stage? - Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 yrs) - Understand the world through sensory and motor actions - Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs) - Understand **symbols and language** - Thinking is egocentric- The inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes - Centration-The tendency to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other features - Lack of conservation-They think changing the appearance of an object change the object - Irreversibility-the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action - Concrete Operation Stage (7-11 yrs) - Can do logical operations - Formal Operation Stage (12+ yrs) - Can do abstract and **hypothetical** reasoning. - ie thinking abt the future - What is meant by the terms assimilation and accommodation? - Assimilation-putting new ideas - Accommodation- changing older ideas to incorporate new info - Can you describe the conservation task? - a psychological test used to assess a child\'s ability to understand that certain properties of an object remain the same even when its appearance changes - i.e. recognizing the amount of liquid in a short fat glass is the same in a tell skinny one. - Can you describe the differences between dominant and recessive traits? - a dominant gene will express its trait even if only one copy is present (from either parent), while a recessive gene requires two copies (one from each parent) to be expressed. - What was Vygotsky's theory? - Children learn when adults or older children help them learn - Who is associated with the \"Strange Situation" test? - **Mary Ainsworth**. - What does this tell us about attachment? - the significance of early emotional bonds and caregiving in shaping a child\'s emotional development - What are the different parenting styles? Be able to give an example of each - Authoritarian- Rules, Strict, Controlling, Emphasis on perfection, Physical discipline - Impact: insecurity, withdrawal, resentment, rebellion - Permissive- Neglectful/Lack of involvement - Impact: selfish, poor social skills - Authoritative- Clear, Strict Limits + Love, Democratic parenting (kids set rules), non-physical punishment - Impact: self-reliant, independent - Discuss the cognitive and socio-emotional changes of adolescence. - Cognitive changes of adolescence - Frontal lobes are not fully developed so more impulsive decisions, peer influence more frustrated at the lack of black and white answers - Socio-emotional changes of adolescence - Identity vs Role Confusion: must decide who they are - What is Erikson's view of psychosocial development? - Social interactions are essential to development - What are the stages of moral development? - Preconventional morality - -rewarded=good, discipline=bad\ ex: make it home by curfew to avoid getting grounded - Conventional mortality - mortality= what society says is right\ ex: a child scolds a parent for littering - Postconventional mortality - mortality= experience/person views\ ex: physician assisted suicide for a loved one - What method was used in this research and who conducted it? - Lawrence Kohlberg - he took a survey and he scored only the reasoning processes. They used to decide what was right was wrong. - Do most people reach the highest level of moral development? - No, Kohlberg\'s research indicated that most adults never get past conventional morality to achieve postconventional morality. - What aspects of a person stay the same with advancing age? - Continued sexual activity common among those over 80 - How can we learn to age "successfully"? - -increased activity and social interactions - being okay with getting old - How do psychologists explain why aging occurs, and what are the stages of death and dying? - The cellular-clock theory, The wear-and-tear theory, The free-radical theory - Stages - Denial-I'm going to live forever! - Anger-Mad at death, Helplessness - Bargaining-Deals with Doctors or God - Depression-Loss in the past or future - Acceptance-Death is inevitable and that's OK - What do we know about healthy aging? - The ability to adapt to changes, either the continuation or adoption of health promoting and health protecting lifestyle. A lifelong process. **Chapter 14** - How do psychologists define stress? - The physiological & psychological response to conditions that threaten or challenge - What kinds of external events can cause stress? - Catastrophe- an unpredictable, large-scale event - Major life changes- Cause stress by requiring adjustment - Hassles-Daily annoyances of life - What are unique stressors minority individuals face? - discrimination, prejudice, and expectations of rejection and stereotypes - What are some psychological factors in stress? - **Cognitive factors**: These include perceived threats, worries, and negative thoughts.  - **Emotional factors**: These include anxiety, fear, panic, and sleep disturbance.  - **Behavioral factors**: These include irritability, aggression, and psychosis.  - How does stress affect the physical functioning of the body and its immune system? - makes the body more susceptible to illness and disease - Sympathetic -Fight or Flight - Parasympathetic -Rest and Digest - How do cognitive factors and personality differences affect the experience of stress? - influence how individuals perceive and respond to stress - What social factors influence stress reactions? - Poverty, Job problems, Cultural changes, discrimination - What are some ways in which people cope with stress reactions? - Problem Focused-Direct actions - Emotion Focused-Changing emotional reaction - Know the research we talked about in class - **Mindfulness** - **Meditation leads to Increased brain activity in areas associated with positivity.** - **Lower stress levels** - **Improved immune functioning**