Organizational Behavior Chapter 13-14 PDF

Chapter 13 Power and Politics  Define Power Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. Power may exist but not be used. Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of...

Chapter 13 Power and Politics  Define Power Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. Power may exist but not be used. Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependence. A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you desire. Explain Formal Power and Personal Power Formal Power Coercive Power Reward Power Legitimate Power Personal Power Expert Power Referent Power  Explain Formal Power and Personal Power Which Bases of Power Are Most Effective? Personal sources are most effective. Both expert and referent power are positively related to employees’ satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, and their performance, whereas reward and legitimate power seem to be unrelated to these outcomes. Coercive power can be damaging.  Explain the Role of Dependence in Power Relationships The General Dependency Postulate When you possess anything others require but that you alone control, you make them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them. Dependence, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply.  Explain the Role of Dependence in Power Relationships What Creates Dependence? Importance Scarcity Nonsubstitutability  Explain the Role of Dependence in Power Relationships Exhibit 13-1 An Organizational Sociogram  Explain the Role of Dependence in Power Relationships https://towardsdatascience.com/who-is-the-most-important-person-in-the-film-industry-61d4fd6980be  Explain the Role of Dependence in Power Relationships Exhibit 13-1 An Organizational Sociogram Identify Power or Influence Tactics and their Contingencies Influence tactics: Legitimacy Rational persuasion Inspirational appeals Consultation Exchange Personal appeals Ingratiating Pressure Coalitions Identify Nine Power or Influence Tactics and their Contingencies Some tactics are more effective than others. Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation are most effective when the audience is highly interested in the outcomes. Pressure tends to backfire. Both ingratiation and legitimacy can lessen the negative reactions from appearing to “dictate” outcomes. Identify Nine Power or Influence Tactics and their Contingencies Exhibit 13-2 Preferred Power Tactics by Influence Direction Upward Influence Downward Influence Lateral Influence Rational persuasion Rational persuasion Rational persuasion Blank Inspirational appeals Consultation Blank Pressure Ingratiation Blank Consultation Exchange Blank Ingratiation Legitimacy Blank Exchange Personal appeals Blank Legitimacy Coalitions Identify Nine Power or Influence Tactics and their Contingencies People in different countries prefer different power tactics. Individualistic countries see power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing their personal ends. Collectivistic countries see power in social terms and as a legitimate means of helping others. Identify Nine Power or Influence Tactics and their Contingencies Applying Power Tactics People differ in terms of their political skill: their ability to influence others to enhance their own objectives. The politically skilled are more effective users of all the influence tactics. Cultures within organizations differ markedly: some are warm, relaxed, and supportive; others are formal and conservative. People who fit the culture of the organization tend to obtain more influence.  Chapter 14 Conflict and Negotiation Three Types of Conflict and Three Loci of Conflict Conflict: a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about. If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally agreed no conflict exists. Also needed to begin the conflict process are opposition or incompatibility and interaction. Three Types of Conflict and Three Loci of Conflict Contemporary perspectives differentiate types of conflict based on their effects. Functional conflict supports the goals of the group and improves its performance. Conflicts that hinder group performance are dysfunctional or destructive forms of conflict. Three Types of Conflict and Three Loci of Conflict Exhibit 14-1 Conflict and Unit Performance from Three Types of Conflict and Three Loci of Conflict Types of Conflict Researchers have classified conflicts into three categories: Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal relationships. Process conflict is about how the work gets done. Three Types of Conflict and Three Loci of Conflict Loci of Conflict Another way to understand conflict is to consider its locus, or where the conflict occurs. There are three basic types: Dyadic conflict is conflict between two people. Intragroup conflict occurs within a group or team. Intergroup conflict is conflict between groups or teams.  Outline the Conflict Process Exhibit 14-2 The Conflict Process Three Types of Conflict and Three Loci of Conflict Stage 2 Cognition and Personalization Perceived conflict: Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of or conditions that create opportunities for conflict. Felt conflict: Emotional involvement in a conflict that creates anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility. Three Types of Conflict and Three Loci of Conflict Stage 3 Intentions: decisions to act in a given way. Competing Collaborating Avoiding Accommodating Compromising  Ways of Handling Conflict Interest in helping others High Accommodation Collaboration Compromise Low Avoidance Competition Low High Interest in achieving individual goals 13-11  Promoting Compromise 1. Emphasize common goals 2. Focus on the problem, not the people 3. Focus on interests, not demands 4. Create opportunities for joint gain 5. Focus on what is fair 13-12  Outline the Conflict Process Stage V: Outcomes – Conflict is constructive when it… § Improves the quality of decisions, stimulates creativity and innovation, encourages interest and curiosity, provides the medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released, and fosters an environment of self-evaluation and change. – Conflict is destructive when it… § Breeds discontent, reduces group effectiveness, and threatens the group’s survival.  Outline the Conflict Process Managing Functional Conflict One of the keys to minimizing counterproductive conflicts is recognizing when there really is a disagreement. Many apparent conflicts are due to people using different language to discuss the same general course of action. Successful conflict management recognizes these different approaches. Attempts to resolve them by encouraging open, frank discussion focused on interests rather than issues.  Outline the Conflict Process Groups that resolve conflicts successfully discuss differences of opinion openly. The most disruptive conflicts are those that are never addressed directly. Managers need to emphasize shared interests in resolving conflicts. Groups with cooperative conflict styles and an underlying identification to group goals are more effective than groups with a more competitive style.  Outline the Conflict Process Differences across countries in conflict resolution strategies may be based on collectivistic tendencies and motives. Collectivist cultures see people as deeply embedded in social situations. They will avoid direct expression of conflicts, preferring indirect methods for resolving differences of opinion. Contrast Distributive and Integrative Bargaining (1 of 6) Negotiation is a process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree upon the exchange rate for them. We use the terms negotiation and bargaining interchangeably. 13-21 Negotiation Initial Offer Compromise Counteroffers Concessions  Types of Negotiation Interdependence and the structure of the situation shape processes and outcomes § Zero-sum or distributive – one winner § Non-zero-sum or integrative – mutual gains situation BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement) Negotiators need to understand their BATNA as well as the other parties THE DISTRIBUTIVE BARGAINING SITUATION Goals of one party are in fundamental, direct conflict to another party Resources are fixed and limited Both parties want to Maximize one’s own share of resources 2-23 THE DISTRIBUTIVE BARGAINING SITUATION Preparation—set a Starting/asking price, initial offer Target point, aspiration point Walkaway, resistance point (bottom line) Bargaining Range=Settlement Range= Zone of Potential Agreement (ZOPA) : Spreads between the resistant points, where actual bargaining takes place 2-24  Contrast Distributive and Integrative Bargaining Exhibit 14-5 Distributive versus Integrative Bargaining Bargaining Characteristic Distributive Bargaining Integrative Bargaining Goal Get as much of the pie as Expand the pie so that both possible parties are satisfied Motivation Win–lose Win–win Focus Positions (“I can’t go beyond this Interests (“Can you explain why point on this issue.”) this issue is so important to you?”) Interests Opposed Congruent Information sharing Low (Sharing information will High (Sharing information will only allow other party to take allow each party to find ways to advantage.) satisfy interests of each party.) Duration of relationship Short term Long term  Contrast Distributive and Integrative Bargaining Exhibit 14-6 Staking Out the Bargaining Zone Contrast Distributive and Integrative Bargaining Research shows that when you’re engaged in distributive bargaining, one of the best things you can do is make the first offer, and make it an aggressive one. Shows power. Establishes an anchoring bias. Another distributive bargaining tactic is revealing a deadline. TWO DILEMMAS IN MUTUAL ADJUSTMENT Dilemma of honesty § Concern about how much of the truth to tell the other party Dilemma of trust § Concern about how much should negotiators believe what the other party tells them How Individual Differences Influence Negotiations Personality Traits in Negotiation Can you predict an opponent’s negotiating tactics if you know something about his/her personality? The evidence says “sort of.” Moods/Emotions in Negotiation Influence negotiation, but the way they do appears to depend on the type of negotiation. How Individual Differences Influence Negotiations Culture in Negotiations Do people from different cultures negotiate differently? Yes, they do. People generally negotiate more effectively within cultures than between them. In cross-cultural negotiations, it is especially important that the negotiators be high in openness. People are more likely to use certain negotiation strategies depending on what culture they belong to. Negotiators need to be especially aware of the emotional dynamics in cross-cultural negotiation.  Roles and Function of Third-party Negotiations Negotiating in a social context: Reputation: the way other people think and talk about you. Develop a trustworthy reputation – competence and integrity. Relationships: think about what’s best for the other party and the relationship as a whole. Repeated negotiations built on trust provide more options.  Roles and Function of Third-party Negotiations When individuals or group representatives reach a stalemate and are unable to resolve their differences through direct negotiations, they may turn to a third party. A mediator An arbitrator A conciliator  Chapter 16 Organizational Culture  Common Characteristics of Organizational Culture A Definition of Organizational Culture Organizational culture refers to a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations. Values Beliefs Assumptions  Common Characteristics of Organizational Culture Shared values, beliefs, and assumptions: Filter what employees pay attention to. Are physically manifested as material symbols and stories. Form the foundation for shared meaning among members of an organization.  Common Characteristics of Organizational Culture Culture as a Descriptive Term Organizational culture is concerned with employees’ perceptions of the characteristics of the culture, not whether they like them. Does it encourage teamwork? Does it reward innovation? Does it stifle initiative? It differs from job satisfaction: Job satisfaction is evaluative. Organizational culture is descriptive.  Common Characteristics of Organizational Culture Primary characteristics that capture the essence of an organization’s culture: – Adaptability – Detail orientation – Results/Outcome orientation – People/Customer orientation – Collaboration/Team orientation – Integrity  Common Characteristics of Organizational Culture Do Organizations Have Uniform Cultures? Most organizations have a dominant culture and numerous sets of subcultures. The dominant culture expresses the core values a majority of members share and that give the organization distinct personality. Subcultures tend to develop in large organizations to reflect common problems, situations, or experiences that members face.  Common Characteristics of Organizational Culture Strong versus Weak Cultures Strong culture: core values are intensely held and widely shared. The more members who accept the core values and the greater their commitment, the stronger the culture and the greater its influence on member behavior.  How Culture is Transmitted to Employees How Employees Learn Culture Culture is transmitted to employees through: Stories Rituals Symbols Material symbols Language Apple store employees aren't allowed to say "unfortunately" What to say – and not? Anything that conveys negative emotion is prohibited from the vocabulary for customer-facing employees at Apple stores. So, instead of "unfortunately", they use "as it turns out". Instead of "that wasn't smart", "problems" and "disaster", they use "that's not recommended", "issues" and "error" respectively. They never use words like "crash" "bug" or "eliminate". In fact, no Apple product ever gets "hot". It just gets "warm".  Creating and Sustaining Culture Exhibit 16-4 How Organizational Cultures Form  Creating and Sustaining Culture How a Culture Begins Ultimate source of an organization’s culture is its founders. Founders have the vision of what the organization should be. New organizations are typically small, which facilitates the founders’ imparting of their vision on all organizational members.  Creating and Sustaining Culture Culture creation occurs in three ways: Founders hire employees who think and feel the way they do. Employees are indoctrinated and socialized into the founders’ way of thinking. Founders’ own behavior encourages employees to identify with them and internalize their beliefs, values, and assumptions.  Creating and Sustaining Culture Keeping a Culture Alive Selection Identify and hire individuals with the knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform successfully. Two-way street. Top Management Establish norms of behavior. Socialization A process which enables new employees to acquire the social knowledge and necessary skills in order to adapt to the organization’s culture  Creating and Sustaining Culture Exhibit 16-2 A Socialization Model  What Do Cultures Do? The Functions of Culture Boundary-defining role. Conveys a sense of identity for members. Facilitates the generation of commitment. Enhances the stability of the social system. Serves as a sense-making and control mechanism.  What Do Cultures Do? Culture Creates Climate Organizational climate is shared perceptions about the organization and work environment. Team spirit at the organizational level. Climates can interact with one another to produce behavior. Climate also influences the habits people adopt.  What Do Cultures Do? Exhibit 16.6 How Organizational Cultures Have an Impact on Employee Performance and Satisfaction  What Do Cultures Do? Culture as an Asset Culture can significantly contribute to an organization’s bottom line in many ways. There are many more cases of business success stories because of excellent organizational cultures than there are of success stories despite bad cultures, and almost no success stories because of bad ones.  What Do Cultures Do? Culture and Innovation The most innovative companies have open, unconventional, collaborative, vision-driven, and accelerating cultures. Startup firms often have innovative cultures. They are usually small, agile, and focused on solving problems in order to survive and grow.  What Do Cultures Do? Culture as a Liability Stagnation and entrenchment -Institutionalization Uniformity and rigidity Toxicity and dysfunctions Cultural clashes- M&A