Study Guide: Bacteria, Protists, Plants and Fungi PDF

Chapter 17: Bacteria and Archaea · Prokaryotes - single-cell organisms, no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles ​ ​ o Bacteria o Archaea · Internal Structures o Nucleoid - a region where DNA resides o Ribosomes - use mRNA to synthesize pr...

Chapter 17: Bacteria and Archaea · Prokaryotes - single-cell organisms, no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles ​ ​ o Bacteria o Archaea · Internal Structures o Nucleoid - a region where DNA resides o Ribosomes - use mRNA to synthesize proteins o Plasmids - circles of DNA apart from chromosome · External structures o Cell membrane - outer boundary of the cell, regulates what enters & exits o Cells walls - outside membrane, gives the cell its shape & protects it from osmotic pressure § Gram Stain -​ multi-layered cell wall (peptidoglycan → gram-positive cells) o Glycocalyx - polysaccharides surrounding cell wall, help cell attach to surfaces o Flagella o Pili · Cell shapes o Cocci - spherical o Bacilli - rod o Spirillum - spiral · Metabolic Diversity (Fig on slide 29)  o Photoautotroph - energy source: sunlight, carbon source: CO2 o Chemoautotroph - energy source: inorganic chemicals, carbon source: CO2 o Photoheterotroph - energy source: sunlight, carbon source: organic compounds o Chemoheterotroph - energy source: organic compounds, carbon source: organic compounds o Obligate aerobes - require oxygen o Obligate anaerobes - killed by oxygen (may live in digestive tract) facultative anaerobes - can live in aerobic or anaerobic environments (with or without oxygen) · Functions o Nitrogen fixation - atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted to ammonia (without nitrogen fixation, most N2 will be locked in the atmosphere) o Symbiosis - the relationship between different species (mutualism: both species benefit, commensalism: one species benefit & other is unharmed, parasitism: one species benefits (parasite) & other is harmed (host)) o Pathogens - bacteria/virus/microorganism that cause disease Chapter 18: Protists · Eukaryotic - has a nucleus · Endosymbiont theory (Fig 18.2) Primary endosymbiosis - chloroplasts in red algae, green algae, and plant cells have 2 membranes, indicating they developed from a single endosymbiosis event. o Secondary endosymbiosis - chloroplasts in brown algae & euglena have 3 membranes, indicating they developed from 2 successive endosymbiosis events · 3 “Groups” o Algae - resemble plant cells, aquatic & photosynthetic protists o Slime/water molds - resembles fungal cells, heterotrophic protists w/ filamentous feeding structures, uni multicellular o Protozoa - resembles animal cells, one-celled, heterotrophic, & motile (ciliates are complex protozoa with hairlike cilia) Chapter 20: Fungi · Heterotrophic eukaryotes o External Digestion -excrete digestive enzymes & absorb minerals & nutrients (mold) · Structure o Hyphae - threadlike filaments that branch toward a food source o Mycelium - a collection of hyphae o Fruiting body - hyphae above the surface (mushroom) o Spores - reproductive cells (sexual or asexual) o · Ecological/practical uses o Lichen - fungi w/ green algae or cyanobacteria living among hyphae. Fungi absorb minerals & water whole algal cells produce sugar by photosynthesis (break down rock, harbor nitrogen-fixing bacteria, food source) o Mycorrhizae - exchange material with roots, o Parasites - harm plants & animals (ringworm, athlete's foot, yeast infections, etc) Chapter 19: Plants o Plants  § Multicellular, autotrophic, eukaryotes, use photosynthesis for energy o Advantages and disadvantages to life on land (list) Advantages: -​ Unlimited sunlight -​ Lots of CO2 -​ Few pathogens or herbivores (prey) ​ ​ Disadvantages -​ Maintain moisture inside cells to not dry out -​ Support body in non buoyant medium -​ Reproduce & disperse offspring without water -​ Anchor bodies in soil -​ Obtain resources from soil & air o Adaptations § Cuticle - waxy layer on leaf to prevent from drying out · Stomata - allows gas exchange § Vascular tissues - bundles of tubes that transport water, minerals, and sugar throughout plant § Root systems - below ground to absorb water & minerals while anchoring plant in soil § Alternation of Generations (Fig. 19.5 and 19.19) · Gametophyte (haploid) Spores divide by mitosis → multicellular haploid gametophyte o gametes (by mitosis) · Sporophyte (diploid) fertilized egg from diploid zygote → develops mitotic cell division into multicellular, diploid called sporophyte  o Spores (by meiosis) § Pollen - male gametophyte. Often spread by bugs § Seed - carry dormant plant embryos packaged w/ food supply & protected from drying out. They can be dispersed long distances & remain dormant until conditions are favorable § Flowers - produce pollen & egg cells. Fruits develop after fertilization ro protect & disperse plant offspring · Plant Phylogeny (Fig. 19.3) o Nonvascular Plants (Bryophytes) -​ No vascular tissue, roots, leaves, seeds, or flowers -​ Small & compact b/c lack physical support -​ Materials move from cell to cell by diffusion & osmosis -​ Live in moist shady habitats where they will not dry out -​ Small sporophyte -​ Requires water for sexual reproduction § Example: Mosses § Dominant form (gametophyte) o Seedless vascular plants -​ No seeds, true roots, stems, or leaves -​ Vascular tissues allows them to grow taller -​ Conspicuous sporophyte -​ Haploid spores grow underside of leaves -​ Require water for reproduction § Example: Ferns § Dominant form (sporophyte) o Gymnosperms (“naked seed” plants) -​ Have pollen & seeds  -​ Sporophytes are large & conspicuous -​ Cones: where spores form by meiosis -​ Ovules: female cone scales produce megaspore -​ Do not need water to reproduce, gymnosperm seeds have tough outer coating that's dispersed by wind or animals § Example: Conifers § Dominant form (sporophyte) o Angiosperms - -​ Sporophytes are large and conspicuous -​ Flowers are reproductive structure -​ Pollen sacs = male gametophytes -​ Ovule → megaspores → female gametophytes -​ Seeds contain embryo & endosperm (ovules develops into seed & ovary develops into fruit) -​ Pollen reproduces, transportes by wind & animals -​ § Example: flowering plants § Dominant Form (Sporophyte) Chapter 22: Plant Form and Function ·​ Eudicots versus Monocots (Fig. 22.22) o Cotyledons - embryos “seed leaves” embryonic shoots & roots form · ​ Vegetative Plant parts (fig. 22.1)  o Roots § Fibrous root system (monocot) - slender & shallow § Taproot system (eudicots) - thich & deep & less branches § Root hairs - extensions of epidermis that absorb water & minerals at roots tip o Shoots § Stems · Nodes - leaves attach to stems · Internodes - space between nodes · Terminal bud - contains undeveloped tissue at shoot tip · Axillary bud - undeveloped shoot that could form into new branch/flower § Leaves · Blades - flat · Petiole - supports blades (stalklike) · Simple leaves - undivided blades · Compound Leaves - divided into leaflets attached to one petiole · Veins - vascular bundles inside leaf (monocots have parallel veins, dicots have netted veins) · Mesophyll - ground tissue inside leaf, cells with chloroplasts that produce sugar by photosynthesis o Herbaceous vs. Woody plant -​ Herbaceous plant: green soft stem -​ Woody plant: tough bark covered wood · ​ Plant cell features o Chloroplast - photosynthesis occurs o Central vacuole - compartment that stores water & variety of chemicals o Cell wall - rigid, contains cellulose § Primary and Secondary o plasmodesmata - cytoplasmic channels through cell wall that connects adjacent cells · ​ Three Plant Tissues (fig. 22.4/22.2) o Ground tissue system (Fig. 22.7) - makes up most plant body (photosynthesis, respiration, storage, support) § Parenchyma  § Most abundant § Metabolic functions § Collenchyma § Flexible support § Sclerenchyma § Rigid support § Pith - center of stem § Cortex - ground tissue that fills space between epidermis & vascular bundles o Dermal tissue system - covers plant § Epidermis - coated w/ waxy cuticle § Cuticle - conserves water & protects plant § Stomata - pores in cuticle, allow for gas exchange in leaves § Guard cells - surround stomata & control its opening & closing o Vascular tissue system - transports materials (embedded in ground tissue) § Xylem - transports water (one-way) § Tracheids - long narrow cells § Vessel elements - wide barrel cells § Phloem - transports sugars & dissolved organic compounds § Sieve-tube elements - conducting cells (separated by sieve plates) § Companion cell - transfer material in & out of sieve tube § Vascular cylinder (root) § Vascular bundles (stems) Plant Growth · ​ Determinate vs. Indeterminate growth -​ Indeterminate growth - never stop growing -​ Determinate growth - stop growing when reach mature size · ​ Meristems - growth occur, regions of active cell division o Apical meristem (primary growth) - produce tissue to lengthen shoots & roots § Roots · Root cap § Shoots  § Apical dominance - inhibition of axillary bud by terminal bud o Lateral meristems (secondary growth) (Fig. 22.17) - thickens roots & stem (woody plants) § Vascular cambium - produce secondary xylem toward inside stem & secondary phloem toward outside § Cork cambium - produce parenchyma cells toward inside & dense waxy cells (cork(outer protective layer of bark)) toward outside § Wood · Heartwood - secondary xylem is unable to conduct water · Sapwood - transport water & dissolved minerals · Tree rings - alternating moist & dry seasons § Bark - produces by secondary growth, collection of all tissue outside vascular cambium Chapter 23: Plant Nutrition and Transport · Essential elements o Macronutrients - required in large amounts, carbon, oxygen, & hydrogen are most abundance macronutrients o Micronutrients - required in smaller amounts · Soil - plant absorb nutrients · Vascular Tissue - transportation system connect plant parts o Xylem - water, minerals & hormones pulled up to leaves o Phloem - sugar is pushed to non photosynthetic cells · Water uptake in roots (figure 23.5) o Root hairs o Endodermis - innermost layer of cells in root cortex o Casparian strip - waxy barrier ensures incoming material pass through cell · Water transport in plants (figure 23.7) o Xylem sap o Cohesion-Tension Theory - cohesion is tendency for water molecules to form hydrogen bonds with one another § Transpiration pull - when water evaporates, adjacent molecules go closer to stomata § Evaporation  § Cohesion/adhesion o Stomata (stoma) - pores in leaves close when plants conserves water § Guard cells - determine whether stoma is open or close § Cuticle - waxy layer on leave prevents water loss · Nitrogen fixing bacteria - help plant obtain useful forms of nitrogen (symbiotic relationship) o Nodules - where some nitrogen fixing bacteria live in growths on roots · Sugar movement in plants (fig. 23.10) o Phloem sap § Companion cell o Pressure flow theory - phloem sap moves from high pressure at source to low pressure at sinks. Water movement cause pressure changes in phloem tissue § Sugar source - carry out photosynthesis § Sugar sink - require sugar, no photosynthesis Chapter 24: Reproduction and Development of Flowering Plants · ​ Asexual vs Sexual reproduction -​ Sexual reproduction - genetically unique offspring (traits from 2 parents) -​ Asexual reproduction - genetically identical, mitotic division · ​ Alternation of Generations (Figure 24.3)  o Sporophyte o Gametophyte - developed from haploid spores through meiosis · ​ Flowers (Fig 24.5) (label) o Sepals - whorl 1 (calyx) enclose & protect inner floral parts o Petals - whorl 2 (corolla) attract pollinators o Stamen - whorl 3 male reproductive parts § Anther - pollen producing bud attached to filament § Filament - stalklike hold anther o Carpal - whorl 4 female reproductive parts § Stigma - top of style, receives pollen § Style - stalklike § Ovary - encloses ovules · Ovule · ​ Angiosperm life cycle (Figure 24.4) o Male Gametophyte Production § Microspore (4) § Pollen grain · Tube cell · Generative cell · Tough outer coating ​ Stamen → anther → 1 cell meioses → 4 haploid spore → mitosis → pollen grain o Female Gamete Production § Megaspore § Embryo sac · 5 haploid cells · Haploid egg cell · large central cell with 2 polar nuclei ​ Carpel → ovary → ovules → 1 cell meiosis → 1 haploid spore → mitosis → embryo sac o Pollination - when pollen grain lands on receptive stigma § Pollen tube - grows toward oule when spleen grain germinates, 2 sperm nuclei travel through pollen tube to ovule o Double fertilization - sperm nuclei fertilize egg & 2 polar nuclei → diploid zygote & triploid endosperm § 2 sperm cells § Haploid zygote § Triploid (3n) endosperm  Pollen lands on stigma → tube cell creates tube to ovary → cell divides 2 sperms → 1 fertilize egg (haploid zygote), 1 fertilze central cell (troploid endosperm) · ​ Seed o 3 parts § Seed coat - tough outer layer protects embryo from damage, dehydration, and predators § Endosperm - § Embryo o Seed dormancy -stops growing & slows metabolism o Germination (monocot and dicot) - resumption of growth after period of dormancy once reach favorable conditions · ​ Fruit - develops from ovary enclosing the developing seed, protect & disperse seeds Xylem transports water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant. Water is absorbed by the root hairs and travels through the endodermis, which controls its flow into the xylem using the Casparian strip to prevent backflow. In the xylem, water molecules stick together through cohesion, creating a continuous column. As water evaporates from the stomata in the leaves, it creates a negative pressure that pulls more water up through the plant. This process, called transpiration, is crucial for maintaining water flow and nutrient transport, as well as cooling the plant. Phloem is responsible for transporting sugars and other organic compounds throughout the plant. The movement of these substances occurs from sources (areas like leaves where sugars are produced through photosynthesis) to sinks (areas like roots or growing tissues where sugars are used or stored). This process relies on pressure differences created by active transport: sugars are actively loaded into the phloem at the source, increasing the osmotic pressure and drawing water into the phloem from the xylem. This creates a high-pressure flow that moves the sugars toward the sinks. Companion cells assist in this process by supporting the sieve tube elements of the phloem with metabolic functions and helping with the loading and unloading of sugars.