Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II PDF

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: THEORY INTO PRACTICE–II ALL UG COURSES SEMESTER III COMMON PAPER DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF DELHI Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II Editors Dr. Rashmi Math...

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: THEORY INTO PRACTICE–II ALL UG COURSES SEMESTER III COMMON PAPER DEPARTMENT OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF DELHI Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II Editors Dr. Rashmi Mathur Associate Professor, Sri Aurovindo College Dr. Isha Gunwal Assistant Professor, Swami Shraddhanand College Content Writer Dr. Nandan Academic Coordinator Mr. Deekshant Awasthi © Department of Distance and Continuing Education ISBN: 978-81-19417-34-6 Ist edition: 2023 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Published by: Department of Distance and Continuing Education under the aegis of Campus of Open Learning/School of Open Learning, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007 Printed by: School of Open Learning, University of Delhi © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II This Study Material is duly recommended and approved in Academic Council meeting held on 11/08/2023 Vide item no. 1015 and subsequently Executive Council Meeting held on 25/08/2023 vide item no. 1267. Corrections/Modifications/Suggestions proposed by Statutory Body, DU/ Stakeholder/s in the Self Learning Material (SLM) will be incorporated in the next edition. However, these corrections/modifications/suggestions will be uploaded on the website https://sol.du.ac.in. Any feedback or suggestions can be sent to the email- [email protected] Printed at: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd. Plot 20/4, Site-IV, Industrial Area Sahibabad, Ghaziabad - 201 010 (31500 Copies) © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II SYLLABUS Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II Syllabus Mapping Unit V: Global Environmental Issues and Policies Causes of Climate change, Global warming, Ozone layer depletion, Lesson 11: Biodiversity and it’s and Acid rain; Impacts on human communities, biodiversity, global Threat economy, and agriculture (Pages 1-14) International agreements and programmes: Earth Summit, UNFCCC, Montreal and Kyoto protocols, Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Ramsar convention, The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), Lesson 12: Biodiversity and its UNEP, CITES, etc. Conservation Sustainable Development Goals: India’s National Action Plan on Climate (Pages 15-33) Change and its major missions Environment legislation in India: Wildlife Protection Act, 1972; Lesson 13: Sustainable Development Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Forest & Sustainability (Conservation) Act 1980; Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, (Pages 35-40) 1981; Environment Protection Act, 1986; Scheduled Tribes and other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. Lesson 14: Global Environmental Unit VI: Biodiversity and Conservation Issues Definition of Biodiversity; Levels of biological diversity: genetic, species (Pages 41-51) and ecosystem diversity India as a mega-biodiversity nation; Biogeographic zones of India; Biodiversity hotspots; Endemic and endangered species of India; IUCN Lesson 15: Environmental Red list criteria and categories Law & Environmental Value of biodiversity: Ecological, economic, social, ethical, aesthetic, Legislations in India and informational values of biodiversity with examples; sacred groves (Pages 53-64) and their importance with examples Threats to biodiversity: Habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation; Poaching of wildlife; Man-wildlife conflicts; Biological invasion with emphasis on Indian biodiversity; Current mass extinction crisis Biodiversity conservation strategies: in-situ and ex-situ methods of conservation; National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Biosphere reserves; Keystone, Flagship, Umbrella, and Indicator species; Species reintroduction and translocation Case studies: Contemporary Indian wildlife and biodiversity issues, movements, and projects (e.g., Project Tiger, Project Elephant, Vulture breeding program, Project Great Indian Bustard, Crocodile conservation project, Silent Valley movement, Save Western Ghats movement, etc) © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II Unit VII: Human Communities and the Environment Human population growth: Impacts on environment, human Lesson 16: Human Communities health, and welfare; Carbon foot-print and the Environment (Pages 65-74) Resettlement and rehabilitation of developmental project affected persons and communities; relevant case studies Lesson 17: Environmental Environmental movements: Chipko movement, Appiko Movements in India (Pages 75-83) movement, Silent valley movement, Bishnois of Rajasthan, Narmada Bachao Andolan, etc Lesson 18: Disaster Management Environmental justice: National Green Tribunal and its (Pages 85-104) importance Lesson 19: Practical Understanding Environmental philosophy: Environmental ethics; Role of of Environmental Science various religions and cultural practices in environmental (Page 105–127) conservation Environmental communication and public awareness: case studies (e.g., CNG vehicles in Delhi, Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, National Environment Awareness Campaign (NEAC), National Green Corps (NGC) “Eco-club” programme, etc) © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II CONTENTS LESSON 11 BIODIVERSITY AND IT’S THREAT 1–14 11.1 Learning Objectives 11.2 Introduction 11.3 Types of Biodiversity 11.3.1 Genetic Diversity 11.3.2 Species Diversity 11.3.3 Ecosystem Diversity 11.4 Methods of Measuring Biodiversity 11.5 Biogeographic Classification of India 11.6 Values of Biodiversity 11.7 Threats to Biodiversity 11.8 Endangered & Endemic Species In India 11.9 Summary 11.10 Self-Assessment Questions 11.11 References 11.12 Suggested Readings LESSON 12 BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION 15–33 12.1 Learning Objectives 12.2 In-Situ and Ex-Situ Conservation of Biodiversity 12.3 Conservation of Cultivators and Livestock Breeds 12.4 Biological Diversity Act 2002 12.5 Need of Conserving Biodiversity 12.6 Conservation of Biodiversity © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II 12.7 National Parks and Sanctuaries 12.8 Natural Reserves 12.9 Wetlands 12.10 Hotspots of Biodiversity 12.11 IUCN Red List 12.12 Summary 12.13 Self-Assessment Questions 12.14 References 12.15 Suggested Readings LESSON 13 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT & SUSTAINABILITY 35–40 13.1 Learning Objectives 13.2 Introduction 13.3 Types of Sustainability 13.3.1 Environmental Sustainability 13.3.2 Economic Sustainability 13.3.3 Social Sustainability 13.4 Summary 13.5 Self-Assessment Questions 13.6 References LESSON 14 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES 41–51 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Climate Change 14.3 Global Warming 14.4 Acid Rain 14.5 Ozone Layer Depletion © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II 14.6 Nuclear Accidents and Nuclear Holocaust 14.7 Summary 14.8 Self-Assessment Questions 14.9 References LESSON 15 ENVIRONMENTAL LAW & ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATIONS IN INDIA 53–64 15.1 Learning Objectives 15.2 Introduction 15.3 The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 15.4 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 15.5 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 15.6 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 15.7 The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 15.8 Summary 15.9 Self-Assessment Questions 15.10 References LESSON 16 HUMAN COMMUNITIES AND THE ENVIRONMENT 65–74 16.1 Learning Objectives 16.2 Introduction 16.3 Factors Responsible for Human Population Growth 16.4 Impacts of Human Population Growth on Environment, Human Health, and Welfare 16.5 Steps for Population Control 16.6 Carbon Footprint 16.7 Resettlement and Rehabilitation of Developmental Project Affected Persons and Communities © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II 16.8 CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) Vehicles Initiative in Delhi 16.9 Summary 16.10 Self-Assessment Questions 16.11 References LESSON 17 ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA 75–83 17.1 Learning Objectives 17.2 Introduction 17.3 Bishnoi Movement 17.4 Chipko Movement 17.5 Save Silent Valley Movement 17.6 Appiko Movement 17.7 Narmada Bachao Andholan (NBA) 17.8 Summary 17.9 Self-Assessment Questions 17.10 References LESSON 18 DISASTER MANAGEMENT 85–104 18.1 Learning Objectives 18.2 Introduction 18.3 ‘Post Disaster Management’ and ‘Disaster Mitigation 18.4 Multi-Disciplinary and Multi- Sectoral nature of Disaster Management: 18.5 Guidelines for effective management of mitigation program 18.6 The main elements of a mitigation strategy 18.7 Causes, Effects and Mitigation measures of the disasters in India: 18.7.1 Flood 18.7.2 Earthquakes © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II 18.7.3 Cyclones 18.7.4 Landslides: 18.7.5 Tsunami 18.8 Summary 18.9 Internal Assessment Questions 18.10 References LESSON 19 PRACTICAL UNDERSTANDING OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 105–127 19.1 Learning Objectives 19.2 Visit to a Local Area to Document Environmental Assets: River/Forest/ Grasslands/Hill/Mountain 19.2.1 Documenting Environmental Assets of each ecosystem 19.2.2 River Ecosystem 19.2.3 Grassland 19.3 Visit to a Local Polluted Site-Urban/Rural/Industrial/Agricultural 19.4 Study of Common Plants, Insects, Birds 19.5 Study of Simple Ecosystems 19.5.1 Forest 19.5.2 Grassland 19.5.3 Desert and Semi Arid-Areas 19.5.4 Aquatic Ecosystems 19.6 References © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and it’s Threat LESSON 11 NOTES BIODIVERSITY AND IT’S THREAT Dr. Nandan Guest Faculty – Environmental Science University of Delhi Structure 11.1 Learning Objectives 11.2 Introduction 11.3 Types of Biodiversity 11.3.1 Genetic Diversity 11.3.2 Species Diversity 11.3.3 Ecosystem Diversity 11.4 Methods of Measuring Biodiversity 11.5 Biogeographic Classification of India 11.6 Values of Biodiversity 11.7 Threats to Biodiversity 11.8 Endangered & Endemic Species In India 11.9 Summary 11.10 Self-Assessment Questions 11.11 References 11.12 Suggested Readings 11.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing the study of this unit you should be able to: 1. List various causes of biodiversity losses and discuss its major impact on the whole world. 2. Explain the need and concept of biodiversity conservation. 3. Enumerate the needs for in-situ conservation of species and the various measures and mechanisms. 4. Appreciate the need for ex-situ conservation of species and the various Self-Instructional mechanisms that are involved in this process of conservation. Material 1 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES 11.2 INTRODUCTION The word Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms (flora and fauna). Biodiversity or Biological diversity is defined as the variability among all living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part. E.O. Wilson in 1988 defined ‘Biological diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ as that part of nature that includes the differences in genes among the individuals of a species, the variety and richness of all the plant and animal species at different scales in space i.e. local, regional, country wise and global, and various types of ecosystems - both terrestrial and aquatic - within a defined area. Fig. 1 11.3 TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY Biological diversity deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. This variety can be observed at three levels i.e., genetic, species, and ecosystem. Self-Instructional 2 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and it’s Threat 11.3.1 Genetic Diversity NOTES Genetic diversity refers to the variation at the level of individual genes. A tremendous amount of genetic diversity exists within individual species. This genetic variability is responsible for the different characters in species. Genetic diversity is the raw material from which new species arise through evolution. Today, genetic diversity is used to breed new crop varieties and disease-resistant crops. 11.3.2 Species Diversity The number of species of plants and animals that are present in a region constitutes its species diversity. This diversity is seen both in natural ecosystem and in agricultural ecosystem. Some areas are richer in species than others. For example, natural undisturbed tropical forests have much greater species richness than mono-culture plantations developed by the forest department for timber products. A natural forest ecosystem provides a large number of non-timber forest products that local people depend on such as fruits, fuel, wood, fodder, fiber, gum, resin, and medicines. Timber plantations do not provide the large variety of goods that are essential for local consumption. Modern intensive agroecosystems have a relatively lower density of crops than traditional agro-pastoral farming systems, where multiple crops are planted. Fig. 2 Self-Instructional Material 3 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES Areas that are rich in species diversity are called ‘hotspots’ of diversity and the countries with the highest species richness or have a relatively large proportion of these hot spots of diversity are referred to as ‘mega diversity nations’. India is among the world’s 15 nations that are exceptionally rich in species diversity. The earth’s biodiversity is distributed in specific ecological regions. There are over a thousand major eco-regions in the world. Of these, 200 are said to be the richest, rarest, and most distinctive natural areas. These areas are referred to as the ‘Global 200’. It has been estimated that 50,000 endemic plants which comprise 20% of the global plant life, probably occur in only 25 ‘hot spots’ in the world. These hotspots harbour many rare and endangered species. Two criteria help in defining hotspots namely rich endemism and the degree of threat. To qualify as a hotspot, an area must contain at least 0.5 percent or 1500 of the world’s 3,00,000 plant species as endemics (Myers et al., 2000). 11.3.3 Ecosystem Diversity There are a large variety of different ecosystems on earth, each having its own complement of distinctive interlinked species based on differences in the habitat. Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region or a political entity such as a country, a state, or a taluk. Distinctive ecosystems include landscapes like forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains, etc. as well as aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes, and seas. Each region also has man-modified areas such as farmland or grazing pastures. It refers to the variation in the structure and functions of the ecosystem. It describes the number of niches, trophic levels, and various ecological processes that sustain energy flow, flood webs, and the recycling of nutrients. It has focus on various biotic interactions and the role and functions of keystone species (species determining the ability of a large number of other species to persist in the community), eg. fig, peepal etc. 11.4 METHODS OF MEASURING BIODIVERSITY There are three perspectives of measuring biodiversity at the level of community. These are (i) Alpha diversity, (ii) beta diversity, and (iii) gamma diversity. Self-Instructional 4 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and it’s Threat (i) Alpha diversity indicates diversity within the community. It refers to NOTES the diversity of organisms sharing the same community or habitat. A combination of species richness and equitability/evenness is used to represent diversity within a community or habitat. (ii) Beta diversity indicates diversity between communities. Species frequently change when habitat or community changes. There are differences in species composition of communities along with environmental gradients, e.g. altitudinal gradient, moisture gradient, etc. The higher heterogeneity in the habitats of a region or greater dissimilarity between communities exhibit higher beta diversity. (iii) Gamma diversity refers to the diversity of the habitats over the total land scope or geographical area. The sum of alpha and beta diversities of the ecosystems is an expression of the biodiversity of the landscape, which is considered as Gamma Diversity. Community diversity refers to the variations in the biological communities in which species live. Higher diversity at the community level provides stability and higher productivity. In temperate grasslands, it has been observed that diverse communities are functionally more productive and stable, even under environmental stresses such as prolonged dry conditions. 11.5 BIOGEOGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA Our country can be divided into ten major regions based on the geography, climate, and pattern of vegetation seen and the communities of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and other invertebrates that live in them. Each of these regions contains a variety of ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, lakes, rivers, mountains, and hills which have specific plant and animal species. Self-Instructional Material 5 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES Fig. 3 India’s Biogeographic Zones: 1. The cold mountainous snow covered the Trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh. 2. The Himalayan ranges and valleys of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Assam, and other north-eastern states. 3. The Terai, the lowland where the Himalayan rivers flow into the Self-Instructional plains. 6 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and it’s Threat 4. The Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains. NOTES 5. The Thar Desert of Rajasthan. 6. The semi-arid grassland region of the Deccan plateau, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamilnadu. 7. The north eastern states of India. 8. The Western Ghats in Maharastra, Karnataka, and Kerala. 9. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands. 10. The long western and eastern coastal belt with sandy beaches, forests, and mangroves. 11.6 VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY The value of biodiversity (in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services, social, and aesthetic values) is enormous. There are several ways that biodiversity and its various forms are valuable to humans. The biodiversity value may be classified as follows: 1. Consumptive value: Biodiversity is an essential requirement for the maintenance of global food supply. The main sources of human food include animals, fish, and plant products. A large number of plants are consumed by human beings as food. A few animal species are consumed by people which comes from cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, buffaloes, chickens, ducks, geese, and turkey species. Example: Fish - Many freshwater fish can be grown in ponds. Israel and China already get about half of their fish from aquaculture. Drugs and medicines - About 75% of the world’s population depends upon plants or plant extracts for medicines. The drug Penicillin is used as an antibiotic which is derived from a fungus called Penicillium. Likewise, Tetracycline, an antibiotic, obtained from bacteria is used to treat wide variety of infections, Self-Instructional Quinine, which is used to cure malaria is obtained from the bark of cinchona tree. Material 7 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES Fuel - The fossil fuels like coal, petroleum products, and natural gas are the products of biodiversity. 2. Productive value: Some of the organisms are commercially usable where the product is marketed and sold. The animal products like tusks of elephants, musk from deer, silk from the silkworms, wool from sheep or goats, fur of many animals, etc. all are traded in the market. Example: Calabar bean was traditionally used as a poison in West Africa. Daisy plants were first used as a lice remedy in the Middle East and this led to the discovery of Pyrethrum. Mosquito coils made from Pyrethrum are sold in the market. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produces toxic proteins that kill certain insects. 3. Social value: These are the values associated with the social life, religion, and spiritual aspects of the people. Many of the plants are considered to be sacred in our country like Tulasi, Mango leaves, Banana leaves, etc. The leaves, fruits, and flowers of some of the plants are used in worship. Many animals like cows, snakes, bulls, and peacocks also have a significant place in spirituality and thus hold special importance. Thus, biodiversity has distinct social values attached to different societies. 4. Ethical value: The ethical value means that human beings may or may not use a certain species but knowing the very fact that this species exists in nature gives pleasure. Example: A peculiar species of Pigeon, a grey/white bird with short legs is no more on Self-Instructional 8 Material this earth. © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and it’s Threat Similarly, the Dodo species is also no more. NOTES Human beings do not derive anything directly from kangaroos or giraffes but strongly feel that these species should exist in nature. 5. Aesthetic value: Every one of us would like to visit vast stretches of land to enjoy the visible life. People from farther areas spend a lot of time and money to visit wildlife areas where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is known as eco-tourism. Eco-tourism is estimated to generate 12 billion dollars of revenue annually which roughly gives the aesthetic value of biodiversity. A study of the impact of environment on the psyche was undertaken by Kaplan and Kaplan (1989) in which they found that being near nature relieved working stresses while people who worked in a closed environment or human-made structures experienced much more job stress and illnesses. 11.7 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Habitat loss is mainly due to human population growth, industrialisation and changes in land use patterns, poaching of wildlife, and man-wildlife conflicts. Man has begun to overuse or misuse most of these natural ecosystems. Due to unsustainable resource use, once productive forests and grasslands have been turned into deserts and wastelands have increased all over the world. Scientists have estimated that human activities are likely to eliminate approximately 10 million species by the year 2050. 1. Human population growth, industrialisation, and changes in the land use patterns: Around 1.8 million species of plants and animals are known to science. The actual number of species that have been existing is more than 18 million. Though new species have been continually identified, the rate of extinction is very high (10-20,000 species per year i.e., 1000 to 10,000 times faster rate). Human actions are expected to exterminate 25% of the Self-Instructional Material 9 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES world’s species in the next 20-30 years. The mega extinction of species is related to human population growth, industrialisation, and changes in the land use patterns in India. The reasons are: · Forests and grasslands are changed to agricultural land. Encroachments are being repeatedly legalised. · Natural wetlands are drained to establish crop lands leading to loss of aquatic species. · Mangroves have been cleared for fuel wood and prawn farming, which has led to a decrease in the habitat essential for the breeding of marine fish. · Grasslands are changed to other forms, degraded by overgrazing leading loss of cattle, goat, and sheep. · Natural forests are being deforested for timber and replanted for teak, sal, etc. Such monoculture does not support biodiversity in forests which has closed canopy and rich undergrowth. Excess collection of firewood by lopping off branches of trees’ canopy is opened up altering the local biodiversity. · Foraging cattle retard the regeneration of forest as young seedlings are trampled. · Ever increasing population gradually decreased the buffer zones and forested areas. A prime example is Gir national park, the last bastion of Asiatic lion with a meter gauge railway line, state expressway, and 3 temples. · Repeated fires by local grazers to increase growth of grass ultimately reduce regeneration of grasses. · Introductions of exotic weeds like Lantana bushes, Eupatorium shrubs, and ‘congress’ grass are invading at the expense of indigenous undergrowth species. Following traditional farming techniques like slash and burn in Himalayas, and rab, lopping of tree branches for making wood ash fertilizer in Western Ghats are now leading to loss of biodiversity. Self-Instructional 10 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and it’s Threat · Over harvesting of fish by large trawling boats is leading to depletion NOTES of fish stocks. Marine turtles caught in the net are massacred of the coast of Odisha. The rare whale shark, a highly endangered species, is being killed off the coast of Gujarat. 2. Poaching: Specific threats to certain animals are related to large economic benefits. The skin and bones from tigers, ivory from elephants, horns from rhinos, and perfume from the musk deer are extensively used abroad. Bears are killed for their gall bladders. Corals and shells are also collected for export or sold on the beaches of Chennai, Kanyakumari, and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Tortoises, exotic birds, and other small animals are packed into tiny containers and smuggled abroad for the pet trade. A variety of wild plants with real or sometimes, dubious medicinal values are being over harvested. The commonly collected plants include Rauwolfia, nux vomica, Datura, etc. The garden plants collected for illegal trade include orchids, ferns, and mosses. 3. Man wild life conflicts: Conflicting situations with wild life starts causing immense damage and danger to man. Example: In Sambhalpur, Odisha, 195 humans are killed in last 5 years by elephants and in retaliation villagers killed 98 elephants and badly injured more than 30 elephants. Similarly incidents with tigers, leopards, etc. are in news. Shrinking forest cover, human encroachment, ill and weak animals, lack of food (one adult elephant needs 200 kg green fodder and 150 kg of clean water) for animals, protecting villagers by putting electric fence, etc. are the main reasons for such happenings. As the compensation by government is not enough, conflicts occur between forest department and villagers. Self-Instructional Material 11 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES Fig. 4 11.8 ENDANGERED & ENDEMIC SPECIES IN INDIA The species of plants and animals whose existence is in danger by human activities are called endangered species. These endangered species have been categorized into four viz, i. Vulnerable ii. Rare iii. Intermediate iv. Threatened. Endangered species which are on verge of extinction are called threatened species. Today most of the endangered species are found only in protected areas (PAs). Some examples of the species being tiger, rhino, elephant; bird species include siberian crane, great Indian bustard, florican, vultures; reptiles and amphibians. Habitat loss caused by human activity is causing threat to plants species like orchids. Over harvesting of medicinally important plants as ingredients in medical products or cosmetics is also threatening species. To protect endangered species India has created a wildlife protection act. Under Self-Instructional this plants and animals are characterized according to the threat to their survival. 12 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and it’s Threat The species which are unique to a locality/region are called endemic NOTES species. Some species are found only in India and are thus endemic (restricted to our country). Some have very localized distribution and are considered highly endemic. Some species of this category being Indian wild ass, angular Kashmiri stag, golden langur, pigmy hog, etc. 11.9 SUMMARY 1. Biodiversity is threatened by the sum of all human activities. It is useful to group threats into the categories of habitat destruction, invasion by non- native species, overhunting, pollution, and climate change. 2. Habitat loss presents the single greatest threat to world biodiversity, and the magnitude of this threat can be approximated from species-area curves and rates of habitat loss. The spread of non-native species threatens many local species with extinction, and pushes the world’s biota towards a more homogeneous and widely distributed subset of survivors. 3. Climate change threatens to force species and ecosystems to migrate towards higher latitudes with no guarantee of suitable habitat or access routes. 4. Many species have gone extinct, some naturally and others because of human activities i.e. deforestation, desertification, and destruction of wetlands and coral reefs. 5. Habitats that are vulnerable to greater species extinction are referred to as fragile habitats. Coral reefs, oceanic islands, mountain tops, and habitat islands are considered as fragile habitats. 11.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. What are the demerits of domestication of selective animals? How can it destroy biodiversity? 2.  Discuss with an example, how is poaching responsible for extinction of big animals Self-Instructional 3. Discuss the harmful effects of invasive species with example. Material 13 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES 11.11 REFERENCES 1. Dey, A. K. (1990). Environmental Chemistry. Wiley Eastern Ltd. 2. Bharucha, E. (2004). Textbook for Environmental Studies. University Grants Commission, New Delhi 11.12 SUGGESTED READINGS 1. Raven, P.H, Hassenzahl, D.M., Hager, M.C, Gift, N.Y., and Berg, L.R. (2015). Environment (8th Ed). Wiley Publishing, USA. Chapter 1 (Pages: 1-17); Chapter 2 (Pages: 22-23); Chapter 3 (Pages: 40, 41); Chapter 4 (Pages: 64, 66). 2. Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P., and Gupta, S.R. (2017). Ecology, Environmental Science and Conservation. S. Chand Publishing, New Delhi. Chapter 1 (Page: 3-28). Self-Instructional 14 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and Its Conservation LESSON 12 NOTES BIODIVERSITY AND ITS CONSERVATION Dr. Nandan Guest Faculty – Environmental Science University of Delhi Structure 12.1 Learning Objectives 12.2 In-situ and Ex-situ Conservation of Biodiversity 12.3 Conservation of cultivators and livestock breeds 12.4 Biological Diversity Act 2002 12.5 Need for conserving Biodiversity 12.6 Conservation of Biodiversity 12.7 National parks and sanctuaries 12.8 Natural Reserves 12.9 Wetlands 12.10 Hotspots of biodiversity 12.11 IUCN red data list 12.12 Summary 12.13 Self-Assessment Questions 12.14 References 12.15 Suggested Readings 12.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you should be able to: 1. List various causes of biodiversity losses and discuss its major impact on the whole world. 2. Explain the need and concept of biodiversity conservation. 3. Enumerate the needs for in-situ conservation of species along with the various measures and mechanisms. 4. Appreciate the need for ex-situ conservation of species and the various Self-Instructional mechanisms that are involved in this process of conservation. Material 15 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES 12.2 IN-SITU AND EX-SITU CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY In-situ conservation: It is the method of conserving all the living species, especially the wild and endangered species in their natural habitats and environment. In-situ conservation of biodiversity includes biosphere reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, etc. Habitat is protected with all the other species that is in nature. Biodiversity at all levels can be best preserved in-situ by setting aside wildness as protected areas in national parks and wildlife sanctuaries with distinctive ecosystem included in the network. India has 589 PAs (Protected Areas) of which 89 are national parks and 500 are wildlife sanctuaries. Over 100 PAs are created in Andaman and Nicobar to preserve the special island ecosystem. The great Himalayan national park is the largest sanctuary in the ecosystem and is the home of snow leopard. Dachigam sanctuary for hangul or kashmiri stag; Kaziranga national park for animals like elephant, guar, wild boar and swamp deer, and birds like ducks geese, pelicans and storks; Manas sanctuary for Golden langur, pigmy hog, and wild boar are some of the examples worth mentioning under in-situ conservation. Ex-situ conservation: Conserving the species outside the natural habitat in a carefully controlled situation, such as botanical garden for plants or zoological parks for animals, expertise exists to multiply species under artificially managed condition. Germplasm is preserved in a gene bank for future needs, this is taken up for expensive endangered/extinct species. Care is taken to avoid inbreeding such that weak offspring would not develop. Breeding programmes in zoos provide animal needs including enclosures that simulate their wild habitat. Modern zoo’s function is to breed endangered species as a conservation. Successful examples are: 1. Madras crocodile trust bank has successfully bred the 3 crocodiles. Here crocodiles lay two clutches of eggs in one year instead of one in wild. 2. Guchali zoo has bred pigmy hog. 3. Delhi zoo has bred the rare Manipur brow antlered deer. Self-Instructional 16 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and Its Conservation The successful breeding programme also aims at reintroduction of the NOTES species into wild habitat with simultaneous removal of problems like poaching disturbances and man-made influences. 12.3 CONSERVATION OF CULTIVATORS AND LIVESTOCK BREEDS Fifty years ago nearly 30,000 rice varieties were grown in India. Now only a few of these are cultivated. The new varieties being developed use the germplasm of these original types. But if all these traditional types vanish, it would be difficult to develop new disease resistant varieties for future. Use of varieties from gene banks have been expensive and risky. Farmers need to be encouraged to grow traditional varieties. Traditional breeds/varieties have to be encouraged for genetic variability. In contrast men interested in cash returns in short time wouldn’t appreciate the benefits of growing indigenous varieties. 12.4 BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY ACT 2002 Biological diversity is a national asset of a country, hence the conservation of biodiversity assumes greater significance. The first attempt to bring the biodiversity into the legal frame work was made by the Biodiversity bill 2000 which was passed by the Lok sabha on 2nd December 2002 and by the Rajya Sabha on December 2002. Objectives: 1. To conserve the Biological Diversity. 2. Sustainable use of the components of biodiversity. 3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of the Biological Diversity. A national biodiversity authority has been established by the Biodiversity Act 2002 to regulate act implementing rules 2004 has been operationalised since Self-Instructional Material 17 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES coming in to force. Regulating access as well as pushing the officially sponsored documentation of biological resources and traditional practices through people’s diversity registers at the local and databases at the national levels, respectively. It further probes the extent to which the principles of conservation have been realised. Provisions of Act: 1. Prohibition on transfer of Indian genetic material outside the country without specific approval of the Indian Government. 2. Prohibition of anyone claiming an (IPR) such as a patent over biodiversity or related knowledge without permission of Indian Government. 3. Regulation of collection and use of biodiversity by Indian national while exempting local communities from such restrictions. 4. Measures from sharing of benefits from use of biodiversity including transfer of technology, monitory returns, joint research and development, joint IPR ownership, etc. 5. Measuring to conserve sustainable use of biological resources including habitat and species protection (EIP) of projects, integration of biodiversity into the plans, and policies of various departments and sectors. 6. Provisions for local communities to have a say in the use of their resources and knowledge and to charge fees for this. 7. Protection of indigenous or tradition laws such as registration of such knowledge. 8. Regulation of the use of the genetically modified organisms. 9. Setting up of National, state, and local Biodiversity funds to be used to support conservation and benefit sharing. 10. Setting up of Biodiversity Management Committees (BMC) at local village levels, State Biodiversity Boards at state level, and National Biodiversity Authority. Self-Instructional 18 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and Its Conservation Functions of Authority: NOTES 1. Advise the central Government on any matter concerning conservation of biodiversity. Sustainable use of its components and fair as well as equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and knowledge. 2. Coordinate the activities of state biodiversity. 3. Provide the technical assistance and guidance to the state biodiversity boards. 4. Sponsor investigation and research. 5. Engage consultants for a specific period and not exceeding 3 years for providing technical assistance to the authority in the effective discharges of its functions. 6. Collect, compile, and publish technical and statistical data, manuals, codes or guides relating to conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of its components and fair as well as equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resource and knowledges. 7. Organise through mass media, a comprehensive programme regarding conservation of biodiversity, sustainable use of components, and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and knowledge. 8. Plan and organize training of personal engagement or likely to be engaged programmes for the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of its components. 9. Prepare the annual budget of the authority including its own receipts as the devaluation from the central government provided that the allocation by the central government shall be operated in accordance with budget provisions approved by the central government. 10. Recommend creation of posts to the central government for effective discharge of the functions by the authority. 11. Approve the method of recruitment to the officers and servants of the authority. Self-Instructional Material 19 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES 12. Take steps to build up data base and to create information and documentation system for biological resources and associated traditional knowledge through biodiversity. Register electronic databases to ensure effective management, promotion, and sustainable uses. 13. Give directions to the State Biodiversity Boards and the Biodiversity Management Committees in writing for effective implementation of the act. 14. Report to the central government about the functioning of the authority and implementation of the act. 15. Sanction grants to the State Biodiversity Board and Biodiversity Management Committees for specific purposes. 16. Take necessary measures including appointment of legal experts to oppose the grant of intellectual property right in any country outside India on any biological outside India on any biological resource and associated knowledge obtained from India in an illegal manner. 17. Do other functions that may be assigned by the central government to direct from time to time. 18. Regulates the commercial utilasation or biosurvey and bio-utilasation of any biological resource by Indians. Note: International day for Biological Diversity – 22nd May 12.5 NEED OF CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY Why is biodiversity so important? Why should we care about it? What is the value of biodiversity? Maybe people don’t understand the various roles biodiversity plays in our life, but certainly they know the importance of it. There are many factors that underlie the need to conserve biodiversity, such as: 1. Present and potential uses of the components of biological diversity especially as we have no way of knowing or predicting what will be of use in the future. 2. Biodiversity is essential to maintain the earth’s life support systems that Self-Instructional enable the biosphere to support human life. 20 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and Its Conservation NOTES Fig. 1 It is ethically important to maintain all of the earth’s biological diversity, including all the other extent (currently existing) life forms. 12.6 CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY Conservation needs different strategies, they can be species based or habitat based or ecosystem based. Some species are given importance at national level while some needs treatment at international level. Most of the conservation is done at in-situ and ex-situ conditions. In this lesson, we will discuss what these conditions mean, what is the difference between them, and what are the methods and techniques used. We have also described some important projects such as project tiger and how this project has helped in increasing tiger populations. Some techniques such as seed bank and tissue culture are also proving very helpful in conservation of plants which fulfill several of our needs. In-situ conservation means “on-site conservation”. It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself or by defending the species from predators. The benefit of in-situ conservation is that it maintains the recovering populations in the surroundings where they have developed their distinctive properties. Wildlife conservation is mostly based on in-situ conservation. This involves the protection of wildlife habitats. Also, sufficiently large reserves are maintained to enable the target species to exist in large numbers. The population size must be sufficient to enable the necessary genetic diversity to survive within Self-Instructional the population. Material 21 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES Ex-situ conservation means, literally “off-site conservation”. It is the process of protecting population of an endangered species of plant or animal by removing it from an unsafe or threatened habitat and placing it or a part of it, under the care of humans. While ex-situ conservation is comprised of some of the oldest and best known conservation methods known to human, it also involves newer, sometimes controversial laboratory methods. It is to be used as a last resort or as a supplement to in-situ conservation because it cannot recreate the habitat as a whole: the entire genetic variation of a species, its symbiotic counterparts, or those elements which over time might help a species to adapt to its changing surroundings. Furthermore, ex-situ conservation techniques are often costly. Plants and animals living in ex-situ breeding grounds have no natural defence to the diseases and pests that are new to the species. 12.7 NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES Self-Instructional 22 Material Fig. 2 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and Its Conservation Case study: Project Tiger NOTES Project tiger was launched on 1 April, 1973 as a centrally sponsored scheme of government of India to maintain viable population of the tigers and its natural habitat. The main objective of this scheme is to ensure that a viable population of tigers in India are preserved for scientific, economic, aesthetic, cultural, and ecological values and to also preserve the areas of biological importance as natural heritage for the benefit, education, and enjoyment of the people. Main objectives under the scheme include wildlife management and protection. Initially, the project started with nine tiger reserves, covering an area of 16,339 sq.km with a population of 268 tigers. At present there are 27 tiger reserves covering an area of 37,761 sq.km. with a population of 2967 tigers. This amounts to almost 1.14% of the total geographical area of the country. The selection of reserves was guided by the representation of Eco typical wilderness areas across the biogeographic range of tiger distribution in the country. Project Tiger is undisputedly a custodian of major gene pool in the country. It is also a repository of some of the most valuable ecosystem and habitats for wildlife. The Tiger Reserves are constituted on a ‘core-buffer strategy’. The core area is kept free of biotic disturbances and forestry operations, collection of minor forest produce, grazing, and human disturbances are not allowed within. However, the buffer zone is managed as a ‘multiple use area’ with twin objectives of providing habitat supplement to spill over the population of wild animals from the core conservation unit and to provide site specific eco-developmental inputs to surrounding villages for relieving the impact on the core. No relocation is visualised in the buffer area and forestry operations. Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) collection and other rights and concessions to the indigenous communities are permitted in a regulated manner to complement the initiatives in the core unit. The effective protection and intensive conservation measures inside the reserves have brought about considerable indescribable achievements. The project has been instrumental in mustering local support for conservation programme in general. Self-Instructional Material 23 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES Fig. 3 Botanical Gardens Together, the world’s 1500 botanic gardens (Fig. 8.4), arboreta, and national plant collections maintain the largest array of plant diversity outside of nature, and they have major, if often overlooked, potential as resource centres for conservation, education, and development. If the infrastructure and technical facilities of most of these institutions can be strengthened, they can conserve ex situ stocks of most of the world’s endangered plant species. Already, individuals of an estimated 12,000 to 15,000 threatened species are being cultivated in botanic gardens and arboreta. Zoological Parks The basic philosophy behind the creation of zoological parks in modern times is to create an understanding of the environment and ecological balance of life, meaning strengthening the bond between people and the living earth. These zoological parks are no mere picnic spots. They are now centres for ex-situ wild life conservation and environmental education. The history of modern zoos started around 200 years ago with the creation of the first public zoo. Since then every part of world has developed their own zoological parks with great diversity such as aquaria, bird-parks, private zoos and Self-Instructional safari parks. The World Zoo Conservation Strategy concludes that the evolution 24 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and Its Conservation of zoo should continue to help the conservation of wildlife. There are several NOTES species of wildlife which would have been extinct today except for efforts by zoos and animal reserves. Ex-Situ conservation of wild animals in zoo Some important techniques used in ex-situ conservation are dealt here. 1. Captive breeding: It is one of the important strategies used by both government and non-government organisations. Captive-breeding programmes of endangered and threatened species have become familiar programmes that strive to preserve biodiversity and species survival plans such as cheetah. 2. Embryo Storage and transfer technology: Techniques for embryo transfer and artificial insemination, which have been developed for laboratory animals and farm animals, are potentially very useful for improving the reproductive potential of captive populations of endangered species. These kinds of techniques have been worked out mainly for mammals. 3. Artificial insemination: It is another useful technology. Sperm can be frozen and used later, or transferred to another breeding facility to increase genetic diversity. Sometimes, the sperm can be added to the eggs in a dish and fertilisation will occur. In other cases (for example, horses) the sperm has to be injected into the egg. Few years ago, the black-footed ferret was down to six individuals, but artificial insemination has now been used to produce 16 kittens. Elephants and cheetahs have conceived, and a cheetah cub has been born following artificial insemination. Elephants have not bred naturally in captivity, so this method may be useful simply to make captive breeding possible. 4. Somatic cell cloning: It holds some promise for propagating from one or a few survivors of an almost extinct species. This was first done with domestic sheep at the Roslyn Institute in Edinburgh (from University of Virginia) but since then it has been done with other mammals. It has already been used to rescue a rare breed of cattle that had been reduced to a single old female (“Lady”) and some frozen sperm. Granulosa cells (somatic cells in the ovary) from Lady were fused with enucleated eggs (lacking Self-Instructional Material 25 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES DNA) from a different breed, and the resulting eggs were implanted into an Angus cow (a common breed). The first calf born from these cells is genetically identical to the Lady, as expected, although her markings were slightly different. 5. Fostering: Many egg-laying animals (i.e. birds and reptiles) are capable of producing many more eggs than they can rear. This raises the possibility of collecting the extra eggs and hatching and rearing the animals in captivity with a foster parent, then using them to supplement wild populations. It has worked extremely well with some birds, particularly the peregrine falcon, which is now doing so well that the fostering programme is being phased out. Rearing of whooping cranes has also been successful, and the species recovered from a population of 21 birds in 1941 to over 300 in 1996 6. Translocations: Sometimes conservation of faunal species involves or necessitates translocation of animals. This means the movement of individuals from its natural habitat or captivity to another habitat. Translocations are carried out in connection with introductions or reintroductions, and should be handled with extreme caution. 7. Introduction: This involves the translocation of a species (from its natural habitat or from captivity) into an area outside its historical distribution. Such species would then become an “exotic” to the area. This should be handled with extreme care and needs. Extensive study of the habitat and the behaviour and social organization of the species to be introduced has to be done to ensure that the species has a good chance of adapting to the habitat. 8. Reintroduction: This involves the translocation of a species (from its natural habitat or from captivity) into an area within its historical distribution, either to boost existing populations or to establish new populations when the original population has died out. This too should be handled with extreme care and needs extensive study of the habitat and the behaviour and social organization of the species to be reintroduced. 9. Seed Bank: The preservation of plant germplasm in seedbanks, (or gene banks), is one of the techniques of ex-situ conservation of plant species. Self-Instructional 26 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and Its Conservation Seeds have a natural dormancy feature, which allows for their suspended NOTES preservation for long periods of time with little damage, provided the conditions are favourable. Banking dormant seeds enables to keep genetically representative samples of rare and endangered plant species as a kind of “genetic insurance”. 10. Seeds Storing: Storing germplasm in seedbanks is both inexpensive and space efficient. It allows preservation of large populations with little genetic erosion. Seedbanks also offer good sources of plant material for biological research, and avoid disturbance or damage of natural populations. 12.8 NATURAL RESERVES The nature reserves are the important area for the conservation of biodiversity. The growing destruction of biodiversity re-emphasis the valuable contribution of natural reserves. These areas are resourceful and useful means to deal with biodiversity losses and help in buffering society from climatic effects and maintains the critical ecosystem services of the society. Biosphere Reserves are internationally recognised areas established to promote and demonstrate a balanced relationship between humans and the biosphere. They highlight the value of nature conservation within a particular natural region and reconcile the conservation of biological diversity with sustainable use. Consequently they are ideally suited to meet today’s conservation needs when human populations are increasing and the practicality of leaving aside large areas to protect pristine natural wild lands is decreasing, despite the fact that more people than ever before are dependent on wild species and natural ecosystems for their well-being. The programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated under the Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971. Biosphere Reserves programme is intended to conserve representative ecosystems as opposed to only species or habitat conservation. It provides in-situ conservation under natural conditions, long-term conservation of plants, animals, and microorganisms. Self-Instructional Material 27 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES 12.9 WETLANDS India’s wetlands are distributed in different geographical regions ranging from the cold arid zone of Ladakh to the wet humid climate of Imphal; the warm arid zone of Rajasthan to the tropical monsoonal Central India, and the wet humid zone of the Southern peninsula. Fig. 4 All over the world, a wetland is considered to be an important part as it: 1. is particularly a good representative example of a natural or near natural wetland, characteristic of the appropriate biogeographic region. 2. plays a substantial hydrological, biological, or ecological role in the natural functioning of a major river basin or coastal system. 3. is a specific type of wetland, rare or unusual. 4. supports an appreciable assemblage of rare, vulnerable or endangered species, or subspecies of plants or animals. Importantly, wetlands are habitats for a wide variety of plant and animal life. Most important of these is the waterfowl as wetlands are shallow water. Self-Instructional 28 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and Its Conservation Apart from harbouring birds, wetlands are also a nursery ground for several NOTES species of fish and shell fish and a wide variety of aquatic organisms. For example, Chilka in Odisha has dolphins that move around in the area where the lake meets the sea. Coastal wetlands especially being an ecotone between the sea and freshwater, and/or freshwater and terrestrial habitats have high species diversity. Ecologically, too, wetlands perform important functions. They regulate the water regime, acts as natural filters, and display a marvelous nutrient dynamics. As an ecosystem, wetlands are useful for nutrient recovery and cycling, releasing excess nitrogen, deactivating phosphates, removing toxins, chemicals and heavy metals through absorption by plants and also in the treatment of waste water. Furthermore, coastal wetlands with their unique mangroves are a natural bulwark against erosion by the sea. The possible threat of rise in sea level is universally dreaded. One immediate prevention for this possible threat, as has been suggested by experts, would be the plan of a network of mangroves. In fact, mangrove wetlands of India and Bangladesh act as buffers against the devastating storms of the Bay of Bengal. Wetlands thus help in mitigating floods, recharging aquifers, and reducing surface run-off as well as the consequent erosion. Fig. 5: Mangroves acting as a bulwark for the environment In the context of the environment too, wetlands play a very important role. They protect and improve the quality of water and keep the local weather moderate. Using wetlands for water quality improvement has been tried in cold climates. Wetlands in urban periphery are natural receptacles for waste water and can harness effectively the nutrients available in the waste through fisheries and agriculture. Self-Instructional Material 29 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES Natural Wetlands of India Most of the natural wetlands of India are connected with the river systems of the North and South. On the other hand, the various multi-purpose projects launched to harness river systems have provided a number of wetlands. E.g., Harike Barrage at the confluence of the Beas and Sutlej in Punjab, Bhakra Nangal Dam in Punjab, and the Kosi Barrage on the Bihar-Nepal border. Besides these, we also have a network of lakes – natural as well as manmade, for example, Kabar lake, Chilka lake, Pichola Complex and Sukhna lake, etc. In addition of these, there are 6,740 square kilometres of mangroves. The major concentrations of mangroves in the country are the Sunderbans and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which holds 80% of the mangroves in India. Rest of them are in Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujrat, and Goa. The two wetlands from India which found place in first International Convention on Wetlands held at Ramsar in Iran in February 1971 were Chilka and Bharatpur. Currently there are 26 Ramsar sites in India, covering most of the important wetlands. 12.10 HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY It has been observed that enormous number of species that exists on Earth is concentrated in specific regions. Two-third of the species are found in geographical regions within tropical areas (area between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn). This indicates that the species are not evenly distributed on this planet. Tropical region is known to possess high species richness (number of species living in a specific location). Biodiversity conservation requires identification of such regions that are habitat of vast number of species. Geographical regions that support number of species and threatened by destruction are known as hotspots. Hotspots of biodiversity are those places on earth which have high biodiversity and are threatened by human habitation. The term ‘Hotspot of Biodiversity’ was given by the British biologist Norman Myers in 1988. Meyer defined hotspot as “a biogeographic region characterised by exceptional levels Self-Instructional of endemism and by serious level of habitat loss”. 30 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and Its Conservation Hotspots of biodiversity are identified based on following two criterias: NOTES 1. Area must support at least 1,500 vascular plants (> 0.5% of the world’s total) as endemics. This indicates that the area must have a high percentage of plant life found nowhere else on the planet. A hotspot is considered as irreplaceable. 2. Area must include 30% or less of its original natural vegetation which indicates that it must be threatened. At present, 36 hotspots have been identified in the world. Though these 36 hotspots together represent only 2.4% of the Earth’s land surface but they are crucial in supporting more than half of the world’s plant species as endemics and nearly 43% of bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species as endemics. Further, these 36 hotspots provide ecosystem services and livelihood to more than 2 billion people on Earth. Out of these 36 hotspots, 4 hotspots are found in India. These four hotspots are: · Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar). · Indo-Burma: Includes entire north-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of Islands (as well as Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and southern China). · Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (as well as Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and Philippines). · Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka). 12.11 IUCN RED LIST IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization which is responsible for assessment of species all across the world. IUCN conducts field survey to monitor species in every country. Based on the survey, IUCN classify plants and animals in different categories. This information about current status of species is published by IUCN in ‘Red Self-Instructional Data List’ publication. Material 31 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES 12.12 SUMMARY 1. Major impacts of biodiversity loss are steady increase in atmospheric CO2 level, adverse effects on local climate and water flow, reduction of genetic diversity, extinction of species, and loss of livelihoods. 2. In-situ conservation meaning on-site conservation and ex-situ conservation meaning off-site conservation are the two important ways of conservation of species. Wildlife conservation is mostly based on in-situ conservation. Ex- situ conservation is a man’s efforts to sustain and protect the environment and ex-situ conservation is used when species extinction is imminent. 3. In-situ conservation of species is generally operated in places like National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, Wetlands, Biosphere Reserves, Tiger Reserves, and Elephant Reserves. 4. Ex-situ conservation sites are Botanical Gardens and Zoologica Parks. 5. Seed banks and tissue culture are important methods for plant conservation. 6. Nature reserves are hubs of biodiversity and they should be left as such so that ecosystem can function properly. 12.13 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1. Why is biodiversity important for human beings? Make a list of advantages from biodiversity. 2. Describe how is global climate change harming biodiversity on the earth. 3. Why is biodiversity important? Discuss some of its values and indicate the ones you favour the most. 4. Describe each of the five major threats to biodiversity. Give an example of a species affected by each of these threats. 5. Differentiate between in-situ and ex-situ conservation. What is the ultimate goal of captive breeding? Why is it best used only as a last resort? Self-Instructional 32 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Biodiversity and Its Conservation 6. Visit a local zoo or botanical garden. What are the activities conducted NOTES there to promote biological conservation? List them. 7. What are the advantages of tissue culture ? 8. Write a note on Biosphere Reserves. 12.14 REFERENCES 1. Dey, A. K. (1990). Environmental Chemistry. Wiley Eastern Ltd. 2. Bharucha, E. (2004). Textbook for Environmental Studies. University Grants Commission, New Delhi. 12.15 SUGGESTED READINGS 1. Raven, P.H, Hassenzahl, D.M., Hager, M.C, Gift, N.Y., and Berg, L.R. (2015). Environment (8th Ed). Wiley Publishing, USA. Chapter 1 (Pages: 1-17); Chapter 2 (Pages: 22-23); Chapter 3 (Pages: 40, 41); Chapter 4 (Pages: 64, 66). 2. Singh, J.S., Singh, S.P., and Gupta, S.R. (2017). Ecology, Environmental Science and Conservation. S. Chand Publishing, New Delhi. Chapter 1 (Page: 3) Self-Instructional Material 33 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Sustainable Development & Sustainability LESSON 13 NOTES SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT & SUSTAINABILITY Dr. Nandan Guest Faculty – Environmental Science University of Delhi Structure 13.1 Learning Objectives 13.2 Introduction 13.3 Types of Sustainability 13.3.1 Environmental Sustainability 13.3.2 Economic Sustainability 13.3.3 Social Sustainability 13.4 Summary 13.5 Self-Assessment Questions 13.6 References 13.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES · Environmental communication and public awareness (e.g., Sustainable Development and human communities). · Role of public awareness for Sustainable development. 13.2 INTRODUCTION Sustainable Development is defined as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It also looks at the equity between countries and continents, races and classes, gender and ages. It includes social development and economic opportunity on one hand and the requirements of environment on the other. It is based on improving the quality of life for all, especially the poor and deprived Self-Instructional within the carrying capacity of the supporting ecosystems. It is a process which Material 35 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES leads to a better quality of life while reducing the impact on the environment. Its strength is that it acknowledges the interdependence of human needs and environmental requirements. To ensure sustainable development, “any activity that is expected to bring about economic growth must also consider its environmental impacts so that it is more consistent with long term growth and development.” Many ‘development projects’, such as dams, mines, roads, industries, and tourism development have severe environmental consequences that must be studied before they are even begun. Thus for every project, in a strategy that looks at sustainable development, there must be a scientifically and honestly done EIA, without which the project must not be cleared. Large dams, major highways, mining, industry, etc. can seriously damage ecosystems that support the ecological health of a region. Forests are essential for maintaining renewable re- sources, reducing carbon dioxide levels, and maintaining oxygen levels in the earth’s atmosphere. Their loss impairs future human development. Loss of forests depletes biodiversity which has to be preserved to maintain life on earth. Major heavy industries if not planned carefully lead to environmental degradation due to air and water pollution and generate enormous quantities of waste that lead to long term environmental hazards. Toxic and Nuclear wastes can become serious economic problems as getting rid of them is extremely costly. Thus the economic benefits of a project must be weighed against the possible environmental costs before a project is permitted. We as citizens of our nation, and increasingly as citizens of one common future at the global level, must constantly monitor the pattern of development. If we see that a development project or an industry is leading to serious environmental problems, it is our duty to bring this to the attention of authorities such as the local administration, the Forest Department, or the Pollution Control Board to look into the issue. Further, if new development projects are being planned in and around the place where we live it is our duty to see that this is brought about in accordance with environmental safeguards. While we all need to think globally, we need to act locally. We have to see to it that we change development from its present mandate of rapid economic growth without a thought for future ecological integrity, to a more sustainable ecologically appropriate strategy. Self-Instructional 36 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Sustainable Development & Sustainability NOTES Fig. 1 13.3 TYPES OF SUSTAINABILITY 13.3.1 Environmental Sustainability Environmental sustainability focuses on the conservation of biodiversity without foregoing economic and social progress. The foundations of environmental sustainability are safeguarding water, saving energy, reducing waste, using recyclable packaging, limiting or eliminating the use of plastics, using sustainable transport, reusing paper, and protecting flora and fauna. A great example of environmental sustainability is the Swedish city of Stockholm, which is noted for investing in sustainable infrastructure, its low emissions, and for having excellent air quality with pollution levels below average. The city has thus achieved a balance between economic development and environmental protection. Self-Instructional Material 37 © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Environmental Science: Theory into Practice–II NOTES Fig. 2 Another example is the Bimbo Group, which aims to reduce its environmental impact through regenerative agriculture with zero carbon emissions, the use of renewable energies, and the reduction of waste. 13.3.2 Economic Sustainability When a company is set up, a structure is created that involves expenses and revenues. Once a balance is struck between both factors, the company earns profit. Economic sustainability refers to the organisation’s ability to manage its resources and responsibly generate profits in the long term. An example of this type of sustainability is the company Unilever, which in the year 2010 rolled out a strategy to achieve a balance between sustainability and the company’s economic performance. To do so, it implemented several measures, such as increasing package recycling, promoting the use of recycled materials, and responsible consumption awareness campaigns. Likewise, we can also look to the case of the Suez company, which in its Sustainable Development Report 2020 reveals that it has reduced its emissions related to electricity consumption by 95%, by purchasing and generating renewable energy; that it has implemented energy efficiency measures and that, additionally, in terms of the conservation of natural habitats, some 81.5% of its facilities are free from pesticides and crop protection chemicals. Self-Instructional 38 Material © Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi Sustainable Development & Sustainability 13.3.3 Social Sustainability NOTES In any community in which economic activities are carried out in a specific environment, we find three interconnected forms of sustainability: environmental, economic, and social. However, social sustainability in particular has the goal of strengthening the cohesion and stability of specific social groups. The company CEMEX, for example, is working to contribute to the social development of communities. Thus, the company offers decent housing through self-building programmes and loans with favourable access conditions to those who are most in need. The Gigante Group is another example, since, via the Gigante Foundation, it contributes funds and resources to a range of social causes, such as school materials for collaborators, and grants to improve visual health. 13.4 SUMMARY Creativity, technology, and financial resources from all of the society is necessary to achieve the sustainable development and it is clear from the lesson that sustainable development is a broad term to describe policies, projects, and investments that provide benefits today without sacrificing environmental, social, and personal health in the future. So sustainable development is an organising principle that aims to meet human development goals while also enab