Psychology of Development Evolutiva Parcial 2 PDF

## 1.2. Definición de Psicología del Desarrollo o Evolutiva The Psychology of Development focuses on the scientific study of changes and stability in individuals throughout their lifespan, from conception to death. It investigates why and how people change with age, as well as why and how they rema...

## 1.2. Definición de Psicología del Desarrollo o Evolutiva The Psychology of Development focuses on the scientific study of changes and stability in individuals throughout their lifespan, from conception to death. It investigates why and how people change with age, as well as why and how they remain the same (Papalia, Olds & Feldman 2001). Initially, the focus was on studying the development of children and adolescents. However, in the 1960’s, the field expanded to encompass the changes individuals experience throughout their lifespan, up to the moment of their death (Palacios, 2000). The Psychology of Development seeks to understand the changes that individuals undergo as they progress through different stages of life, not only in early childhood but also in adulthood and old age. While other branches of Psychology study learning processes or address psychological problems, the Psychology of Development is uniquely focused on these changes. According to various authors (De la Morena, Fernández-Molina and Goicochea, 1997; Palacios, 2000), two key characteristics distinguish the Psychology of Development from other psychological disciplines interested in changes: **- Normative nature of changes:** The Psychology of Development focuses on changes that apply to individuals across the lifespan, regardless of individual differences. It investigates the general trends and patterns of human development, rather than specific changes experienced by a particular individual. This field examines how individual actions and reactions continuously evolve within a constantly changing environment. **- Relationship of changes with age:** The Psychology of Development examines and explains changes in individuals based on their age or a specific developmental period. This field sets it apart from other areas of Psychology. Two primary objectives within this field are: - **First, to describe individual behavior at each stage of development:** This involves accurately defining each developmental change. - **Second, to identify the causes and processes driving the changes throughout the lifespan:** This involves providing possible explanations for these changes. Other objectives within the field are: - **Third, to predict and forecast future development based on prior development:** This involves making anticipations about future development. - **Fourth, to modify and intervene during development to encourage optimal development:** This involves promoting a healthy progression through the lifespan. The Psychology of Development examines human development from a bio-psycho-social perspective. - On one hand, the field investigates biological development, including changes in the body, such as height, weight, reflexes, motor skills, brain development, and other organs; as well as the acquisition and refinement of motor skills. - On the other hand, the field explores psychological development, studying changes in thinking, language, personality, and memory. - Finally, the field examines social and emotional development, including the development of social aspects of personality, the nature and intensity of relationships with others, and the development of emotionality. Within these three areas of biological, psychological, and emotional development, two categories of change can be observed: - **Quantitative changes:** These are related to the number or quantity of skills, knowledge, or abilities possessed, acquired, or capable of being acquired at a particular time. - **Qualitative changes:** These involve changes to the quality of skills, knowledge, or abilities possessed, acquired, or capable of being acquired at a particular time. While quantitative changes are generally easier to observe and measure, qualitative changes are often more complex. Both types of change play a crucial role in the Psychology of Development, connecting an individual’s age and their capabilities. The distinct stages of human development correspond to specific types of change. To define these stages, various authors offer different classifications of human development (see Hoffman, Paris & Hall, 1995). Notable stages include: - **Prenatal period:** From conception to birth. - **Neonatal period:** From birth to 2 years. - **Early childhood:** From 2 to 6 years. - **Middle childhood:** From 7 to 12 years. - **Adolescence:** From 13 to 21 years. - **Adulthood:** From 22 to 64 years. - **Old age:** From 65 years to death. ## 3. Theories in psychology development This document highlights different approaches used in the Psychology of Development to understand the process of change in individuals throughout life. Here’s a summary of each approach: **1. Biological theories:** - These theories consider genetics as the primary factor influencing development. - **Maturation theories:** Development occurs naturally, based on an individual’s internal developmental timetable. For example, a child cannot walk until their muscles and nervous system are ready. - **Ethological theories:** These theories apply evolutionary concepts to explain development, focusing on how behaviors contribute to survival. For instance, Bowlby studied how infants form emotional bonds for their safety (attachment theory). **2. Psychodynamic theories:** - These theories explore how unconscious forces, like instincts and internal conflicts, impact development. - **Freud’s theory:** Focused on psychosexual development and the pleasure drive (oral, anal, phallic stages). - **Erikson’s theory:** Expanded on Freud’s ideas, proposing that development continues throughout life, with each stage addressing a unique conflict between individual needs and social demands. **3. Learning Theories:** - These theories emphasize the environment’s role in shaping behavior. - **Classical and operant conditioning:** Individuals learn to associate behaviors with outcomes (reinforcement or punishment). Skinner and Watson emphasized the conditioning of behavioral responses. - **Social learning theory:** Bandura proposed that individuals observe and imitate others, combining environmental influence and mental processing in learning. **4. Cognitive theories:** - These theories focus on the development of thought and how individuals acquire knowledge. - **Piaget’s theory:** Proposes that children progress through distinct stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational). - **Information processing theories:** View the brain as a processing system that codes, stores, and retrieves information from the environment. **5. Cultural-contextual theories:** - These theories highlight the influence of society, culture, and historical context on development. - **Vygotsky’s theory:** Emphasized social interaction and cultural transmission in development. - **Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory:** Argued that development is shaped by multiple environmental levels (family, school, community). **6. Humanistic theories:** - These theories focus on individual potential and positive development. - **Maslow’s theory:** Proposed a hierarchy of needs, where individuals prioritize basic needs (food, safety) before progressing towards self-actualization, reaching their full potential. - **Rogers’ theory:** Focused on a person-centered approach, suggesting that development is influenced by supportive and accepting environments, allowing individuals to reach their full potential. Each theory offers a unique explanation of human development, considering factors like biology, the mind, the environment, and personal experiences. ## Changes Psycho-biological in the Pregnant Woman During pregnancy, women experience significant psycho-biological changes to support fetal development and prepare for childbirth and breastfeeding. Key changes involve: ### Biological Changes - **Hormonal changes:** Increased progesterone and estrogen are crucial for maintaining pregnancy. Progesterone relaxes the uterus to prevent premature contractions, while estrogen promotes uterine growth and breast preparation for breastfeeding. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is produced by the placenta, keeping the corpus luteum functioning (which produces progesterone in early pregnancy) and associated with a positive pregnancy test. - **Increased blood volume:** Blood volume expands by approximately 40-50% to meet the growing fetus’s needs, potentially leading to increased pressure on the heart and blood vessels. - **Immune system changes:** The immune system adapts to protect the fetus and prevent rejection. The immune response is modulated to avoid recognizing the fetus as foreign. - **Digestive system changes:** As the uterus grows, it can exert pressure on the stomach and intestines, leading to heartburn and constipation. Progesterone relaxes the gastrointestinal muscles, potentially slowing digestion. - **Musculoskeletal changes:** Increasing weight and shifting weight distribution can lead to back pain and postural changes. Relaxin can also influence increased joint flexibility. - **Breast changes:** Breast growth is driven by developing milk ducts in preparation for lactation. The areola may darken and become more sensitive. ### Psychological Changes - **Mood swings:** Fluctuating hormones can result in intense emotions, including joy, anxiety, sadness, or irritability. These shifts are common, especially during the first trimester. - **Anxiety and worry:** Concerns about the baby’s health, childbirth, and motherhood are common during pregnancy, potentially leading to increased anxiety. - **Bonding with the fetus:** As the pregnancy progresses, a strong emotional connection with the developing fetus becomes a significant part of the pregnancy experience. Feeling the fetus move can intensify this bond. - **Body image changes:** Changes in body shape and weight can affect body image and lead to self-consciousness or insecurity. - **Psychological preparation for motherhood:** Adjusting to the role of motherhood involves planning for childbirth, parenting practices, and adjusting to a new identity. These changes are normal and varied, but seeking medical and emotional support during pregnancy is crucial for managing these changes effectively. ## 5. The Importance of Affective Bonding Early interactions with the environment extend beyond physical and sensory stimuli; emotional interactions are central to development. The emotional bond between the infant and their caregivers, particularly the mother, is fundamental. The concept of attachment describes the emotional relationship between an infant and their caregivers. Secure attachment provides a solid foundation for developing emotional and social skills in infancy and beyond. Research shows infants who experience secure attachment are better equipped to manage emotions, develop positive social skills, and demonstrate resilience later in life. Skin-to-skin contact, breastfeeding, and affectionate touch are ways to establish and strengthen this bond. These actions not only offer comfort and security but also trigger the release of oxytocin, a hormone crucial for bonding. ## 6. Parental Roles in the Prenatal Stage - **Maternal health care:** Both parents should be involved in tracking and improving the mother’s health during pregnancy. This includes attending medical appointments, ensuring a balanced diet, and encouraging a healthy lifestyle. - **Emotional support:** Pregnancy brings about significant emotional and physiological changes for the mother. The father’s support is instrumental in reducing stress, improving well-being, and creating a positive environment for the mother. - **Preparation for the baby’s arrival:** Both parents should actively participate in planning for the baby’s arrival – from preparing the home and purchasing necessary items to attending birth classes. - **Affective bonding:** Talking, singing, or gently touching the pregnant belly can create a bond between both parents and the developing baby before birth. ## 7. Interaction of the Child with the Mother The bond between mother and child develops during pregnancy, intensifies during birth, and continues to grow with breastfeeding and childcare in the first years of life. The quality of this bond significantly impacts the child’s personality and behavior in adulthood. Sensitive maternal responses, such as comforting the child and providing attentive care, promote the child’s well-being and attention, reducing distress and encouraging a sense of security in the child. This, in turn, promotes the child’s desire to engage with their mother, fostering the development of a secure attachment. Research shows that sensitive maternal responses are a strong predictor of secure attachment. Secure attachment is crucial for a child’s socio-emotional development. Children with secure attachment are better able to regulate their emotions, develop social competence, and establish healthy relationships, characterized by empathy, confidence, and openness to others. ## 8. Discovering the Self in Middle Childhood Several factors lead to the emergence of the “self” in middle childhood: - **Neuropsychological maturation of the brain:** The brain continues to develop, making advancements in motor, language, and cognitive skills. ## 9. Dominant Interests in Middle Childhood (Ages 3-6) Earlier interests focused on sensory and motor experiences, including exploration of space, object manipulation, vocalization, and sensorimotor play. These interests continue into middle childhood, but with greater complexity. - **Growing independence:** Physical and language development allows children to explore their world more actively. Curiosity, doubt, and wonder are expressed through constant questioning ("why?" "What?"). - **Subjective interests:** Children infuse their understanding of the world with their own perspectives. Everything has an explanation, as they see themselves at the center of the universe. - **Language:** Language becomes a primary interest. Stories, characters, and imaginative play are enjoyed, fostering a fascination with the world of language. - **Symbolic play:** Through symbolic play, children develop imagination and creativity. Pretending to be someone else, creating scenarios, and engaging in make-believe activities are key to understanding the world. - **Developing interests in bodily functions:** Children become increasingly aware of their own bodies, comparing themselves to others and developing a sense of gender identity. ## 11. Essential Aspects of Body Schema Key aspects of body schema in middle childhood include: - **Body perception and control:** Awareness and control over one’s own body. - **Body posture and balance:** Understanding and maintaining balance. - **Lateral dominance:** Developing left/right handedness or foot preference. - **Segmental independence:** Coordinating different body parts independently. - **Regulating impulsive behaviors:** Controlling impulses and inhibiting actions. ## 12. Parental Influence on Language Development Parents play a vital role in shaping their child’s language development: - **Asking questions:** Parents ask questions to gauge understanding, expand vocabulary, and encourage verbal expression. - **Modeling proper language:** Parents use proper grammar and vocabulary, providing examples for their children to imitate. - **Engaging in conversations about interests:** Parents engage in conversations about the child’s interests, promoting the use of language in meaningful ways. - **Reading aloud:** Regularly reading to children expands their vocabulary and exposes them to storytelling, which helps them develop language skills. ## 13. Differences between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s Theories Piaget and Vygotsky offered differing perspectives on cognitive development: **Piaget:** - Active learning: Children are actively engaged in seeking understanding, motivated by curiosity. - Egocentrism: Children in the preoperational stage view the world from their own perspective, limited by this egocentric viewpoint. - Schemas: Children use mental structures (schemas) to understand their world. These structures change and adapt as they gain new experiences. **Vygotsky:** - Guided participation: Adults or older children facilitate learning through support and guidance. - Learning through social interaction: Children learn by observing and interacting with others, drawing on the knowledge and experiences of others. - Scaffolding: Adults or more knowledgeable peers provide temporary support (scaffolding) to help children learn, then withdraw this support as the child becomes more capable. ## 14. Emotional Development Understanding emotional development requires understanding emotions themselves: **Key points about emotions:** - **Signals:** Emotions serve as internal signals to individuals. They alert us to our needs, prepare us for action, and help us assess our wellbeing. - **Social signals:** Emotions also serve as social signals, communicating our state to others. - **Reasoned responses:** Emotions influence our thoughts and actions, guiding our decisions and responses. - **Learning and development:** Emotional experiences play a crucial role in learning and promoting development. **Emotional Development in Early Childhood:** - Recognizing emotions: Children learn to identify emotions through facial expressions, gestures, and body language. - Expressing emotions: Children begin to verbalize their feelings, using words like “happy,” “sad,” “angry,” or “scared.” - Understanding the causes of emotions: With time, children start to connect specific situations with emotions. For example, understanding that being away from a parent can lead to sadness. - Understanding others’ emotions: Initially, children have difficulty taking another person's perspective and understanding that the same event can cause different emotions in different people. - Emotional regulation: Children begin to develop strategies for managing their emotions. They learn to calm themselves, communicate their needs, and find healthy ways to cope with difficult emotions. **Emotional Development from Ages 3-6:** - Emotional self-regulation: Children continue to develop skills for controlling their emotions and finding constructive ways to deal with challenging feelings. They are better able to use language to express their emotions. - Social awareness: They begin to understand social rules and how to regulate their behavior accordingly. Their sense of morality is developing, guiding their actions and influencing their emotional responses. - Empathy: They become more empathetic towards others, understanding and responding to the feelings of those around them. ## Conclusion The Psychology of Development offers a multifaceted understanding of human growth and change throughout life. By understanding the diverse theories and key principles of this field, we gain valuable insights into how individuals change, learn, and adapt to their environments. This understanding empowers individuals, families, and communities to support healthy development and well-being.