Evolutionary Biology Lecture PDF

Evolutionary Biology Lecture Tue, Jan 21, 2025 11:34AM 1:10:42 SUMMARY KEYWORDS neoteny, allometric growth, brain size, compensatory evolution, natural selection, HOX genes, vertebrate evolution, endosymbiosis, mitochondria, plastids, phylogeny, cladistics, protists, eukaryotes, evolutionary n...

Evolutionary Biology Lecture Tue, Jan 21, 2025 11:34AM 1:10:42 SUMMARY KEYWORDS neoteny, allometric growth, brain size, compensatory evolution, natural selection, HOX genes, vertebrate evolution, endosymbiosis, mitochondria, plastids, phylogeny, cladistics, protists, eukaryotes, evolutionary novelties 00:00 Here, neon here, what we call petamorphosis, is the ability for a creature to be able to be able reproduce, be able to reproduce as an immature individual. So in other words, you can become immature but you can still reduce from the standpoint of what you look like. So for example, if we take a look here at the proportionality and the growth rates in humans, they're almost exactly the same as air in chimpanzees, same amount of developmental time, nine months, etc. We are the third chimpanzee, and if you take a look here in the cartesian grid, up here, the cartesian grid kind of shows allometric growth, or growth as the individual develops over time. Notice here how badly the cartesian grid changes with the actual chimpanzees, either panites or panpanis. Doesn't matter which one, because or Congolese, we start to see that change with the progeny face. Notice that the brain is smaller in proportion compared to that of the baby. And so that does change the cartesian grid, but take a look at the human baby in there, and the brain size grows along with it at the same time. Now that changed about 2 million years ago. We start to get a larger brain size, the brain capacity is pretty close to 1300 cubic centimeters, 13 150 cubic centimeters. On average, the eighth is about three to 400 cubic centimeters, as far as this brain goes. But notice that we retain what the Cartesian cartesian grid shows us, that we retain juvenile characteristics, but yet we're able to reproduce as adults. And that's called neoteny, or petamorphosis. ProGenesis also is used sometimes, not very often. 02:20 Anybody okay with that idea? So why? What's going on here? 02:28 A chimpanzee is three or four times stronger than we are naturally, without going to the gym. 02:34 Okay, so we are a weak little chimpanzee. 02:40 This call also compensatory evolution, compensating we compensate for the larger cranium and the immaturity, because we can actually survive by utilizing the ability to think more adequately and apply it to the environmental survivability compared to just having pure strength. Does that makes sense? As far as natural selection, we are selected for heavy brains. What else we're upright also, we have all sorts of characteristics that are different than those. As far as genes that are turned out by the chimpanzee compared to genes that are turned on by us most of the time. The difference between us and chimpanzees are the genes that are turned on. There are some other differences, but you got to wait until you have more genetics to actually get into that. 03:37 Are you okay with that? That kind of neat. 03:42 So you're a bunch of immature apes. 03:45 What does that happen? Also in nature, in general, there you go. No, you're fine. I don't care. I'm a Stevie professor. What are you doing? Coming into my class late, I should lock the door, 04:10 alright, so take a look here. This is an embryos, don't Salamander. This is an axilla. So it's really kind of neat. If you go down to Mexico, we find out that the basic groups that settled there. We take a look at the Mayans and the Aztecs that settled in those areas. They really like to put things in the middle of the lake that is now Mexico City, and they actually had protection from the lake by building things and piling up stones and piling up other types of things right in the middle of the lake. Because of that, they have a number of areas there that are kind of isolated, where these little guys are very prominent. Now this doesn't look like the typical envious stone salamander, tiger salamander. We have them over by the Uintas. We have to actually have some hair that wash down from the Uintas. We find them in Holger Canyon. All sorts of things occur like that, but they don't look like this. How many have seen those? They're kind of brownish with spots and things like that. But that's the adult form. This still has the ability to reproduce, but it has the immature form, especially with the gill structures that you see and the lack of pigmentation once the water goes down in the areas where they're at, where they crawl out into an area where they're exposed more epigenetically, what happens is that drawing out of their environment triggers the thyroxine in their brain to be able to do what to become adults. So once they get out and change the environment, they go from this type of immature form to an adult form. Can't go back. Isn't that kind of interesting, though, but we do see this in nature. Why this is important is because you're going to see it with the critters that gave rise to the vertebrates, to the fish that were actually immature, eurocoronavirus, that gave rise to all of the groups that eventually gave rise to the vertebrate, cartilaginous Fish, bony fish, and then to the amphibians, and then to the reptiles and to us. Video, okay with that idea why this is kind of important to learn. Now, 06:52 any questions or anything, 06:54 we're all okay. Is it understandable? That's what I I'm I really want to convey, or is it understandable? Okay, kind of neat. Homeotic genes. HOX genes are important. Then, as far as how the body form works, these have been selected for for almost pretty close to maybe 600 to maybe 700 million years ago. Natural selection selected for this because having a head and a tail is really kind of important. How many critters do we have that don't have a head and a tail? When you start looking at the tenop runs, okay, we look at the basic jellyfish groups, the solinorata, okay? And we start to see that they have radial symmetry. And then a lot of other invertebrates have radial symmetry. Also. We have bilateral symmetry, where we have a head and a tail. What advantage does that give us to enforce these HOX genes. 08:03 You have a head and a tail. What can you do? 08:06 You can move in a certain direction. Now. You can move towards mace. You can move towards food. You can move so you don't become food. Everybody good there. So these HOX genes are really highly selected for, and really kind of neat. Now, the evolution of vertebrates from invertebrate animals was associated with the HOX genes and selected for. That doesn't mean that the invertebrates are less well selected for or well adapted. It just means that they're different. Multiple duplications of the HOX genes have occurred in vertebrate lineages. So in other words, we start to look at certain groups. Somebody want to hold that door? Thank you, appreciate don't 09:02 want to hear their lecture 09:06 trying to impress somebody, all right? 09:11 So what happens here is this, we start to see that these HOX genes are like a blueprint, okay? And we've mentioned this before, right? Blueprints some some scientists don't like to use this term, but it helps students sometimes understand what's going on. Blueprint is like for a Rambler house is different than a big house up on the east side that has multiple bathrooms and rooms and everything else and very spacious. What's the difference between the basic materials that are coded for to make that house and coded for the genes that make you and any other animal, basically to build a house, whether it's a Rambler, do we use, what sheetrock, glass, wood, etc. We use all the basic materials, but we just make what a different shape, smaller compared to the big house up there. We still use sheet rock and everything else that the little one did. So we're looking at more complexity, more complexity, not more advanced, not more primitive, but more advanced compared to simple. Does that kind of help a little bit as far as the HOX genes? How many of you have encountered HOX genes in your studies before? I really? Is it kind of new? Okay? Is it understandable, though, how it works? Let's keep going here. So these duplications may have been important in the evolution of new vertebrate characteristics. Mutations are the ultimate source of variation. It's kind of important to look at some of these mutations. It doesn't matter. In your genetics class, you're going to learn about duplications, deletions, all sorts of things, how these occur and are selected for, then select for that which is survivable. Okay? And with those duplications, or the more complexity of the blueprint, from going from a Rambler house to a big mansion up on the east side, modern organisms have the genetic potential to have a relatively complex body. Well, let's take a look and see what's going on here. Take a look at this so a hypothetical word about way in the prehistoric past. Matter of fact, the formation of this little guy right here probably was from neoteny. Probably was from an immature form of the eurocornavi that stayed immature but was functional and became the basic fish like critters that we see. Notice how simple the genetics are here. It's just an example. Okay, so what's the difference between this blueprint and this blueprint and this blueprint? Are they still the same materials, same genes? But what notice here? We get more replications of the genes on the chromosomes. We get more chromosomes. So can that make because it's a more complicated blueprint, a more complicated creature. All it is for you guys at this level. And then take a look at this right here. Very complicated and selected for. So these are selected for. And notice it's still the same basic materials here, but replicated and duplicated, per se, that kind of neat how that works. What's one of my tenants nature takes what's already there, and there you go, you can kind of see how that works. So I like these ideas right here. Nobody okay with that. That pretty easy. Go ahead. How much do we need 13:12 to understand the difference between, like, the homeotic genes widely, and what specifically the HOX genes 13:19 are? HOX genes are a type of homeotic 13:20 13:20 gene, yeah, do we need to know? Like, 13:23 no, I just know what they do. Okay, right now, we'll use them interchangeably for a while. Okay? Now that's a good that's a good point to make. That's a good point to make. Don't worry about getting into a lot of detail. Okay, I want you to kind of see the blueprint in an overall view of evolution. Okay, very good, very good. Good clarification. Okay, evolutionary novelties now, most novel biological structures evolve in many stages from a previously exist complex eyes have evolved from simple photos, sensitive cells independently many times. So when we see the evolution of the eye, and this perplexed Darwin. It perplexed me because he said, How in the world did a complex organ like the eye evolve? Well, that was a good question, but he didn't have the idea of genes of HOX, genes of all of the different types of animals and how they have things that work really well. So we go back in time, and we see that maybe the beginning of the vertebrate groups. We'll just use vertebrate groups here, but it also goes with invertebrate groups. From those invertebrate groups, we have certain types of genes that were used for different other things that are co opted now, that are now used instead of pigment or some other type of thing, they're co opted to be able to make a certain type of protein for a structure. Well, that's easy. In chemistry, you can turn one thing into another. It's not alchemy. It's actual what manipulation of the chemistry as it goes. Now, the critters that have just the photosensitive eye cells in there that see light and interpret it and take it to the brain from there, that's enough for what they need. So when we start looking at the evolution of the eye, it evolved not to immediately see what you and I see, what a fish sees, etc. It evolved to be able to function for what was needed and what was selected in the population at that point. So if we just see light, that's okay. Maybe that's all we need, is to see light and movement. Maybe that comes towards us. Maybe we didn't need anymore, and that's exactly what happens to a lot of groups of animals that didn't evolve any further than the light sensitive types of eyes, like in scallops, they just see light and shadow. When you move towards a scallop, it starts to what defend itself, starts to tuck it starts to move away, whatever it needs to do. That's all it needs. But later on, we start to see that every population, as the transitions occur, are needed for the movement of going towards the eye that we have independently doing that, taking genes. The octopus has a very similar eye to ours, but it's different to a certain degree. But if you look at it, initially, it almost looks exactly the same. But our eye, mammalian eye, vertebrate eye on the land, looks different, but they're going towards the similar type of pushing of genes to do what's needed to be done. So sometimes it's a different set of genes that are doing things like, for example, a shark is smooth go from the head to the back, so converging evolution again, right? And it's smooth, torpedo shaped hawks genes, but a fish is smooth scales, okay, compared to the placoid scales of a shark, compared to a dolphin going back into the water, they all have ancient genes that they rely on. So what's going on? They're converging on a similar shape, but they have a different methodology of getting the fusiform smooth body to move through the water. That's okay, is it not? That's the way natural selection works. Same with the eye, okay? And all of the things here, let's keep going here. Acceptations. Then that's term that you need to know. Here you can also use the term co opting. So you co opt things. In other words, you take what's already there and you modify it from the standpoint, oh, I'm going to use the example, because this is a good one. Feathers in dinosaurs and birds, those feathers are modified scale, like epidermal expressions that have been modified to be elongated, to be able to make feathers, to be able to keep small, little dinosaurs warm. Now those have been co opted because what were they used for later 18:45 to be able to fly adequately, 18:49 but they didn't evolve initially for what fly. They evolved to keep the dinosaur warm. But isn't that interesting that we take something that's there and CO opted and not just one type of function, but many functions. So for example, let's take a little sparrow, if you see them out there, I love to have my bird feeder and watch the birds out there. The Little birds can fly, but do they use it to keep warm with also, bird temperatures are higher than normal temperatures anyway. But on top of that, if you see a little bird sit there and they fluff up their feathers, have you ever seen them do that right next to the feeders as they fluff up their feathers, what do they do? They put air in between each one of those layers of feathers to keep warm, there's still little dinosaurs using what feathers to keep warm and insulate exactly right? But they're also used for flight. Isn't that kind of neat? That's what we mean by acceptation. Is that a good example does that kind of help. Here's the idea. Take a look at that. Each one of these is in an organism that it functions perfectly. Notice how we have already taken the basic life sensitive types of cells, and we're just modifying them for what is selected in the population, from mutations over long periods of time to the point where we get to here and to here. Each one of these, though, is usable for those animals at that level. That's why people get upset about it, because how in the world can you get that just by itself? Well, it didn't get by itself. When you look back at the prehistoric past, that'll look exactly as to how evolution made it. Everybody okay with that idea. Isn't that kind of neat? Darwin didn't have this information. If he would have, he would have been okay. But you know what? He asked the right questions. 21:04 Okay, 21:06 feathers involved before flight, we already emphasized that. Did we not take a look at this? Though, in the fossil record, we can kind of see here how not only is the feathers, but the body form itself worked really well, as far as being able to be adapted for not only thermal regulation, but for flight itself, good, good. Whoo. Look at that a Dino, bird or a bird Dino. Does it matter? No, it doesn't. If you just saw that skeleton in the fossil on the left, you'd say, Wow, that looks like a little dinosaur, which it is. But because of the fact that we have feathers, and we have pigments in those fossils, we can tell not only the color of the feathers sometimes, but the basic overlapping, imbricated type of flight feathers that are there now, could they fly very well? Did they have a pretty good percula or a wishbone? No, they didn't, but they could glide from tree to tree. That's a start. That kind of fun. Don't you love this evolution stuff? It's groovy, 22:23 and tell how old I am, huh? You won't hit these. and tell how old I am, huh? You won't hit these. 22:29 All right. Take a look there. Velociraptors had feathers. So we see this evidence in the relatives of birds in there, in the fossil forms, as well as in the modern forms of the turkey vulture down here by looking at the pinnules and the little areas where they're at. So we know that these crazy little dinosaurs had feathers, but were velociraptors very big. Well, if you look at Jurassic Park, you can't tell, but if you take a look at the actual Velociraptor, guess how big they are, about like this. But if you had a whole bunch of them coming at you when you kind of crack your pants right away, yeah, you would. 23:16 That's one of their secrets. Pack continues. 23:20 Let's take a look at the ear bones. Now, we actually have a new faculty member that's an expert on this. She actually did her work on the evolution of ear bones. I'm really excited to hear some of her ideas in that. So if you take a look, though, right up at the top, this is a synapse reptile. So this is going to evolve into a mantle, as we start seeing, going from synapsid to therapsid to early sino daunted type of critter. Notice how those same bones are being recruited for different types of things. Why would there be selection for that. We're not always so sure about selectional factors, what forced it, but there's more than one. But take a look at what happens here. We start to get the squamosal, the articular quadrate and adendrian here as part of these types of bones. Now, there's multiple bones in that in the Denver. Do you have multiple bones in yours? No, you don't. Okay, that's because you're down here. Although this isn't really nice, but it's in the mammalian group. Take a look at what happens here, the quadrate in here and the squamosal. Notice of changing? Well, what are some of the things that made it change? Don't worry about that. The brain was getting bigger. All sorts of cool stuff to show you how that works. Notice here that we're recruiting here from there, the articular in here, and the quadrate that kept the jaws together to form what making ear bones in here, the little ear ossicles can fit on the end of your finger, so tiny that They came from that lower jaw area in here. Isn't that kind of neat, taking what's already there and modifying that's why that's number 110, so why would that change, though? Why would that change? If we start to look at the different hearing apparatus in the vertebrates, as they evolve, we start to see this. We start to see that those reptilian, like ancestors of the mammals, were close to the ground, like lizards are today. Okay, what was the medium that they would feel when they first were evolving from the basic amphibians that also had a primitive way of hearing what was the main medium. They could feel the ground thump. They could feel the earth thump as something was here and there. As they evolved, they were raising their heads up off the ground. And so what was more important to be able to hear a predator coming, not the thumping on the ground, but the air here, rustling and moving through the air. Okay, so the air ossicles are now being not used for being able to put your head on the ground or feel the vibrations of the Earth, but to do what feel the medium of the air and things coming toward was there highly, highly amount of selection for us to have the ability to hear compared to things like birds, dinosaurs, etc, they only have a Stapes. They only have one of these bones in here. Okay, so that's kind of me how that works. We are more successful as mammals to a certain degree, because why we can hear through the medium of air? Does that help a lot? Does that help, dear, when they're listening to you coming through the forest, yeah, and the other predators that are coming for Are we okay with how this kind of works, how we can kind of look at that, giving you the Reader's Digest version here of everything that we're doing here? Well, you're saying going back here, if we're using those bones in the dead re for air, ossicles, doesn't that make the connection between the lower jaw and the paleocarbonate or the upper part of the skull innate? It would, but we actually have two connections in there. So take a look right there, the articular and the quadrate, okay? And we take a look at the SIR Angular and the squamosal bone, and we actually have another connection so we don't lose the connection between the lower and the upper part of the scope. Is that kind of neat? So we could have that work nicely in there as it's being recruited for ear ossicles, and still maintain that area 28:33 we're okay, right? Is 28:36 that kind of fun to see how that works? Let's take a look here logistics. We've looked at this before, have we not okay? So keep in mind that you're going to see a combination of the two as we move forward. I'm going to have some handouts to kind of help with this. So what does cladistics do? Again, really quick showing how this is the role. Showing characteristics in the relationships, instead of phylogeny or a family tree in traditional one is that a better modification? In a way, it is. It works a lot better. Okay, so keep that in mind. So as we're going along here, take a look at what happens, as far as from the amphibians to the reptiles in all of the different groups in here, as far as the cirrhosis and synapsids. We'll look at this as we go along. Classification. You guys are all familiar with that. I want to just make sure that everything's okay. Did y'all have you all had this memorized domain, kingdom, frontal cluster, or family, genus, species, you ought to do that because it's going to come up and bite you in the butt again. 29:50 Oh, sorry. No, go ahead. 29:53 No, anytime I go too fast and you want to take a picture, just let me know. Okay, that's okay. And again, evolution is a branching Bush prone by natural selection, not antigenesis, one thing to get to another, and that doesn't work. We'd be selected again so quickly. Okay, basically, this is a nice little picture right here to kind of show you what's going on as far as the relationships here, cladistically and phylogenetically, because sometimes they work well together. Notice here that we have two groups of critters here that are endothermic. Endo means inside thermic means to maintain the temperature. Now, non avian dinosaurs are also on this. Dinosaurs were warm blooded that was inherited by the birds. So that needs to be changed there. But does this kind of help, in a way, to see different types of characteristics that are important that relate certain groups together, that may not be phylogenetically. Phylogenetically mammals are way over here. The rest of these groups in here are what we call the soropsis. These are synapses, and so, boy, we have a lot of differences here. Crocodiles are basically what ectothermic on the outside. Okay, snakes and lizards ectothermic. Turtles are ectothermic, so they have to have the sunlight to keep them warm. But dinosaurs and birds are just like mammals. So can we do that to kind of link them together to be able to figure out what's going on and how that might have been inherited way back here in the common ancestor. We can do that now. As we go along here, we take a look at similarity versus relationship. So if we take a look at what's happening here, it's real easy to see that the squirrel is not closely related to the monkeys and the apes, right? That's easy. Take a look at this B on there, the central one in here, hippopotamus and dolphins. But if you were in the time of Aristotle, looking at the hierarchy that Aristotle had as far as the original classification. Would you think that sharks and dolphins are more closely related because they look similar? Is that dangerous to do? That's why plyistics is so important. Hippos and cetaceans are more closely related to either the two are and the same with what you see a crocodile and a monitor lizard. What do you think on the far right, on sea, they look alike. They've got to go together. Well, that's the way Linnaeus did that. That's initially how we look at Linnaean taxonomy. Is that he looked at, hey, looks similar. It is related, but it's wrong. Crocodiles and birds who are closely related to one another, then either the two are two monitored lizards. How weird is that? But you got to go back in the fossil record. You got to look at comparative anatomy, and you can look at genes, okay, and all sorts of things, and you can see the relationships there. So similarity versus relationship can be dangerous. And again, this is the way we kind of things, reptilia up there, even though the birds and the dinosaurs have jaw like characteristics and all sorts of things that look similar, but in reality, they're both archosaurs, or what we call ruling reptiles, compared to the squamates, which are the lizards and the snakes. You have to be a little bit careful. Let's look at this type of a grouping in here. This is what we call a monophyletic group. Notice I have it underlined and emphasized there a monophyletic mono means what one a phylogenetic is a family tree, and it says consists of an ancestor and all of its descendants. So we can see here that the basic archosaurs, the crocodiles and the birds, are included along with the dinosaurs in one big group, also known as a clade. Same word that clanistics is used in grouping. That's a real easy way to look at it, isn't it? This is the most useful way that we look at things, just like in classification, the most important idea is species, as far as when we work for so many familiar groups are not on a poletic though, Kingdom protest, Protista is a prototype. Is a para poletic pyramid part. So in other words, we don't know all of the relationships, and you're going to see dotted lines on some of my phylogenies in here, because we're not sure how in the world it works. Is that? Okay? That's part of the neat thing about science is we're not so sure. We're always looking for the answer. We don't have all of the answers. Okay? No blind animals can be grouped as poly, poly, poly, meaning many phylogenies, but maybe coming together and converging, converging evolution on a similar type of idea may be utilizing homologous structures, maybe just analogous structures. 35:48 So for example, 35:51 the animal that gave rise to the bats. Did it look like a bat? Right away? No, look like a rat. Bat. Rat. That works pretty good. How about the animal that gave rise to the birds? Did it look like a bird right away? No, it looked like a little dinosaur with partial feathers and then becoming more feathered as time goes so we call that polyphic Because there's lots of phylogenies showing convergence, but not necessarily because they come from a common ancestry that had the same characteristics, maybe the same genes, though, Gene homology for the arm structure of a bird and the arm structure of a back, maybe epidermal genes to make feathers. Is kind of important for dinosaurs and birds, but bats have what an epidermis like a mall. 36:50 Okay, so you've got to be kind of careful with it. 36:55 Here are the other two right here? Para polytic. This is going to be a useful tool along with polyphonic because even though monophyletic is really the best way to look at things paraphyletic, you might want to go, Well, this is interesting. This is monophyletic. I include all of these guys right here, but I just want to study the dinosaurs. And who wouldn't? I wish they would in Jurassic Park. Some of the people don't. Okay, so that's paraphyletic. So you take a part of the phylogeny that's monophyletic and look at it, because that's how you study it, yet, but realize the relationship between the others. So how do we do that? Let's use another example. How about humans? Here we have the evolution of humans from a common ancestor. The Apes are moving off in this direction. We, as a unique type of chimpanzee, are moving off in this direction, if I just want to study humans and how they evolve from that common ancestor, and not the apes necessarily, which is kind of bad, because you need to study all of them to really get a full idea. That would be paraphyletic, because I'd only be looking at the human line compared to the rest of the Apes. The video, okay with that paraphyletic or part of so that is a tool you can use to look at a modified another tool you can use is the paraphyletic. Here's the bird and here's the bat. They both do what they converge on a similar type of function. 38:44 But do they have some genes that might be shared way? Yeah, 38:51 but not necessarily, and so that would be paraphyletic, another tool called the modified of vertebrates in general, on a polyphonic. Everybody? Okay with that? Just in differences in there. That's all you got to do is know the basic types of things going on here. You good? Somebody, okay, memorize this for the first step. Okay, no, I'm going to show you some examples now that I've already shown a couple of evolutionary groups and their derived characters through time. Pro genetic views. Take a look at this. Isn't that cool, though? We go all the way from bacteria all the way to the basic mammal groups that we see here. Now this is our interpretation. We put things in nice, neat little categories here, so that we can see how they are related to each other, statistically and chrylogenetically, not because one is more superior than another. As a matter of fact, we blow ourselves off the planet. Who's left behind cockroaches and bacteria and viruses. 40:04 Okay, start all over again. 40:07 Okay, so are bacteria important? Guys? Why? 40:15 Well, they cause disease. What else do they do? Break things down. They break things down, very important, ecologically, very good. What else? Go ahead. Yes. What do they do in your gut? What do they do probiotically? You're thinking, yeah, go ahead. Go ahead. You're right. Specifically, what's that? They can ferment in certain types of animals, okay, when we start looking at horses and other types of critters, we take fermented stuff in. How many of you like sauerkraut? Oh, sauerkraut on a sentence, yeah. And I like fermented stuff. It's great, but they also make your vitamins work. If you didn't have your gut bacteria, you wouldn't be able to process vitamins effectively. Some of them isn't that interesting. How about on your skin? The bacteria kind of important on your skin? Do they protect you from other bacteria. About viruses, they important. There are viruses, embryologically, that develop inside of your body as you're a little fetus, that help fight off viruses that can get into your liver. They help you compatically. They keep you from diseases of the liver, viruses, fighting other viruses. So it's important for you guys, if you can, to take a good microbiology class as many as possible, because that is the essence of where you go, and then you can go from there into looking at disease processes and why we evolved the way we did. And we have a great virology class, okay, great virologist here, very, very smart, okay, and the micro people are great people too. So take those, if you can. Take them and parasitology, go ahead, are viruses, the old bacteria, or, you know, it's a it's a good question. We're kind of looking at a possibility, and I'm speculating right now. So this is what called swag. You guys familiar with swag? Scientific, wild ass guess that's basically what it is. And we think that there's a possibility there may be some relationship between viruses and bacteria, but it's we're still working on it, so it's swag. You guys are going to use that now, aren't you? Oh, that's nothing but a sweat. What do you mean? Scientific wildlife guy? You call me an S, yes. Okay, so that works pretty good. That's a good question. 43:29 Even our virus No, 43:34 and he'll tell you why. You know he thinks one direction compared to another. His opinion is probably better than mine, because he studies this stuff like crazy, virology is a good class if probably better than mine, because he studies this stuff like crazy, virology is a good class if you're going to medical school. Do you think virology would be important? Microbiology would be important. Parasitology would be important. And guess what? The other thing, major thing that causes disease, also, just besides genetic anomalies fungi, 44:04 and that's what we're going to go into 44:08 in this class a little bit. But we have a super mycology class here. Dr Zahn teaches it. Jeff Zahn, very, excellent. So let's take a look at some of these. Take a look right here. We saw this before with the dinosaurs and the feathers and the development of homologous structures and that in the dinosaur take a look right here, just from the basic coming from amphibians to reptiles is really kind of unique here, and we can see changes in comparative anatomy, in the genes, in the fossil record with the comparison. So this is kind of neat. There are humans right there, lot more than what we show on each one of these charts. There are lots of intermediates, but it would make a messy chart. Okay? Humans, we have a lot more hominins than you see right here in the relationship. Looking at genes, again, looking at a fossil record, okay? And then take a look at the whales, okay, hippos, our closest relative outside. Do we have fossil groups? Yes. So you take a look right there at the basic types of fossils, and you can see the transitions going from the forested areas right next to the rivers, right next to the oceans, and you see them then in the oceans and all of the chains, do we talk about? What are the relic types of things inside of the whale that have a little pelvis and a little hip and a little paralegal? What were they called? They weren't called activisms, because that would express them. They were called vesti. 46:06 Okay. We all okay, kind of neat. 46:12 Take a look at these beautiful horses. These were found just over here in camera, Wyoming. Look at that beautiful, little horse with toes, small size teeth that are low crown, all sorts of things in there, right next to the shoreline, with the fish on the shore, this area looked like Florida back at that. Would you like Florida right now? Wasn't that the kind of Mac? It was okay. Not only do we have that, but we have other ones from the Green River shale up here, a little fish right there. We have them from Germany at the same time, little circle in there where a hole is in here, a little baby, kind of neat. And remember, it's a branching bush. It isn't antigenesis. This is what you see in museums, and you see in some publications, they see it's actually a lot a radiating Bush pruned by what natural selection. There you go. Take a look. Turtles do the same thing turtles show ontogeny and phylogeny in here. So we see the ancient ancestor of turtles in the fossil record. And they don't have exactly what we would consider all of the cool stuff yet, but we start to see that they do have that basic bone structure as the babies develop, they have this bone structure, and as they get a little bit further on, then they start to develop the shell over the top of the ribs, that is kind of neat, onto Genie recapitulates phylogeny. We mentioned that before ontogeny is individual development recapitulates, or repeats phylogeny, or it shows kind of an overview of the evolution of that group, but we're that way too. Okay, you can actually see some of the ancient mammalian types of traits in our basic development here. So this is kind of neat to look at turtles and see how that works. Okay, this is a good overall view of some of the things. This might be able to help you a little bit as far as this section. Okay, just looking at how things come about. Notice there is a hierarchy in here. Even in a circular hierarchy, 48:48 we all good. Everybody get it 48:53 geological time scale. We've already got that. Everybody's Okay, all right. How do we read this? Very carefully if you take a look here, this is the oldest area in here. Notice that the Hadean is when the earth was still kind of molten, and that the hierarchy goes from here. So we take a look here at the Phanerozoic Eon in here, we look at the Mesozoic Era included in that hierarchy. And then within the Mesozoic we see the Triassic, Jurassic and the Cretaceous in here. So it makes a hierarchy of having more what longer periods of time, and then the shorter periods of time inside in a hierarchy. So it starts, yes, this is the younger time. Notice that we have more types of ethics and stages in here, because the fact that this the younger in time that you are, the more fossils and the better record you have, because it's not buried and distorted so much. Okay, so as we go along here, this is younger, but older, and it's a hierarchy, going from eons, Eris, periods, epics. But when you okay with that, did that help a little bit. We're some of you confused on how to read that and that, but this, this will be able to help you, because I will talk about like, the Triassic or the Jurassic. Let's use a Jurassic. Everybody knows a Jurassic. And then you'll be able to go, oh, this is the time right here, that time period in the Jurassic occurred when we talk about lower, middle, upper. So we can do that as a series, or we can have other terms that we use that indicate the same type of thing, depending upon if we're talking a rock or a time. 50:57 Everybody. Okay. Okay. 51:03 How you guys are smart? All right, here we go. Oh, my goodness, the most exciting face to hear in science is one that heralds the most discoveries. Is not Eureka, but that's funny, that's interesting. Isaac Asimov. You guys familiar with Isaac Asimov, incredible biochemist 51:28 51:28 and explainer and science fiction writer. 51:32 Okay, so that's kind of Eureka. What's that? 51:39 A very good TV show. I love your ear one of my DVD sets. Yes, it is. Is there a bunch of nerds I would fit right in there? I just love all that weird stuff. 51:54 Okay, besides being a TV show, and 51:58 if you're an astronomy I guess the big bang? Yeah, that's another good TV show, yeah, but no, that's not what we're talking about. It's Greek. Who developed it? Anybody know Archimedes? What did Archimedes discover? The archimedian spiral, which is good in biology. Go ahead. You know you're just moving your hand. Okay? Trying to think, right? I do that sometimes too. What else Archimedes got into a bathtub, because he was perplexed. Because, how in the world do you tell that this crowd that this king has made for him is actually made out of the material and the specific materials, without making it smaller or bigger, depending upon the type of material it's made out of, as far as its displacement of water, specific gravity. He got in the bathtub, it overran. He went running down the street, going, Eureka, Eureka, I have found it. That's what it means. They don't teach history anymore. Do they with science? That is really sad. 53:15 So that's where that comes from. Eureka, 53:20 there's a little booklet I'm going to bring it in that actually has the derivations of words that are Latin and Greek, and you can get it for free online. Can't remember the name of it 53:37 right now, but it's like Canis lupus. 53:40 We talked about Canis lupus being the genus and species name of the wolf, right? What's going on with that? What does Canis mean dog? What does lupus mean Wolf? Dog, wool. 53:57 But that's Latin, 54:00 or Greek. Lupus is Greek. Latin is Canis for dog. So you've got to look at those words, because if you're going to stay in biology, guess what? Everything's genus and species. What does Homo sapiens mean? Wise Man, oh, the dolphins must have named us. But we're asking, what now Homo sapiens sapiens? Because we're a variety. 54:31 We're wise, wise 54:37 man. Aliens come down. They watch TV and they go, you got to be kidding me. You got to be kidding me. We're not stopping there. Okay. Why do we do that? Because there's another human species also, because we know their genetics, and that's Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, Neanderthals. And guess what? Let's see. There's nobody here from Central Africa or Southern Africa. So we're all. We all have Neanderthal genes in this two to 4% 55:21 did we mention that before 55:24 we didn't you should know that you have Neanderthal. Does that bother you guys? Except my ex wives gave me a shirt that says I'm 10 to 20% 55:36 because we have the inter Don't laugh. 55:40 55:40 My Neanderthal hair. 55:45 Okay, so I'll wear that shirt. Maybe we get closer to the end. 55:57 Change is the only constant. 56:01 Minus is that true? It is how many of you taking Cal calculus? What is the main idea about calculus? Rates of change. Very good. You get a star in your forehead. Rates of change. This is where it comes up, right? Change is the only common how much Cal Can you have? 56:30 Very good y'all should take some Calc, 56:34 because it takes college algebra, and it takes trigonometry, and it makes it applicable, and then, and then differential equations. How many have taken differential a little bit? But you know what that does? That tells you examples of how things actually work with calculus. I get so excited that it just man, almost poop my pants. Just thinking, 57:01 all right, we okay. 57:04 Oh, my goodness. Now I'm gonna give you the secret to evolution so you don't have to take it. No, you do. It says it's not the strongest of the species that survives, not the most intelligent that survives, it is the one that is most adaptable to that change that we just talked about. That's what Chuckie said. Okay, good old Chucky. He 57:31 doesn't want you to tell anybody, because it's a doesn't want you to tell anybody, because it's a 57:38 seeker. I'd tell you guys anything good, one. 57:42 Why should go into politics. 57:45 So anyway, polar bear and a stone scarf. That's all for that evolution. There's so much more. So we've got some excellent evolution teachers. You're going to have so much fun with that. That's great. Let's go to the next section. How many sections do we have before the test? Three? 58:07 So we're going to go to the protistas. There we go. 58:15 Y'all ready? Everybody? Okay? 58:19 Second lecture, presentation, 58:23 protest. 58:27 Okay, now, guys, I'm going to, next time, give you some handouts for this, because there's so much in here. There's so much in here, but the Protestants are absolutely beautiful, wonderful. You guys have any questions from the previous stuff? You should have questions about evolution, but, you know, wait for you take it, but we're going to teach it to you in every biology class, because nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution, don't shave. Take a look at these beauties right here. This is a lot of fun. But before we do that philosophy, time that you can take back to your families, and they'll say, Wow, you, you you be educated. You are educated. All creatures low on the high are one with nature. If we have the wisdom to learn, all may teach us their virtues. Master Call the Shaolin temples, cool, huh? Dallas, beautiful. Alright, there we go. Protest is the informal name for the kingdom a protest or a prototype, depending on what book you have or what teacher, okay, of unicellular and multicellular eukaryote. So we're looking at eukaryota. We're not going to talk about viruses. We're not going to talk about bacteria, because you should take that class. Everybody in biology to take that. Okay, we have superb teachers here, and there's so much I don't even want to play with. Okay, advances in eukaryotic systematics have caused the classification of proteins to change significantly and constantly and irritatingly proteins consist of a paraphernaltic. Oh, paraphyletic means what we take a part over here. Part of it we're not sure what's going on here. So it's what we call a garbage pail type of area where, if we can't figure out what's going on, hey, let's just throw it in there. Okay, Protista is no longer valid as a kingdom, but we're going to use it, and books still use it. Take a look right here. Extreme diverse collection of organisms in here, defined by exclusion do not belong to any other growth. So we throw it in here. We need your classification reconsider as many as 20 kingdoms. So when your kids come back and I'm still here teaching, you know, 3040, years from now and then, you'll say, Isn't that guy dead yet? No, I'll be teaching 20 kingdoms in here. But these are all considered part of isn't that huge compared to what Plantae and Amalia and fungi, isn't that amazing? And sometimes we don't know exactly how they're interrelated. We can make them swag and but it may not work well. Everybody okay with that. So what I want you to look at this chapter as 1:01:56 we are looking at 1:02:00 an encyclopedia of animals and their possible relations, a little dictionary everybody. Okay, I'm not going to show you all the proteins, because that gets absolutely ludicrous. Proteins are eukaryotes and thus have organelles and are more complex than prokaryotes. Obviously, that is an obvious state. Many proteins are unicellular, but there are some colonial, multicellular species, and then we go into the structure and the function in here, Proteus exhibit more structural and functional diversity than any other of the eukaryotes, because they were probably the first organisms that tried to and had to adapt to different unique environments. Protease is the most nutritionally diverse of all you carrots include photo autotrophs. Let's break these words down again. 1:03:01 Photo means what life auto means. Cell phone means feeding 1:03:10 which contain chloroplasts, which are, how about planets? Does that work? Okay, but there are proteins here too, heterotrophs, different types of feeding which absorb organic molecules and in just by phagocytosis or pinocytosis and absorb all our nutrients that way. Mixotrophs, in just by phagocytosis or pinocytosis and absorb all our nutrients that way. Mixotrophs, though, this is kind of interesting, where you have a combination of autotrophic and Neurotrophic types of feeding that would be very useful in an environment where you don't have sunlight all the time, but you have other organisms eat them, etc, and we see that that occurs quite often. Everybody. All right. With that, there's now considerable evidence that much of the protest and diversity was because of Endosymbiosis, which we're going to talk about here, which is really cool, developed by Lynn Margulis, who was married to Carl Sagan. Lynn was a very, very good scientist. She should have got a Nobel Prize for this typical male showing us pigs didn't do it may just like with all of the other female scientists that were really good. I 1:04:31 don't want to go into that. Yeah, okay. 1:04:36 Rolls on Franklin. What did she do? You guys know? Go ahead, discovered basically DNA with crystallography. So she discovered how it worked. Watson and Crick went into her lab and did what they stole it, and then they got the Nobel Prize. And she did. She was also told on a number of times, polio vaccine and all sorts of things. She was really good, and they told her that she couldn't do it because she was a woman. Is that insultive or not? That is terrible. She should have got a Nobel Prize too, but she got cancer. Unfortunately. That is tragic. Barbara McClintock joking you she didn't get it to almost, almost the end of her life. Okay? So we need to give credit where credit is due, and we don't need to be male, showing us pigs. Okay, was that insulted to call us male, showing us pigs, 1:05:40 10 or nothing, but sperm banks anyway, right? 1:05:44 That's it. Okay? Mitochondria evolved by endosymbiosis. Endo means what inside what's a symbiotic relationship. It's a relationship between what one organism and another organism. Can they be closely related? Can they be the same, or can they be different? Yes, to all of the above. Okay, plastids evolved by endosymbiosis, and so did the mitochondria, as far as being unique. But how many different types of mitochondria do we have? Take microbiology, you're going to find out there's a whole bunch now, a lot of Endosymbiosis in here. Take a look here. This is what we call secondary endosymbiosis. One organism swallows another to utilize it and not digest it. So we see that we're moving here in the direction of some of the proteases, but also of green plants. Here we have the animal movement in here. Do I want you to memorize that? No, don't memorize it. Know what secondary endosymbiosis is involved with plastids, or what chloroplast and mitochondria, 1:07:05 1:07:05 you only have. Mitochondria you don't have 1:07:09 the plastics like plants do. Plants are. Are they better than we are because they have more types of endosymbiotic crisp 1:07:21 How come you can't photosynthesize? 1:07:25 It is sad, isn't it? There are, I'm going to show you some organisms that can Oh, it's cool, but, but you can't because you don't have enough service area, it doesn't work. Do trees have enough surface area with their leaves? That's a big difference. They utilize. They're in the subion. You didn't have it, so too bad you can't photosynthesis. Wouldn't that be a lot easier than going to 1:07:58 Burger King? 1:08:00 No, we love going to Burger King. We love killing our cows and eating, taking their DNA and doing what turn it into our DNA. How fun is that? Okay? Take a look here. I'm going to give you a copy of this. 1:08:17 Let me show you what's going on here. 1:08:20 How much time do we have? We still got a few minutes only. How many 1:08:25 three? Oh, really, we get out of that time in a quarter two. 1:08:32 I thought it was I thought it was 10 two, no, 45 okay. Right, 1:08:43 winter is coming. 1:08:47 Don't you love gaming. 1:08:51 Besides that, 1:08:54 some interesting No, we aren't going into driving biology. We will maybe take a look here. Do you see these dotted lines? That means it's para politic. That means we don't know what we're doing exactly. Do we resolve some of these? Why aren't they resolved? Because graduate students don't want to study little critters in the water, in the pond. They want to study big critters and cancer causing things that's important too. But aren't these important? No, they aren't. They're interesting. It's interesting to know where you came from, but you know, it's not as important. You know as conquering diseases and things like that, developing more food structure. Graduate students don't want to be bad. They won't go to some professor studying this kind of stuff, because it's not that interesting, maybe. But notice the dotted lines here. We don't know. We don't know. We don't know. Okay, that's okay. We kind of make what's it called. We're just guessing. 1:10:16 But some of it's really good swag. Some of it's very good, but I'm going to give you a copy of that. Okay, that kind of helps. This is the roadmap for this section. That's where we'll stop right there and then I'll get you that for the next time and we'll go further from there. Does that help a little bit. Keep in mind that.