Evolution of Pharmacy - PDF

University of Guyana School of Pharmacy PHA 1202-Technician Diploma Evolution of Pharmacy Introduction Welcome to the world of pharmacy, an honorable profession that has been in existen...

University of Guyana School of Pharmacy PHA 1202-Technician Diploma Evolution of Pharmacy Introduction Welcome to the world of pharmacy, an honorable profession that has been in existence for more than 5,000 years. This unit discusses the many drugs used in the old worlds of Mesopotamia (present Persian Gulf area), China, India, Arabia, and Egypt. Many of the drugs mentioned have influenced Eastern medicine for thousands of year. The Western influence on pharmacy, also known as materia medica, was cradled in Greece and Rome, as well as many European countries including Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and Belgium. The history of the field of pharmacology can be pictured as a spiral—it continually evolves and adapts while maintaining and tapping into the roots of previous drug knowledge. Almost every pharmacy, whether independent or part of a chain, now contains shelves of herbal, mineral, and nutritional supplements. Still lacking, however, is a system of checks and balances for purity, potency, dosage, and contraindications for these natural remedies. Presently, Germany leads in setting standards for natural remedies. Greek Influence Some of the earliest examples of healing centers can be found in Greece. A temple dedicated to Aesculapius, the mythical god of medicine, on the island of Cos is one such example. It was here that gods were implored, physicians practiced medicine, and apprentices learned the art of healing. Circa 400 B.C., Hippocrates, considered to be the ―father of medicine,‖ practiced medicine and pharmacy in ancient Greece in such temples. Patients who came to these temples were diagnosed, treated, and cared for until they were able to return home. Treatments included herbal remedies, mineral baths, exercise, fresh sea air, and sunshine. Hippocrates (circ. 460–377 B.C.) The concept of homeostasis—the attainment and retainment of equilibrium in the body through appropriate drugs and diet—was the traditional benchmark of his numerous practices and writings. Hippocrates theorized that disease resulted from a disturbance of a body fluid (e.g., Prepared by: Mr. Kevin Corridus Page 1 blood, phlegm (viscous mucous secreted orally), and yellow and black bile (fluid secreted by the liver), and was thus treated by restoring equilibrium. He believed that health was preserved by caring for the internal environment (e.g., diet, sleep, exercise) and properly reacting to the external environment (e.g., rain, excess sun, climate changes) to enhance the physical harmony of the body More than 200 herbal remedies and a dozen minerals are recommended in the Hippocratic writings. The juice of the poppy, which today we recognize as opium, was among the 200 drugs mentioned. Theophrastus (circ. 370–287 B.C.) Theophrastus was a Greek philosopher and botanist who lived circa 300 B.C. Botany, the study of plants, is closely related to pharmacognosy, the science that deals with the medicinal ingredients in living plants. Theophrastus classified plants by their leaves, roots, seeds, and stems. His accurate pharmaceutical and pharmacologic observations related to the classification and action of medicinal plants won him the title of ―father of botany. Pedianos Dioscorides (A.D 100) The noted botanist and pharmacologist Dioscorides was the major authority on drugs for sixteen centuries. He added to the work of Hippocrates the knowledge he gained while accompanying the Roman armies on their conquests. A major focus of his studies and writings was the use and biological effects of early remedies. The information in Dioscorides’s herbal, known in Latin as De Materia Medica, contained information on more than 600 plants and 90 minerals. Knowledge was collected by Dioscorides from his extensive travels in Africa, Gaul, Persia, Armenia, and Egypt. The remedies of these countries were incorporated into the herbal, which gave plant/mineral descriptions, instructions for growing and preservation, dosage, medicinal uses, and side effects Roman Influence Claudius Galen (A.D. 130–200)- Until 1950, pharmacy students took a course entitled ―Galenical Pharmacy.‖ Galen, a Greek-born physician, practiced and taught both pharmacy and medicine in Rome. His principles, derived from Hippocrates’ theory for the preparation and Prepared by: Mr. Kevin Corridus Page 2 compounding of medicines, were followed in the Western world for 1,500 years. Galen organized the pharmacotherapy (treatment of disease with medications) of humoral pathology into a scientific system. Galen compiled and added to drug information available in Rome in the most famous of his writings, On the Art of Healing. This work describes the properties and mixtures of simple remedies and compounded drugs. The treatments describe such galenicals (a standard preparation containing one or more organic substances) as tinctures, fluid extracts, syrups, and ointment. Jewish Influence The Jewish influence on health care is demonstrated in biblical records of the Old Testament, as well as by the teachings and works of the famous rabbi and physician Moses Maimonides. The Prayer of Maimonides for many years continued the pledge of service made by pharmacists as they completed school and began professional practice. Biblical Records (1200 B.C.) The Old Testament Book of Sirach (38:4–8) states, ―The Lord created medicines from the earth and a sensible man will not despise them. Was not water made sweet with a tree in order that His power might be known? And he gave skill to men that He might be glorified in His marvelous works. By them He heals and takes away pain; the pharmacist makes of them a compound Genesis, the first book of the Bible, mentions myrrh, a remedy used throughout history as an appetite stimulant, carminative (a medicine that relieves intestinal gas), and skin protectants with healing properties. Olibanum (frankincense) is a gum resin mentioned in the books of Exodus, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Song of Solomon. Ancient Hebrew Several drugs mentioned in the Old Testament are still in use today. Garlic (Numbers 11:5), Aloe, mentioned in the New Testament (John 19:39) but available much earlier, is an official ingredient in the compound benzoin tincture; Acacia (Exodus 26:15), used earlier for building purposes, is now commonly used as an emulsifying agent. Prepared by: Mr. Kevin Corridus Page 3 Christian Influence Cosmas and Damian (A.D. 303) While the early Greeks had their mythical gods and goddesses of healing (e.g., Aesculapius, Hygeia, and Panacea), the early Christians venerated those saints who significantly contributed to healings. Cosmas was a physician; Damian, his twin brother, practiced pharmacy. They were among many who were martyred for their Christian beliefs during Diocletian’s persecutions (A.D. 303–313). Over the years, they have been honored as the patron saints of medicine and pharmacy. Eastern Influence The earliest recordings for the use of healing remedies goes back in time to 3000 B.C. These early findings include inscriptions on clay tablets found in Mesopotamia and the Pen T’sao, found in China written on bamboo slats, which covered more than 10,000 remedies. Clay Tablets of Mesopotamia (3000–2500 B.C) Among thousands of clay tablets unearthed in the present Iraq and Persian Gulf region, more than 800 tablets contained materia medica information. These first pharmaceutical texts contained more than 500 remedies from plant, mineral, and other sources. China (500 B.C.) Drugs used in early China include ephedra, cassia, rhubarb, camphor, and ginseng. ―Yin‖ drugs were cold and wet, and ―yang‖ drugs were warm and dry. ―Red‖ drugs treated heart conditions, and ―yellow‖ drugs were used to treat liver problems. Mithradates VI (d. 63 B.C.) Early in history, the adverse or poisonous effects of drugs were a matter of concern. Mithradates might be called the ―father of toxicology‖ for his investigation and writings related to the prevention and counteraction of the poisonous effects of drugs through the use of appropriate antidotes. Prepared by: Mr. Kevin Corridus Page 4 Military Influence Wars accelerate the need for health care. Military medicine throughout history has provided the stimulus for improvement in infection control, surgical interventions, and trauma management. The Crusaders brought personal and financial support to the hospitals in the areas of conquest between A.D. 1096 and 1291. The Crusaders built hospitals in the Holy Lands. During this period, the Hospitalers of the Order of St. John of God were established to staff the hospitals and care for the wounded on the battlefield. This order continues to maintain health facilities throughout the world. Influence of Western Europe (A.D. 500–1200) Medieval physicians prescribed approximately 1,000 natural substances, most of plant origin. Herbs (leafy plants used as medicinal or flavoring agents) were the main source of medication. Materia medica was derived from the Greeks, Romans, and Arabs. The monasteries in England, Germany, and France preserved this information and added to it the medicinal herbs grown in the monastery gardens. Early explorers of American shores brought back to Europe native remedies such as quinine, found in the bark of South American trees. Other influences The scientific discoveries in one country are never limited to only applications in that country. Their impact can be felt across the globe. Canadian Contributions- Another dramatic and lifesaving discovery was made by Frederick Banting (1891– 1941) and Charles Best (1899–1978) when they collaborated to discover insulin (1922). The lives of millions of diabetic patients have been saved and enhanced by this major therapeutic breakthrough. World Health Organization- The World Health Organization (WHO) published the first International Pharmacopoeia in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1951. This book was published in English, French, and Spanish and later in German and Japanese. Although not a legal document, Prepared by: Mr. Kevin Corridus Page 5 it assists in setting internationally acceptable drug standards. Drugs included in any pharmacopoeia are those of proven pharmaceutical and therapeutic value. Prepared by: Mr. Kevin Corridus Page 6 Reference: 1. UniversalFreeEBookStore.(n.d.).https://peasleetech.org/wpcontent/uploads/2020/10/APh A-The-Pharmacy-Technician-4th-Edition-1-2.pdf 2. Durgin, J. M., & Hanan, Z. I. (2008). Pharmacy Practice for Technicians ,Cengage Learning. Prepared by: Mr. Kevin Corridus Page 7