Evolution and Speciation Lecture PDF

Evolution and Speciation Lecture Thu, Jan 16, 2025 11:33AM 1:12:06 SUMMARY KEYWORDS Artificial selection, natural selection, genetic plasticity, chromosome sets, epigenetics, plant adaptation, broccoli development, Canis lupus, hybridization, phylogenetics, convergent evolution, vestigial trai...

Evolution and Speciation Lecture Thu, Jan 16, 2025 11:33AM 1:12:06 SUMMARY KEYWORDS Artificial selection, natural selection, genetic plasticity, chromosome sets, epigenetics, plant adaptation, broccoli development, Canis lupus, hybridization, phylogenetics, convergent evolution, vestigial traits, embryology, speciation, punctuated equilibrium. 00:00 Yes, you were talking about natural selection. Did we see this picture? Yes, we're okay there. 00:13 Artificial so we're okay with that picture. Hubs explained, okay, artificial selection. We got to throw this up there plants to kind of show you how that works. So we have we seen this picture before. Haven't So notice here we've got the cruciferies, the mustards, and this is just a real good example of how we have artificial selection. Now, again, the reason why plants have this plasticity as far as their genetics goes, is because of why they have what 00:54 anybody know. 00:56 How many chromosome sets do you have? 01:00 You have 223, 01:03 from mom, 23 from 46 total. But if you take a look here at this broad Lester, there's just not two sets of chromosomes to choose from when we go into meiosis, etc. But plants have multiple sets of chromosomes. Why do they have multiple sets? And we don't? We be a mess if we have multiple sets? No, because there's only so much expression that can be done in natural selection. So a lot of plants don't have they don't look like all the combinations of all of these other plants. You would either there are some types of critters that do have multiple sets of chromosomes, but they're things like paraple worms, some fish, et cetera, insects, but don't worry about that. That's going into more detail, into genetics and you need to but how come plants have multiple sets? Go ahead, because they can't move. They can't move. Animals, if something goes bad, can move. But if you land as a seed somewhere, you have to either adapt to that area or you don't produce that plant. Right? So plants are lucky that way go ahead, so they can, like, turn on and off certain genes to You bet, like, survive, yeah. And it can be epigenetically. So the epigenetics that you guys talk about here the environment. So for example, we saw silver swords up on the slope to the volcanoes in Hawaii. Silver swords, they look like big Yuccas, but then down onto the forested areas, they kind of look like little green bushes down there, it depends. And the lava fields, they look like a different other type of plant, and that's because the environment actually turns on those regulatory genes for those types of things in populations to be able to express what is needed in that environment. So plants are neat that way. Are they not? Okay? So how many of you seen broccoli in the wild? I hope you didn't raise your hand because you don't see it in the wild. We have developed it. Okay? We have developed brussels sprouts. Much dismay of many people. I love Brussels sprouts. Love them with vinegar and some good butter on their own. Yeah. Okay. Truth. Cauliflower, kale, cabbage, those are all important types of things that we should have in our diet, but you don't like, Yeah, I'd rather eat a big steak. You know, that'd be great. Thank you very much. That is kind of distracting, isn't it? Yeah, and so that's kind of neat. This artificial selection shows us the plasticity of how this works in the mustard family, incredible diversity in that family, all the way from the Arctic all the way down to here in Utah. So we're good there. Artificial selection. Well, natural selection kind of shows us what's going on with Canis lupus the wolf. But guess what? All those other babies right there are what Canis lupus also, including that cute little chihuahua down there on the lower right. 04:38 Wow, that's kind of fun. 04:41 And as you well know, some chihuahuas think that they are wolves. You know, none of mine ever did. They're just gentle babies, okay, but take a look at what we've done. Are we stupid or what? Okay? What kind of diseases, all types of optical diseases. They have arthritis like crazy in a lot of the bath, pounds and everybody has dysplasia in the hips, luxating patellas, all different types of things can go wrong with that basic group that came from the wolf. Keep in mind that wolves also deviated from a common ancestor, from bears and wolves. 05:32 Isn't that kind of cool? 05:35 So again, nature takes what's already there, and there you go. Isn't this kind of fun. We used to So again, nature takes what's already there, and there you go. Isn't this kind of fun. We used to call this before we got a handle on the genetics, and just by looking at things, and you remember how dangerous it is just to look at something. We'll kind of emphasize that some more later on, we call them Canis familiars and Canis domesticus. Well, we didn't know any better, because they look so different. Did they differentiate long before this to make little dogs and different types of wolf like critters. How many different cannons do we have? Do we have boxes? Do we have coyotes here in Utah, as well as molds? If we let them survive? We do. So there's that kind of variation. But let me tell you, genetics and evolution can be kind of strange. Here. We're going to go on here and take a look. Oh my goodness, one species really 06:35 better. Look out. Great. Dane, that Chihuahua is going to get you 06:40 take a look here at this phylogenetics in here, how it works over time, going from the Eocene up here to the Pliocene, all through the Cenozoic, we start to see Wow, the hesperonidae in here. And we have some pretty neat things going. But there's natural selection of cream, the burro progeny in here, and we have some of them almost making it through, but they didn't make it all the way through into the Pleistocene. Didn't work. The Canidae in here, the canids in there, did work out really well. Look at all the different varieties, Bucha, main wolf in here. These are the ones that made it through. Why these didn't make it through? We're still looking at it. We're not sure. Why aren't we sure? Because there's so many different factors of how that works. It's still really cool all over the plant. We have wool so and they spread out all over because they're so well adapted. Well, why are they well adapted? Because they do have some plasticity, but it's not the plasticity that artificial selection selects for. Well, let's take a look here. Little dogs also are in the genetic makeup of natural selection going back over 50,000 years ago, we didn't do that to them. Did we do specifics with some of those small genes? Yeah. But is there a difference in the size of the different types of bolts? Is there different sizes from a wolf to a coyote to a fox? Yes. Okay, so we see that these genes are kind of perpetuated going clear back there. Now we just take them and mess with them badly. So this is kind of fun to see that. Oh, look at that beautiful animal. Look at those long legs. This is South America guys, the Pantanal down there. Works really well as far as these animals adapting to that kind of Plains, like swamp like areas forested, like areas down there, there are almost like, kind of the counterparts of the Serengeti over in Africa. But isn't that kind of neat? If you saw that, you'd kind of look at it for a while. Wouldn't you go, what the heck is that a wolf sure is beautiful. Look at those long legs. Isn't that incredible? They actually have adapted, like coyotes have today, to eating certain types of fruits, seeded fruits, so the wolf apple in here is actually spread by these mange wolves. Isn't that interesting? Out then that interaction doesn't work. So we're giving you a little bit of ecology on top of everything else. Oh, my goodness, if you just saw that right away, what would you think bear? Would you not but look at it. How did we split up the bears in the docks came from a common ancestry. Are there still some genes that could make bear like structures in here? So this is in Central and South America in here, in certain types of environments here, as far as the bush dog goes, kind of cool, neato, beautiful, painted dogs, or African wild dogs, they are incredibly intelligent. They work really well together. You're going to see some of this in the ecological aspects that we see in the films. They are amazing critters, well adapted to the African areas in a sub Saharan, lots of different types in here, as far as but they can't. Can they interbreed? Yes, they can, very easily. But they are separate. 10:42 They're beautiful, beautiful 10:46 stuff. Oh, let's go to eastern North America here. Let's look at the koi warfare, Canis, latrans bar, bar, meaning a variety latrines. Are coyotes? Wait a minute. Let's look at what is going on with this. According to genetic tests, these hybrids are 60 to 84% Coyote, eight to 25% Wolf, and eight to 10% dog in the Northeast. Why would natural selection select for that? We need to have something that's not as large as the wolf to be able to get through those thick forested areas in the east and be able to hunt down the deer that are different than the deer hair, the mule deer compared to the black tail deer back there are quite a bit smaller. They work better in the force that way, and can survive better. Selection is going to select for that. But what is the neat idea here? Also the fact that we have wolves, coyotes and dogs mixing in the genetic pool in here, so we can go all over the place. Could that happen here in the west? It could, depending upon what happens. So I want you to be careful when we talk about species. I want you to be careful about hybridization and about the lack of hybrids being viable. That kind of neat. Some of you aware of this in here, it's kind of interesting how that works. Wow, lots of fun stuff. Everybody amazed. I'm getting excited. I don't know why you guys are. I already know this is coming. Oh, my goodness. Why do they breed? Well, we just talked about that. So if you want to go into a little bit more detail, there it is, right there. Okay, all right. Oh, my goodness, humans in a campfire, it's cold and I'm starving, maybe I should ask for some scraps. What's the worst thing that can happen? How pugs naturally look kind of sad Anyway, don't they? They're beautiful little dogs, though, and they're so fun. All right, let's take a look at some more evidence for evolution here. Homologous structuring. We didn't get to this last time, did we? No, okay, homologous structures. We're looking at the idea, and I like to put as in parentheses here, form for homologous structures and function for analogous structures. Just looking at how things are kind of correlated, just by looking at the basic groups of the animals themselves. This is pretty important, right here. So we have morphological features and biological organisms that have similar position and evolutionary origin, but not necessarily identical structure or the same function. You're going to understand this because I always like to give definitions and descriptions, and then I show you pictures, analogous analogies function in an organism, essentially the same function, but different evolutionary origins to obtain that function. Birds, bats and insects all have evolved wings for flight, but they have done so by different evolutionary means and trends and pathways. 14:25 We all okay there. 14:28 14:28 How many of you are familiar with these terms in the first place? Couple of you. Where did you guys learn them? At? Do you remember? Doesn't matter. I'm just kind of curious. If you know, how many have you taken 10 hand biology before you took the 16 and 16 that were you possibly heard at the event? Okay, just kind of interesting. Oh, my goodness. Let's take a look at that early amphibian going into the early reptiles, then evolving into the vertebrate groups that we know today. Notice here we have the humerus, the ulna and the radius, and then the carpals and the basic types of phalanges. But notice that they're for different what functions. So this is form homologous structures leading into analogous structures function. Does that make sense for everybody? Bat wings. Look at the elongation there. You're going to see in evolution that we have genes that get going on very uniquely to elongate those beautiful fingers in there. Birds do the same type of thing, but so here we have bats, and bats do this, okay, but birds do this, oh, they have five digits. When they're babies, they lose those two digits. Genes don't turn on. They fuse those then they turn it into a wing. Okay? How come I can do that? Well, painfully, I can do that. Don't say because you're old and you're arthritical Man, which is true. What? What's the other idea? My limbs are also what homologous with theirs? Everybody? Okay with that? Just to reinforce it, similarity between two structures reflect common ancestry. Possibly, if you go back far enough, everything has a common ancestry. Okay? Different vertebrates share that many anatomical similarities, but they have different functions. So here again, we're emphasizing form, not function, and structures may not have the same function, as we said before we good. There anybody get that? Okay? Analogous structures, well, similar adaptations, organisms that do not share the same evolutionary history, per se. Now, with analogous structures, we're looking at function structures evolved independently from one another to a certain degree. They resemble each other as a result of parallel evolutionary adaptations. Now, there is such a thing as parallel evolution compared to convergent evolution, but we aren't going to go into that here. It's not that important. Yeah, we go into excruciating detail in evolution, at least I do due to convergent evolution. Well, let's look and see what we mean by convergent evolution, bird wings and insect wings, etc, bat wings. Can you be homologous and analogous at the same time? Can you use the same bones and have the same function? But did the birds start out in flight? No, the little dinosaurs did not. They actually used feathers for what they were accepted from the standpoint of warmth, elongated scale like structures that are epidermal expressions. Did the back start out with wings? Or was it a small rodent like animal that evolved into the mammalian groups that evolved eventually into that did the ancestors of the bird and the bat look exactly like a bird and a bat? No, they did not. So they converged on a similar type of pattern as far as analogies or analogous structures, and sometimes homologous structures, as far as being able to be used. But take a look here. The bird wing and the bat wing are only analogous, because Do we have anything that links to homology? As far as the butterfly wing Absolutely not. So they are analogous, and the bat and bird wing are homologous and analogous. You can have both. Is everybody okay with that idea? We okay? If not, we'll explain it a little bit further if we need to. Well, let's look at convergent evolution itself. What's kind of fun here with convergent evolution is this. Let's take a look at plants. First of all, this is the euphoria, or in Madagascar. This is a Ocotillo here in the Baja the plants that they evolved from initially had genes to be able to make this stuff, but they weren't expressed because the environment didn't call for it as far as natural selection. So the ancient types of plants that both of these came from is way different than what they resulted from from the similar environments that exist on each one of those places. Everybody okay with that? It could be deep homology. Then deep homology is genes that were there in the first place that become what operational later on. So you can read about it right here. You can kind of get the idea right off the bat. Everything evolved from a fish. Let's go to that. When sauerkraut origin fish evolved into the amphibians and the amphibians into the reptiles. The reptiles went this direction, into the marine reptiles, via though a reptile that didn't look anything like a fish again, whereas the mammals came about how reptiles into the basic therapsid synapses, into the mammals that are on land, a little hippo like or a deer like little artiadactyl That evolved into this so the ancestors of this cetacean right here didn't look anything like the ancient reptile per se. It evolved into the marine reptile here. They converged on a similar shape, because what kind of environment did these go back into? The marine environment that's selected for those characteristics. But sometimes there's some differences. The things that make beautiful dolphins nice and smooth when you pet them, the scales on there don't work so well in the same way, but they're different things. The epidermis here, the scales on here, make that animal smooth and fusiform like a torpedo so it can move through the water. But they have different pathways, but basically they converged on a similar architecture. Everybody okay with that idea? Does that help a little bit? You guys are so quiet. Are you okay? Just absorbing this absorbing tool. 22:27 Let's take a look here. Mammals evolved from a common rat like animal. Guess what the most common mammal is today on the planet, 22:40 the group. Go ahead. What was that? Don't be shy. Come on, 22:47 rats. Do we find rats everywhere, everywhere? That's because that basic group of critters at the end of the trash and going into the rest of the Mesozoic looked like rats, because that architecture works. Well, here we are, but sometimes we have different pathways as far as reproduction. So marsupials have this they have a pouch, or they have folds. As a matter of fact, only 50% of them have pouches. Nonetheless, they have immature babies coming out of the birth canal, moving into and attaching themselves to a nipple inside of the pouch, or the foals. It works. It works. Whereas these little guys have what internal development, that's that's where we're at, workplace Central. Well, that's kind of fun, but they're converging on a similar shape. Because, boy, they have diverged from a marsupial group and a mouse group, even though they maintain this basic architecture here that works really well. But then let's take a look at the flying phallogene. This is a sure glider and the Flying Squirrel, they're not flying. They are glistened or gliding. They go from tree to tree. This is selected for nicely in here. This is called a patagia that's in between the limbs right here. The squirrels that they evolved from did not look anything like these types of critters right here when they were first evolving from the basic rope like critters here. But then one group went into a marsupial type of form and a placental type of form. How about this potato right here? Well, guess what? When we look in the fossil record, how many types of mammals do we have today? Big groups, marsupials, placentals and monotremes, monitor Mata, that lay eggs, duck billed platypus and the Echidna, only three groups. What did we have in the past? Pretty close to 20 groups. The homology students are so grateful that we don't have those still here. How much would they have to study there. So it looks like as if, though we have fossils though that show the potassium abilities and the genes that have come up way from the prehistoric past, and they carry those genes from the squirrel, like animals going into the marsupial squirrel, like animals going into the flying squirrels, and sometimes natural selection in a population, because what individuals don't involve populations evolve, and we get that forming again. That works really well. We have these in Utah, by the way. We have them down here. Have more of them up towards Logan and going up to Ida. 26:03 What about that wolf up there? 26:08 Well, the other one down below is called a Tasmanian Wolf, but it is not a wolf. It's closer to a wombat or a kangaroo. It 26:17 has a pouch. 26:19 They are kind of sort of extinct. Now, although we do have films of them loping across the areas right in between kangaroos on film. So some of them are kind of hidden. We call it relic populations. But we decided to get rid of them because we thought, as the Australians thought, as some of the ranchers today think, that the wolves are going to decimate their cattle and their sheep, especially down in Australia. So we got rid of them. Last one died in a zoo back in the 1930s kind of sad. They did not cause that kind of problem. So are they converging on a similar shape? Well, if you're more closely related to a kangaroo, that's a mighty strange shape, unless you carry deep homology ancient genes that will select for those characteristics that make you more applicable to the environment, enabled with survival, we all okay. Have we beat convergent evolution to death? Yes, but don't we love to do that? 27:34 Anybody? Good questions. 27:39 Oh, cute little sugar life. Keep little fine squirrels, Yeah, but look at how distant they are. Keep in mind that when mammals and all the groups were evolving and then radiated out, were on one big, huge continental mass called Pangaea, back 250 to 252 million years ago. That's why, all of a sudden, now, the continents are splitting apart. They still have some of those genes they've carried with each other, anatomical record. Oh, my goodness. Let's look at vestiges. Vestiges that just what it means. They're kind of hang around structures that are no longer in use. They're diminished or reduced during the course of evolution. So they aren't functional anymore, and so they go into entropy for the most part. So they are in Tropic and they don't have a very good function that they just look like remnants sometimes. Let's take a look at those muscles, though, guys, muscles in the ears. What the heck is going on there? 28:58 How many of you can wiggle your ears? Wow, come on. Oh, I'm 29:04 sure I don't want to tell you, okay, so take a look. I can wiggle both of my ears. I control my vestiges. I can control one at a time. Watch this. Oh, 29:18 wow. Isn't that cool? 29:21 I've worked on that a long time to control my vestiges, just to show the class of that. What do those muscles do for me? Not a thing. What did they do for primates in general, as we look back in the evolutionary record, fossil record, etc. Well, they work really good for some of the more ancient primate groups. Some of them are still alive, like tarsiers, okay? Lemurs, etc. They can move their ears with those muscles. Horses can do that too. So that's kind of cool, but so here's a little tarsier. They hunt for insects at night, but they're also hunted by predators. If you sit there and move your head or move your body to listen for insects. You might be seen as silhouetted up in the night scarf. Everybody good there. But if you just use your ears, you may not be as big as silhouette. So it's highly selected for in that term, we don't know if it was kind of cute that, you know, helped in the mating. It could have been a lot of factors. It usually is, 30:44 but you have those. But why do we still have them? 30:49 Kind of weird. We still have them. 30:53 Are genes linked to one another. Do sometimes some diseases that are caused in vertebrates like us. Do they have anomalies like the different number of cervical vertebrae that have nothing to do with the disease, like the cancers that they have, leotrophy? Yeah, that's true. So those muscles are linked to other types of things that are really important for the development of the skull and the muscles there. You don't want to lose those. Those are highly selected for, especially with the HOX genes. And so what happens they are still there? But do they get selected against? No, they don't. 31:38 Wow, that's kind of neat. Wisdom. Teeth. 31:42 Our ancestors have prognathic bases that stuck out here, like our cousins, the chimpanzees we are the third chimpanzee. We have the prognostic base flat, just like as if, though we walked into a wall. And I'm sure that they have films, you know, with Fred Flintstone walking into the wall and flattening his face and look more like us. Okay, idiots, so those teeth then don't have any room after the face is not protonated anymore. That's interesting. Some people still have the structure, though, to be able to retain those wisdom teeth, and that's okay, but they're kind of way back there, and they're kind of dangerous. They can decay, they can impact, they can do all sorts of things. So those of you that style of your wisdom teeth. That doesn't mean that you're more ancient or you're more primitive. It just means that you retain some of those characteristics, because your structure allows it to occur. Individual on dodging. Anybody, alright with that. Anybody want to admit they haven't had their wisdom teeth out in here? There you go. Does that mean anything? No, not really okay. But for the majority that have is that okay? Yeah, that's alright. Remnant limbs and snakes. Snakes came from lizards, lizards that were in a niche that really pushed towards the lack of those limbs in there. And we can see it in the fossil record. We see little, tiny limbs in some of the snake like critters, and then we start to lose those. And some of the snakes today, we actually do have some of those types of things, as far as spurs and colubrid snakes and constrictors. Whales. 1920s we were still hunting whales, and sometimes we found those rear limbs in there. We actually found full limbs to a certain degree. Sometimes they're cartilaginous, but those genes turn on. They're quiescent genes, wow. But they were vestigial at this point in here, because right now, every cetacean, for the most part, has what a little tiny pelvis and a little tiny legs sitting in that blubber. That's a vestige, but I'm hinting here towards the fact that they express themselves sometimes, and those genes turn back on tailbone. If you look on the internet, you'll see humans with tails at the University of Utah. Did we mention this? Before I was a respiratory therapist up there, we were on the crash teams. There were kids that were born with tails. They just sniff them off, because they heal very quickly. And we were kind of worried about other things, you know, because what's the last thing to develop, as far as that goes the lungs and surfactant? Okay, that's why respiratory therapists are so important. 35:18 Just give us a little plug there, right? That's cool. 35:26 Activisms. Then those whale limbs that are activistic, vestiges that are non functional, that are Activisms. Then those whale limbs that are activistic, vestiges that are non functional, that are ancient, sometimes express themselves when the genes are turned on quiescent genes. 35:44 Wow, that's kind of neat. Whale limbs. 35:53 So it's a reversion, then, from a vestige that's an ancestral character stayed, not evident in recent generations, but can occur when those genes turn on. But no longer exists in most of the modern forms, but those genes and those traits still exist in the genome in there rarely and occasionally activisms occur in modern organisms when the cryosin gene is expressed. Chickens, teeth. Chickens develop teeth. Well, birds develop an egg tooth to get out of the egg. And that's a thing on teeth. It's a dinosaur tooth. But then we actually have genes that we can turn on in chickens to make dinosaur teeth. I wanted to make a movie so bad from this, have Colonel Sanders out there go, yeah, tricky, tricky, you know. And all of a sudden all the chickens go on him like a big set of velociraptors, and they're chewing down. That would be the beginning of my movie. I have a friend who's a professor back at Wright State University that makes films, and he said, I ain't doing that. That sounds stupid. That's not even a B movie late at night, 37:08 okay, but I thought it would be fun. 37:11 Horse's toes, goodness gracious, sometimes the toes are expressed in lots of toes. Sometimes they are not. We look back at the ancient form of small, little horses that were enforced in jungle areas here in Utah, back 55 million years ago. The hierarchy theory all different types of small horses that we find in the fossil record, and they have tows gets around better in the forest. Small body size gets around in the forest. Remember those wolves, the Kai wolf in there, man, they get around better if they're smaller. Natural selection goes for that, but sometimes they are expressed. Maybe one or two goes and we'll show you, I think, one in here. And sometimes, sometimes those horses are bred with other horses that have toes to make more horses that have toes. But do those jeans always turn on? Kind of reverts back to the other middle toe, the middle toe, flipping you off, right? Yeah. So the Caesars thought that was really cool during the time of the Caesars, and the Caesars had them breed other horses with other toes. Didn't work so well. They thought they were gifts from the gods, obviously, and they would bring them good luck. Obviously, the Caesars were obviously wrong, right? Very good. Okay. Oh, man. I hated getting through Julius Caesar from Shakespeare. I didn't like Shakespeare. I was too add. I could not get through except the Tamia The Shrew, that was funny, other than, do they make you guys read Shakespeare anymore? Lucky. You uneducated. You okay? So that's all right. Whalens, when we talked about before, going from vestiges to patience, is that kind of cool? What kind of vestiges Do you guys have right now? Are humans perfect? Take a look at your sinuses. Don't you love your sinuses, especially when you get a cold. That was when primates, when we start looking at the more ancient primates use smell instead of eyesight as the primary type of indicator of what's going on in the environment right away. How about again, your wisdom, teeth, muscles in the ears. There's all types of things going on. Let's go down and through the body. Some people say it's the appendix that might be a vestige. No, it is not. It's not like the cecum in some types of herbivores that detoxify toxins. It's different. It's actually more closely related to your immune system. Very interesting. We haven't decided exactly what the heck it is, but it gets inflamed. You got to take it out. Okay? So we have all sorts of things, tail bones, okay. We have scars of evolution all through our body. We have it evolved, whether anybody wants to admit it or not. Okay, anything wrong with that? It's a good excuse. Hey, I go out on a date and I said, I'm sorry. 40:53 I'm not bad. I just evolved that way. 40:56 And then I get slapped and never, never see that person again. 41:02 Okay? What's going on here? 41:06 Goodness gracious, full expression of the back limb. Take a look at these baleen whales. So we have Mr. Seats and advanta seats. We have tooth whales and baleen whales that have the same thing, wet dolphins and porpoises also have it. And take a look here at the constrictor. It has a small pelvis and a leg structure there. That's kind of neat. There we go. There's those spurs. Look at that huge, elongated pelvic bone right there, and then the little limb coming off, vestiges. Take a look at the whales here. Well, they started out as kind of neat little cardiodactyls that were semi aquatic towards the shore, and then they jumped in to the water to either get away from things, or there was some food there, going onto the beaches and stuff like that. The ecosystems were open because the marine reptiles had gone. Okay, so, Andy, let's means walking Well, rotosidis in here. We're starting. We have a whole bunch in between here, by the way, guys. So everybody goes, where's the missing link? We don't need missing links to know that there's a sequence going on here, do we? And it just gets ridiculous after a while. If I had all of the in betweeners in here in the fossil record, what would happen? I get a big mess, and you wouldn't be able to tell what's going on. So we're just making major jumps. Duradana here has that beautiful set Basilosaurus. We name it source reptile before we knew that this wasn't a marine reptile or a dinosaur, and we knew that it was a nation's whale those we have a whole bunch in between here. And then we have the modern whales today, and we have that vestige going on. Examples abound in nature. 43:07 43:07 Let's take a look here. This is kind of fun 43:11 from flighted birds back in the Mesozoic. We have birds that when we started opening up, the ecosystems started to go out onto the planes, and it was more equitable to do what to run than to fly 200 pounds. Are those wings going to be able to carry that ostrich very far? No. What are those wings still selected for? Even though they're vestigial, he looked look bigger? Sometimes against another animal, sometimes it works, sometimes it doesn't. I have seen unfortunately, cheetahs actually take down ostriches whether or not they look huge or not. How about shading the babies? How about mating? How about balancing as you're running getting started. Okay, all sorts of cool things. So we do have some vestiges that are kind of semi usable. So I didn't want to give you that impression that they're not. Let's take a look here at the Mexican Tetra 44:19 tetras in general, of this group in here 44:24 are going down rivers in Mexico. 44:28 Some of the areas go off into cave like structures off to the side as the river goes in there. And some of the tetras find food in there, and they make populations, and it works really well. And they select, for our billions of years, the lack of what pigment and those eyes, what's the first thing you looked at when you looked up? Here you go, Where in the heck are the eyes? Right? Because that's what we do as primates, as humans, we look for eyes. Babies look for eyes, and then they look at the rest of the face. Okay, well, that's kind of neat. Lots of neat genetics in there. You take the evolution class, and I'll teach you about that. Salivators can do the same thing. 45:17 Pretty cool. Can 45:20 I tell you a little bit more, I had some of these when I was a graduate student. I could put my hand over the top of the aquarium. Did we talk about this before? Put my hand over the aquarium, and they could feel the pressure of the air of my hand over the top. And also they could tell when food was there. So all of their other senses are enhanced. We also have people that are handicapped, that are blind, that enhance their senses also. So that's kind of neat how that works. Activism here. This is a good fit walk. This is, you know, not all of the toes are expressed here, but this is a real nice home from a veterinary school in Florida, and take a look. Here we have the shins going up here and an expression of a little foot. If you're familiar with horses. Have you seen those kind of shin bones going up the sides and that 46:18 you guys deal with horses at all, okay? 46:23 Whenever you look, it's kind of neat. Oh, here's a six year old girl with a tailbone in here. Notice the yellow ones are the extra ones in here. The other ones have been expressed as large, good vertebrae for the tail going back down through here, okay? And again, they just snip them up. But they have muscles and they have nerves in there, but they aren't expressed completely, because, as a primate that we are, the ones that we're more closely related to, don't have extensive tails. The only ones that really do are the New World monkeys over in South America that actually have them, what prehensile that they can grab on 47:08 limbs, on a whale. This is 1921 47:11 so we have looking here, cartilaginous femora, tibia, tarsals and metatarsals in here, going back there in large detail. Take a look at this little dolphin right here. They flipped it over and notice that it has those back limbs. Most of the time they do not, they do not express themselves. Oh, oh, go ahead. Does that curiosity when they do remove like the tail of like a child or something, does it cause any like, like damage permanently? Like, no, you're in life, or cause, no, no, it doesn't. What it does is what little discs that there are in there that are expressed as the coccyx in there, they remain in there for the most part. And you don't really need your tailbone right now, if you break your tailbone, what do you do? You just kind of anguish and stuff like that. So it's not that important. That's a good question. And it heals up pretty good. There are score scars in there. No four. So, you know, go home and ask Mom Dad, Hey, did I have a tail? Take a look in the mirror, or have your significant other. 48:26 Don't ask me, I don't want to see 48:30 48:30 it. All right, here we go. Comparative embryology. Darwin looked at embryology. All vertebrates share same basic type of instructions here we call these pharyngeal slits. Remember, we don't call them gill slits unless they're going to turn into a gills. Take a look at the similarity, though, of the embryology here, we all kind of look the same. We have those gill slits. You guys have them disappear in you okay, they aren't prevalent unless you're going to develop guilt. And humans do not develop guilt. So if you watch some science fiction show, and there's a guy who's semi aquatic that had develops guilt, it doesn't look like that at all the stars that star in that that supposedly have gills, wouldn't have part of their face, and it would look really weird, you know, to have gills, but they wouldn't want to do that because they don't want to get rid of their movie star looks right. Okay, so it doesn't work. Relevant developmental forms that don't have the genes turn on, so you don't have to have that, and other genes take their place. And in development of if I wish we had embryology, we're trying to get an embryology class, and then you can learn more about it. Take a look at the cat and the human in here. We both have tails. That's pretty cool. Okay, do we look similar? That's because we're all mammals and everything. Take a look at this cute little dolphin here, the forelimb in there. The genes that make the forelimb and the back limb are different. Genes when you're okay with that, the front limbs develop, the back limbs do not. Genes aren't turned on in snakes, the extra vertebrae are multiple sets of genes that turn on that make the vertebrae in there. Embryology is really kind of neat. The Science of developmental biology also looks at the genetics that cause the differences in changes. I think we still offer that, and I think it's online. Take a look right here. Do we all look this? Is that kind of a hint that we all came from a common vertebrate ancestry on the left there, but when the genes start to turn on, boy, we differentiate. Darwin saw this really kind of neat. 51:07 Oh, time for a quiz. Everybody ready? 51:11 What do we have here? Let 51:17 me think about this. Anything familiar? Yeah, they're vertebrates. They're all mammals. I'll tell you that right now. 51:26 What's a? 51:29 It could be to a certain degree, if there's a little bit of difference in there, but no, it's not a mouse. But that was a least he tried. mouse. But that was a least he tried. 51:40 How about B? 51:44 Look at that sloping forehead. Genes changed the shape, as you saw in certain types of pictures when we started to work with dogs and we have these bolt barriers that have these huge rounded heads, they didn't evolve that way from the basic Wolf, right? What about C look at the baseball gloves they have. Isn't that cool? And then apoptosis gets red, or the cell death in between each one of those from genes turning up. Except in ducks, they get to keep it. How fun is that? Let's see, oh, my goodness. A is a lemur. It is a more ancient basic primate, but it has the same look as the human and see, but look at the pig in there. Okay, that kind of cute. Now we can take pictures like this without killing the babies. You don't have to kill the babies. We can actually go in and build this. And they did this way back in the 50s and 60s. Not kind of neat how you can go in there and take Wouldn't you love to have your picture like that and put it up in your first picture? First picture. I got some 53:10 jokes with that, but I'm not gonna do 53:16 it species and speciation. Well, we already kind of looked at this. This is kind of a problem, but now we're going to look at the basic definition of what a species is. First. Meyer, okay, a great, great scientist, he said, biologically, the concept of species means a population, or a group of population whose members can interbreed and produce for lost brain babies that can produce more babies. Speciation occurs when some members of a population can no longer interbreed adequately. Sometimes we have right next to one another, and behavioral aspects and physiological aspects are completely different. Sometimes anatomical aspects. So for example, even though everything's Canis lupus, can a chihuahua breed with a Great Dane, mechanics don't work well. Portuaa said, looking at that beautiful, great dane, but I love you, but I love you, and he's trying to jump to No, it doesn't work. Sorry, had to do that. Micro evolution leads to macro evolution, as you well know, right? Oh, go ahead. About like infertile offspring, so like, when bushes and monkeys but mules aren't like, Oh, they're mules, but mules aren't like and we do have some of the groups where the chromosomes do line up and work well together to make viable groups. Other groups do not hybridization wise, so the wolves and the coyotes and dogs that you saw before, the genes chromosomes line up beautiful. They don't in every type of equid, like in the horses and the zebras, but some of them do Z docs and all sorts of things that we have. But some of them are not and some of them are able to have babies. Beyond that, 55:20 55:20 when you take genetics, you'll get in. 55:23 Anybody taking genetics in here yet? Well, you guys know what I'm talking about. Then, right? You talk about that kind of stuff, but wait till you get in there and then, and then you'll be able to go into detail. It's actually quite nice. I wish we had time to do that. We'd turn us into an evolution class. That'd be cool. Oh, my goodness. But before we go any further, that population definition needs to be kind of added on to the idea of classification. So we're going to look at classification here. Notice we have domain so the way the hierarchy goes is like this, domain, kingdom, final, class, order, family, genus, species and everything in between. Those you guys already know that you should memorize it, because it's kind of the way that we put things in nice, neat little packages. Does nature put things in nice, neat little packages like that? Do they you Sprite, you frisky varmint? Okay, now, did the walls and the coyotes and the dogs back East? Are they sticking to those nice little compartments, no, okay. So look here, everybody knows about domains, right? We are closer to domain archaea, ancient bacteria, than we are to the basic EU bacteria, or true bacteria, and then we have all of those one groups in Eukarya, okay? Well, let's take a look there, from that domain, domain, kingdom, problem, class, order, family, genus and speed. This is a cute little giraffe. Eat. Remember the fact that we probably have probably as many as nine species of giraffe. Don't worry about that. Okay? But we have also what we call a paleontological species. They use morphology, what it looks like, instead of the basic biological definition. Because if you take a look at a Tyrannosaurus Rex up in Montana or here in Utah, and you take a look at the Tarbosaurus Bataar, they're trying to call it tar or Tyrannosaurus Bataar now over in Oolong Bataar, over a Mongolia, they look almost exactly alike, but they're going to be different species because they have little, tiny things that are different, and they have also people in the skyrum that need to have a paper so they don't get kicked out of their university. And so they decide to make it another species? Do we really know what we're doing? No. So the species is the basic level on which macro evolution processes occur and operate. That's the one that we use genus and species names. What makes a species you know one when you see one, right? We're okay. There population of organisms that interbreed with each other, or could possibly breed under natural conditions, not zoo conditions. So do we have animals like ligers and other types of things that are processed in zoos because, hey, you're kind of good looking. I think I'll go over and mate with you, kind of thing, whereas out in the wild, lions and tigers, like in India, do not get together and bears. Oh my. Okay, let's take a look at some basic speciation processes. You can take a whole semester and study speciation, you'd all fall asleep very quickly. Okay, I think it's fascinating, but we're just going to look at three types in here to see how the environment selects for these species. We're going to look at allopatria means other. Patria means homeland. Sim means the same. Para means near. Okay. And so we see these definitions here. I'm going to let you look at the pictures. I'm going to describe it, but then you can go back and look at these definitions. Is anybody okay with that? Because I think that's a better way to do this. Allopatric speciation. Know that we use biogeography, which is another class we should have here, and it works really well. Well, so you can see how things change as they are separated by geographic or geological barriers. The video K with that can be a river, it can be an ocean, it can be a mountain, it can be all sorts of things. You good. There is that easy for allopatric. How many are already familiar with this? These terms? Okay, a couple of people, okay. But tell me if it's not understandable, because a lot of things here are abstract. Oh, my goodness. Take a look at what happens here. Can Do With insects. We can do with fishes and different types of lakes, we will kind of emphasize that, but take a look here at the basic ground squirrels, like down in the Grand Canyon. We have some other types of animals where the Grand Canyon developed and we separate was once was a one population species into two, because we have different what environments on both sides of the Grand Canyon. On the south side, we have pinions. We have all different types of dry climate, lack of water, different timings. On the north side, we've got some nice forested areas, white pine pines, in general. And we have different types of behaviors and food stuffs and different things that separate the two groups when they get together. Is there a possibility they could hybridize just like the coyotes and the wolves and the dogs? Yeah, they could. I don't know of any study that's done that yet, but for now that they're separated, we're going to give them what two different species names, 1:01:47 white tail and the Harris's antelope ground score. 1:01:51 Take a look at this. As far as separation of camelids. Does this work really well? Did we already look at this Okay, so if we take a look here, camels evolved in North America. In North America went across the Bering Strait over into Asia, and they went down into South America when that connection was developed approximately 17,000 years ago, when we have Central America to connect South America now, from these basic ancient camels, we have all of these beautiful species down there that work really well, okay, allopatric speciation also happens when you have continents in the ocean that separate from one another, and different food stuffs in there, from the mainland bench in South America, we have all of these beautiful plastic types of variations 1:02:58 we got there, kind of showing you the allopatric. 1:03:04 Allopatric here with the northern spotted out and the Mexican spotted out. Notice that when the ice age came about, we have a corridor of the Rocky Mountains that started to separate these ancient groups that were here before. Basically, we had good barriers to keep them apart from one another. Okay, spot it out. Notice that they're just variations in there because the genes are so close. Let's take a look at sympa tree. This is kind of interesting. There's more genetics going on with this. So the rise of a daughter population within the geographic range of an ancestral species, stem, Patrick, change in the ecological strategy and sometimes micro environments and within each one. Well, let's take a look and see what we're talking about here. We take a look at cichlid fish. They're in the same environment. They have the ability to meet with one another. Deep Water, okay, and shallow water, they have the same walk, the same environment. But they are manifesting because this one's in the deep water eating different types of things, being differently. This one's in a shallow water doing the same thing. But could they interbreed? Yes, they could very, very close. So that is an example of sympathy. 1:04:36 You kind of already 1:04:39 knew this one. Alright, let's take a look at peripac para part two populations with limited gene flow. They get together and don't look at that one at the after. Who cares about that? We are concerned with the hybridization area. So peripac speciation involves the formation of hybrids. Well, is that what kind of happened with what we have flickers. You guys familiar with flickers? We have woodpeckers that have beautiful wing structure that's different here in the West compared to that with the South. And where we meet them, called an ecotone, and where they meet together, we actually have hybrids. Another example right there is here in Cameroon. Take a look. We have a couple of areas where we have hybridization, because we have some micro climate and micro environments in here. So we take a look here. We have the forest and grassland here, and then we have the grassland galley force ecotone in there. And so we have the basic roots in here that are divided up with these different types of environments. But we have a hybrid zone. Another one is params 1:05:57 here. Take a look there. 1:06:00 Here we have the map with this 1:06:03 group and this group, and we have the hybrid zone in there. Patrick, speciation, sometimes it doesn't work well because they're not well adapted. Okay, speciation rates. Let's take a look at this real quick. So we're taking a look at modes of evolution or 1:06:25 methodology. 1:06:27 Notice we have one part of the chart here with time and the other part with morphology. Gradual changes here. Gradualism 1:06:38 over time 1:06:41 has slow change. Guess what? He didn't hint it towards this one, though, where we have no evolution whatsoever over time. Because if it isn't broken, don't fix it. Scotty to captain, Kirk, it isn't broken, Captain, don't fix it. And over here, what all of a sudden the environment changes, and we get speciation, rapid speciation. It's the mode 1:07:09 in here. It's the tempo. 1:07:15 And then we have that occurs. Now I'm showing this 1:07:18 as kind of a dramatic 1:07:20 view of both types of tempo molds, but most of the time, in reality, we have combinations that both occur all the time. We have earthquakes, we have fires, we have floods, we have all different climate change, types of things that can occur that might affect it, plus other types of things, disease, etc. So now that I've introduced you to that, let's take a look at the definition here. Niles Eldridge, Greg paleontologist and Stephen Jay Gould, another excellent evolutionary biologist and paleontologist proposed the idea of punctuated equilibrium. They gave a name to it, whereas Darwin just said, I kind of observed this thing going on, but not as much as gradual types of evolution. Why let it gradually sexually reproducing populations, rapid events of branching, speciation with no evolution whatsoever, whereas pilot gradualism, it's gradual. The name itself implies you can't get a raw on a test if you look at the name, okay, contrasted to punctuated equilibrium, but we do have combinations of the two 1:08:46 all the time. 1:08:50 1:08:50 Are we good so far? 1:08:52 Can I go on? All right, 1:08:57 let's make it easy, punctuated equilibrium. No evolution for quite a while. Look at the axes on there. Okay, change in time. And notice here that all of a sudden, gosh, we get speciation because the environment changes, or something changes, compared to gradualism. Notice that they both result in the same thing. In this case, not necessarily so all the time. Does that kind of help showing these pictures? You're all right there. Keep in mind that we do have the combination of the two, 1:09:39 co evolution. Wow. 1:09:42 Sometimes adaptations in one species select for adaptations in another. They reinforce one another. Most of the time, there are other things going on. So take a look at this beautiful moth like our lot, like our sphinx moth that we have, maybe the proboscis in here, and look at the Coronavirus down here with all of the nectar in there. This type of flower down in South America was observed by Darwin, and he predicted that a creature like this would be the pollinator most of the time. Do we have more than one creature that can pollinate, though? So things don't go extinct. What happens if they're 1:10:24 tied to one another 1:10:26 one without anything else, they both become extinct, right? Wow. Okay, so this is CO evolution, saguaro cacti and bats. Well, there's more than one type of critter that can do that, but this is beautiful coil evolution, because they open up at night. They're very pungent to help you. Don't lose our sequoias or sequoias serrarus in there. Okay, let's go on here. Major changes in body form can result in changes in sequences and regulation of developmental genes, genes and program developmental control, rate, timing and spatial pattern, we already kind of hinted towards that as far as the beaks of the finches, because the different thick beaks are turned on with different types of timing with the same genes 1:11:21 as the thin beaks, different timing, 1:11:26 heterochromine and hetero different crony 1:11:28 time, 1:11:30 and this is what we're talking about here. But we're also going to look at humans and chips, and we already looked at what pinches, what time did we get out of there? Okay, we'll have to do this next time. We'll start with header current. Everybody remember where we're at. Okay. 1:11:54 Is it interesting? So far, 1:11:58 I'm just giving you the leader's guidance version here. Good evolution class.