EU1 - Copy PDF - Crisis Of The Third Century (300-600 CE)

(300-600 CE). Crisis of the Third Century The lecture begins by discussing the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of turmoil within the Roman Empire. The causes of this crisis were the empire's vast size, which made centralized rule difficult; mounting pressure from Barbarian tribes and Persia...

(300-600 CE). Crisis of the Third Century The lecture begins by discussing the Crisis of the Third Century, a period of turmoil within the Roman Empire. The causes of this crisis were the empire's vast size, which made centralized rule difficult; mounting pressure from Barbarian tribes and Persians on the borders; and Rome's inefficiency as a military base2. To address these issues, the Roman Empire expanded its standing army along its borders, leading to complications in finding money and recruits2. Provincialization of the Empire The Crisis of the Third Century led to the "provincialization" of the empire23. This involved: Debasing the currency, which resulted in inflation3. Tax revenues flowing to the provinces rather than the central government3. Declining birth rates and plague outbreaks3. Recruiting soldiers from the "margins" of the empire rather than from Rome itself3. Allowing Barbarian tribes to settle within the empire's borders. The Tetrarchy In response to these challenges, Emperor Diocletian introduced the Tetrarchy in 293 CE34. This system, meaning "rule of four," divided the empire into four administrative units34: Two senior emperors (Augusti): Diocletian in the East and Maximian in the West34. Two junior emperors (Caesares): Galerius in the East and Constantius Chlorus in the West34. The Tetrarchy was designed to improve administrative efficiency, facilitate rapid responses to threats, and establish a clear succession plan4. While it proved effective in the short term, power struggles ultimately undermined its long-term viability4. Constantine I and the Rise of Christianity The lecture then shifts to the reign of Constantine I (r. 306-337 CE), the first Christian emperor45. Constantine's conversion and policies had a profound impact on the Roman Empire and the course of European history5. Prior to Constantine, the Roman religion was polytheistic, with state officials often serving as priests5. Christianity, a monotheistic religion that originated in Palestine around 0 CE, was initially a minority religion6. However, Christianity's message of salvation for all, regardless of social status or origin, contributed to its growing popularity, particularly among those marginalized within Roman society6. In 304 CE, Emperor Diocletian initiated a "great persecution" of Christians, involving the destruction of scriptures and churches, mandatory sacrifices to Roman gods, the stripping of individuals' ranks and offices, and executions7. Constantine's Vision and the Edict of Milan At the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE, Constantine I confronted his rival Maxentius for control of the Roman Empire7. According to legend, Constantine had a vision of a shining cross in the sky, accompanied by the words "In this sign, you will conquer"7. Constantine's victory at Milvian Bridge led to the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, which granted religious freedom to all, including Christians8. The Edict of Milan marked a turning point in the relationship between Christianity and the Roman state, paving the way for Christianity's eventual rise to become the dominant religion8. Constantine's Legacy: Laying the groundwork for the spread of Christianity9. Moving the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) in 330 CE9. Convening the Council of Niceae in 325 CE to address theological disagreements within Christianity910. Engaging in extensive church building programs in Rome, Constantinople, and Jerusalem9. Art Classic roman/Greek: naturalistic, volume/weight, motion, perspective, self sufficient Art from provinces: Hierarchy, patterns/designs, interaction with viewer. Theological Debates within Christianity As Christianity gained prominence, theological debates emerged, particularly regarding the nature of God and the conditions for salvation1011. The Council of Niceae in 325 CE aimed to establish a unified Christian doctrine, resulting in the formulation of the Nicene Creed1012. The Nicene Creed affirmed the concept of the Trinity—that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are three persons in one God—and condemned Arianism, which posited a hierarchical relationship between God the Father and Jesus12. Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE), a prominent Christian thinker, emphasized the need for both Christ's sacrifice and God's grace for salvation, arguing that this was necessary to remedy "original sin"1113. The Rise of Barbarian Kingdoms and Ruralization The lecture also examines the rise of "Barbarian" kingdoms and the process of ruralization in the West1415. The term "barbarian" was used by the Romans to refer to various groups outside the empire, including Germanic, Hunnic, and Celtic peoples14. The Goths and Huns played significant roles in the late Roman Empire16. The mistreatment of Gothic refugees in 376 CE led to the Visigothic Rebellion, culminating in the Battle of Adrianople in 378 CE, where the Roman Emperor Valens was killed16. The Visigoths later sacked Rome in 410 CE16. Ulfilas (c. 311-383 CE), a Gothic missionary and bishop, translated the Bible into the Gothic language, demonstrating the spread of Christianity and literacy among "barbarian" groups1617. The deposition of the last Roman emperor in the West, Romulus Augustulus, in 476 CE by Odoaker marked a turning point17. Odoacer became the first Barbarian king of Italy, although he was later succeeded by Theodoric the Great, who ruled the Ostrogothic Kingdom from Ravenna17. By 500 CE, a new equilibrium emerged, with Barbarian kingdoms adopting Roman institutions, absorbing Roman elites, and issuing legal codes15. A significant development during this period was the decline of urban centers and the rise of rural society in the West15. This shift was driven by economic factors, as overburdened landowners in towns defaulted on their taxes, leading to a decline in urban revenue and a shift of population and resources to rural areas. The Church in the West The Church played a crucial role in the transition from late antiquity to the early Middle Ages, particularly in the West18. Bishops and monasteries acquired significant landholdings and influence18. Monasteries, which originated from the eremitical tradition of individuals retreating into solitude for prayer and meditation, became centers of learning and preservation of texts, especially in rural contexts1819. The Rule of St. Benedict of Nursia (480-547 CE) established guidelines for monastic life, emphasizing communal living, a structured daily routine centered around prayer and work, and the copying of sacred texts19. The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire In contrast to the West, the Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, remained relatively stable and centralized19. Theodosius I (r. 379-395 CE) made Christianity the official state religion and adopted the Nicene Creed as orthodox, banning pagan cults20. Following Theodosius I's death, the Roman Empire was permanently divided in 395 CE, with his son Arcadius ruling the East and Honorius ruling the West21. Theodosius II (r. 408-450 CE) issued the Codex Theodosianus, a compilation of Roman laws, and focused on strengthening the defenses of Constantinople rather than intervening in the West after the Visigothic sack of Rome in 410 CE21. Emperor Justinian I (r. 527-565 CE) sought to restore Roman authority in the West, reconquering parts of North Africa and Italy22. He also codified Roman law in the Codex Justinianus and oversaw the construction of iconic structures such as the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople2223.