Ethnographic Research PDF

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH ‘Ethnographic research is the product of multiple practices. It is an assemblage of seeing and looking, hearing and listening, handling objects, describing, interviewing, recording, reading, documenting, and working with data—transcribing, storing, tran...

ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH ‘Ethnographic research is the product of multiple practices. It is an assemblage of seeing and looking, hearing and listening, handling objects, describing, interviewing, recording, reading, documenting, and working with data—transcribing, storing, transforming, sharing, labelling, coding, sequencing, comparing, interpreting, visualizing, and quoting…’ (Ploder & Hamann, 2021; p. 3)  Overview of today’s class - Defining ethnographic research as a qualitative approach - Brief overview of the different types of ethnographic approaches - Data collection, data analysis, and the write-up of your findings  ETHNOGRAPHY ◼ The word Ethnography comes from: ◼ Ethnos = (Greek for) “nation” or “closely knit group” ◼ Graph = Something “written” or “recorded”  ETHNOGRAPHY What is Ethnography? ◼ Aims for detailed, rich cultural description and interpretation of contextual meaning of experience ◼ Useful for gaining understanding of complexities of sociocultural groups; Ethnography provides a broad description, moving to a narrow view ◼ Ethnography was first used in cultural anthropology, but has grown in use to include other disciplines e.g., psychology, sociology, education etc. WHAT IS ETHNOGRAPHY? ◼ Initially Ethnography was used only in longstanding cultural groups (e.g., San people of Kalaharari); however, more recent use of Ethnography has shifted to include other contexts e.g., work environments, primary- or highschool classrooms, violent adolescent groups, and internet-based communities. ◼ Ethnography methods allow for flexibility to obtain information, which can be an advantage or disadvantage. It is an advantage to the experienced researcher who knows what to look for, but a disadvantage to the novice who may be overwhelmed by unimportant details  THE ELEMENTS OF AN ETHNOGRAPHY STUDY Ethnographic study involves doing the following: 1. The researcher looks in depth at an entire group which shares a common culture. 2. Researcher becomes part of the social environment, i.e. studies the group in its natural setting for a lengthy period of time, often several months or several years. E.g., Mary Ainsworth Ethnographic study of childrearing in Uganda; observations of mother-infant interactions for months* 3. Focus is on everyday behaviour of the group with the aim of identifying recurring patterns of behaviour, cultural norms, beliefs, social structures etc. ,whether explicit or implicit ETHNOGRAPHY Explicit = i.e., behavior that is easily observed, or readily acknowledged by group members Implicit = i.e., those beliefs/assumptions with a below-the-surface, taken-for-granted quality that group members may not be consciously aware of. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 1) REALIST ETHNOGRAPHY 2) CASE STUDY 3) CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY 1) REALIST ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDY ◼ Involves writing the objective, unbiased account in the third person ◼ Data is not overshadowed by biases, political goals, or judgements ◼ Interpretations are based on notes from participant views ◼ The researcher takes the perspective of “Looking from the outside in.”  2) CASE STUDY - A case study involves ◼ the study of a program, a group, or even activities of an individual ◼ in-depth exploration of an actual case ◼ extensive data collection ◼ NB – It differs from the normal definition of Ethnographic Study ✔ i.e. focuses on an individual rather than a group ✔ Focuses on activities of the group vs shared patterns of behavior ✔ Normally doesn’t identify a cultural theme, but focuses on in-depth study of the case TYPES OF CASE STUDIES ❑ 3 Types of case studies Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies ◼ Intrinsic case study – involve the study of unusual cases which have merit. For example – The case of "Genie" is an example. The study wasn't so much about psychology, but about Genie herself, and how her experiences shaped who she was.  TYPES OF CASE STUDIES ◼ Instrumental case study – Serves the purpose of illuminating a case, i.e., the purpose is to explore general areas to understand ◼ Collective case studies – multiple cases are studied and compared to offer insight into an issue For example, Psychologists might be interested in exploring how access to resources within a specific community has affected the general mental wellbeing of community members. 3) CRITICAL ETHNOGRAPHY ◼ Advocates to emancipate those who are marginalised in society ◼ Studies social power & empowerment – e.g. inequality, repression, dominance etc. ◼ The researcher is reflexive and self-aware of their role, and is no longer an objective observer EXAMPLE ◼ Michael Cole and John Gay (1966): Spent several years working among a rural Liberian community, mainly rice farmers. ◼ Wanting to really understand why rural Liberian children performed so badly in mathematics, they “made the commonsense assumption” that they needed to start out by finding out how the ideas considered to be mathematics arise in the everyday activities of children and the intellectual tools which they have developed in dealing with problems of a mathematical nature. ◼ “This work produced examples of performance on psychological tests modelled after everyday practices of unschooled Liberian rice farmers where the rice farmers outperformed Yale undergraduates.” Critical = the study targeted the misconceptions about mathematical abilities of non-European (African) populations, and to bring out the true nature of their intellectual capabilities (a form of emancipation)..  ETHNOGRAPHY - METHOD Field work - ◼ Site-based fieldwork is the essence of ethnography i.e. info is collected through fieldwork ◼ Types of data Emic – provided by the participant Etic – based on researcher’s observations, interpretations etc. Negotiation – applies to data which both participant and researcher agree to use in the study ETHNOGRAPHY - METHOD Gaining access to fieldwork: 1. First step is to gain access to a site that can answer the researcher’s general research problem or question. ▪ Researchers should ideally be a stranger to the site. ▪ The researcher must identify a gatekeeper Gatekeeper - A person who provides access, or a smooth entrance into the site e.g. studying a gang or organisation 2. After gaining entry into the site, the researcher must establish rapport with and gain the trust of the people being studied. ▪ Researcher must be open and honest about why he/she is there as informed consent is important.  ETHNOGRAPHY – METHOD ◼ Methods of data collection may include interviews, observations, surveys, tests etc. ◼ Participant observation- In some Ethno. studies, Researcher becomes immersed in the daily life of the people. An advantage is that the researcher may gain insights about the group and its behaviours that could not be obtained any other way. A disadvantage is that he/she may become so emotionally involved and lose the ability to assess the situation accurately. o The researcher may even ‘go native’ by joining the group and therefore becoming unable to complete the study. ETHNOGRAPHY – DATA ANALYSIS ◼ Data collection and analysis occur simultaneously. ◼ The analysis proceeds in a sequence including description, analysis and interpretation. 1. Description – Info collected is organised into a logical structure. Strategies for organizing and describing data include: ✔ Describing events in a chronological order ✔ Describing a typical day in the life of the group/ individual within the group ✔ Focus on a critical event for the group* ✔ Developing a story, complete with plot and characters ETHNOGRAPHY – DATA ANALYSIS 2. Analysis – data is analysed according to meanings: patterns, regularities (consistencies) and critical events are identified. 3. Interpretation – General nature of the group is inferred from the categories, meanings, and patterns identified in Step 2.  ETHNOGRAPHY – DATA ANALYSIS NB – ◼ Total objectivity is almost impossible and may be undesirable. ◼ Wilcott (1994) “The researcher must strive for ‘Rigorous subjectivity’…. i.e., should aim for balance, fairness, completeness, and sensitivity in the final analysis and interpretation of the data.” ◼ Researcher must: ◼ “Continually acknowledge to self and others, that personal attitudes and opinions are inevitably creeping into and biasing observations and interpretations.” (Leedy & Ormond, 2013, p. 144). ETHNOGRAPHY – RESEARCH REPORT ❑ Information to include in an ethnographic study: ✔ An introduction that provides a rationale and context for the study. ✔ A description of the setting and methods ✔ An analysis of the group studied ✔ A conclusion  REFERENCES ◼ Cresswell, J.W. (2014). Educational Research: Planning, conduction and evaluation quantitative and qualitative, 5th Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. ◼ Ethnographic Research. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z2UyJWwOWnA (Retrieved: 27/08/2018) ◼ Sheehan, S. (2014). A Conceptual Framework for Understanding Transcendental Phenomenology Through the Lived Experiences of Biblical Leaders. Emerging Leadership Journeys. 7(1), 10-20.