Ethics 111 Prelims Reviewer PDF

ETHICS 111 - PRELIMS WEEK 1 – Introduction to Ethics Ethics: Branch of philosophy; philosophical enterprise that investigates and questions the way of human actions. involves systematizing, defending, and...

ETHICS 111 - PRELIMS WEEK 1 – Introduction to Ethics Ethics: Branch of philosophy; philosophical enterprise that investigates and questions the way of human actions. involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior; principles that govern right and wrong behavior CODE OF ETHICS – set of ethical guidelines that is universally recognized. Morality: Can be a body of standards or principles. Derived from a code of conduct from a particular philosophy, religion, or culture. Can also derive from a standard that a person believes. MORAL COMPASS – serves as our internal guide, towards ethical choices. o Consist of values, beliefs, and principles that shape our behavior ETHICS MORALITY The word Ethics originated from Greek word The word Morals originated from the Latin word ethos. The meaning of ethos is character Mos. The meaning of Mos is custom. (characteristic), customs, usage Legal guidelines and professional rules govern When it comes to acceptability of Morality it ethics. The acceptability of ethics is confined within transcends the norms laid down by culture. a particular space and time frame. Ethics are dependent on the prism of others. Morality is seen from the perspective of an individual. If the contexts are different then the ethics could be Change in Morality depends on the change in the different, hence there is some degree of flexibility beliefs of an individual. in ethics. Ethics are followed because the society has Morality is followed because a person believes that decided that it is the right course of action it is the right course of action. A person who follows ethical principles need not There could be situations where ethics are violated necessarily have strong moral values; there are by a moral person to maintain his moral values. even possibilities that he may not have any morals. Ethics is usually associated with the fields of law, Morality has a religious connotation medicine, or business. It does not have a religious connotation. ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING involves systematic process; ensure our decision is grounded in ethics and contribute to a positive impact. ZJMG 1 The systematic process includes: 1. identifying the problem, 2. gathering information, 3. evaluating options 4. making a choice CHALLENGES IN ETHICAL DECISION MAKING Ethical decision-making can be challenging due to conflicting values, uncertainty, and external pressures. It requires us to navigate through moral dilemmas and find a balance between different ethical considerations. Understanding these challenges empowers us to make ethical choices even in difficult situations [week 1 from another source] THE MEANING OF ETHICS AND MORALS ETHICS Definition: Branch of philosophy studying ideal human behavior and ways of being. Variability: Approaches vary among philosophers over time. Example: o Aristotle’s View: Ideal behaviors lead to eudaimonia (high well-being). o Kant’s View: Ideal behavior is acting in accordance with duty and autonomy. Application: Systematic approach to understanding right vs. wrong, good vs. bad. Ethics is an Active Process: Often called “doing ethics.” Reasoning: Ethical positions require logical, theoretically based arguments. MORALS Definition: Specific beliefs and behaviors derived from ethical analysis. Subjectivity: Influenced by culture, religion, and individual factors. Emotions: Play a role but should be balanced with reason. Historical Examples: Actions justified by morals may later be shown as misguided. Judgment: Morals are evaluated as good or bad based on systematic ethical considerations. Immorality: Behavior opposing accepted ethical standards (e.g., dishonesty, fraud, murder, sexually abusive acts). Amoral: Actions lacking concern for good behavior. o For example, murder is immoral, but if a person murders with absolutely no sense of remorse or maybe even a sense of pleasure, the person is acting in an amoral way. Nonmoral: Acts where moral standards don’t apply (e.g., breakfast choices). ZJMG 2  UNETHICAL Behavior contrary to admirable traits or endorsed codes of conduct. ETHICS MORALS - often happen in philosophy classrooms or - about the choices we make and how we treat scholarly debates others - Ethics aims for universal principles that - vary across cultures and personal contexts— apply across cultures means cultural - External standards (society, religion, - Internal—it reflects our personal philosophy) shape ethical principles. convictions - Ethical theories (like utilitarianism or - Guides everyday actions and shapes our deontology) provide decision-making character frameworks - can evolve over time - may be less flexible—it’s deeply ingrained FEATURES THAT DISTINGUISH ETHICS FROM MORALS, BASED ON BILLINGTON’S (2003) INSIGHTS: 1. Inevitability: o Ethics: No one can avoid making ethical decisions because our social connections necessitate considering moral and ethical actions. o Morality: Similarly, moral decisions are unavoidable—they always involve other people. 2. Social Context: o Ethics: Ethical choices are inherently social; they impact others. o Morality: Other people are always involved in our moral decisions. 3. Private Morality: o Ethics: Ethics doesn’t exist in isolation; it’s a shared framework. o Morality: Private morality isn’t a standalone concept—it’s intertwined with our interactions. 4. Impact: o Ethics: Every decision affects someone else’s life, self-esteem, or happiness. o Morality: Our moral choices matter—they ripple outward. 5. Debates and Uncertainty: o Ethics: Ethical debates rarely yield definite conclusions or resolutions. o Morality: In the realm of morals, certainty is elusive. 6. Choice and Judgment: o Ethics: Sound ethical judgment requires options—a choice among alternatives. o Morality: Moral reasoning helps us discern the right actions. ZJMG 3  TYPE OF ETHICAL INQUIRY 1. Normative Ethics: o Focus: Normative ethics aims to prescribe values, behaviors, and character traits as right or wrong. o Questions: It asks how humans should behave, what actions are appropriate in specific situations, and what character traits are desirable. o Outcomes: Normative ethics leads to accepted moral standards and codes. 2. Common Morality: The common morality consists of widely agreed-upon normative beliefs and behaviors. o Forms what we can think of as universal morality o Examples: Beliefs like “robbing a bank and murder are wrong” fall within the common morality. 3. Particular Moralities: o Distinct from Common Morality: These are specific moral norms and codes adhered to by particular groups (e.g., professional nurses). o Content-Heavy: Particular moralities are context-specific and detailed. o Example: The Code of Ethics for Nurses emphasizes compassion and specific obligations toward patients. 4. Meta-Ethics: o Focus: Meta-ethics explores the language of morality and the meaning of ethical concepts. o Analysis: It delves into questions about the meaning of terms like “good,” “happiness,” and “virtuous character.” o Example: A nurse engaging in meta-ethical analysis might explore what constitutes a “good nurse-patient relationship.” 5. Descriptive Ethics: o Scientific Inquiry: Descriptive ethics aims to describe what people think about morality and how they behave (their morals). o Research Context: It’s used in scientific research or when describing professional moral values and behaviors. o Example: Research on nurses’ attitudes regarding truth-telling in terminal illnesses. ETHICAL PERSPECTIVES 1. Ethical Relativism 2. Ethical Objectivism ZJMG 4  ETHICAL RELATIVISM Definition: Ethical relativism asserts that differences in ethics and morality are acceptable among individuals or societies. Types: 1. Ethical Subjectivism: Individuals create morality; there are no objective moral truths—only individual opinions. 2. Cultural Relativism: Moral evaluation is rooted in a particular culture’s experience, beliefs, and behaviors. What’s wrong in one culture may not be so in another. ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM: Belief Basis: Morality depends on personal feelings rather than systematic analysis. Acceptance of Differences: Ethical subjectivists accept variations in opinions and feelings about right and wrong. CULTURAL RELATIVISM: Definition: Cultural relativism ties moral evaluation to a specific culture’s context. Caution: Extreme cultural relativism can be dangerous, potentially supporting harmful actions. Example: Some groups consider female circumcision acceptable, while it’s considered a grave violation by most countries and cultures. ETHICAL OBJECTIVISM Ethical Objectivism: Definition: Ethical objectivism asserts that universal or objective moral principles exist. Belief Basis: Many philosophers and healthcare ethicists adhere to this view, albeit to varying degrees. Examples of Objectivist Theories: 1. Deontology: Focuses on duty, rules, and moral absolutes. 2. Utilitarianism: Emphasizes maximizing overall happiness or utility. 3. Natural Law Theory: Derives moral principles from human nature and natural order. Overlap and Complexity: Mutual Exclusivity: While some see these theories as distinct, they often overlap in practice. Holistic Moral Judgment: Moral decisions consider principles, character, intentions, cultural values, circumstances, and consequences. ZJMG 5  VALUES AND MORAL REASONING Values and moral reasoning in nursing fall under the domain of normative ethics; that is, professional values contained in the Code of Ethics for Nurses guide nurses in how they ought to be and behave. Values: Definition: Values are things of worth or high regard. Evaluative Judgments: They reflect what individuals consider good or desirable. Influence on Behavior: Our values shape personal character and guide our thoughts and actions. Professional Values: These are outlined in codes of ethics, such as the ANA’s Code of Ethics for Nurses. Integration: Professional and personal values should be integrated. Reasoning: Abstract Thought Processes: Reasoning involves creative thinking, problem-solving, and strategy formulation. Critical Evaluation: It requires assessing beliefs and ideas independently, not merely accepting them. Moral Reasoning: Specifically focuses on ethical issues. Nursing Context: Nurses engage in moral reasoning within their daily interactions with patients and colleagues. MORAL REASONING THROUGHOUT WESTERN HISTORY Historical Variability: Different historical periods emphasized varying values and worldviews. Moral reasoning adapted to cultural shifts, philosophical developments, and societal changes. Cycles and Revivals: Sometimes, what was old resurfaces as new. An example is the renewed interest in virtue ethics—a return to reasoning based on good character. Virtue Ethics: Definition: Virtue ethics focuses on cultivating virtuous character traits. Emphasis: Rather than strict rules or consequences, it emphasizes personal excellence and moral virtues. Ancient Roots: Virtue ethics has ancient origins, particularly in Greek philosophy (e.g., Aristotle). Modern Revival: In recent times, scholars and ethicists have revisited virtue ethics as a valuable approach. Moral reasoning is dynamic, and influenced by context, culture, and philosophical trends. ZJMG 6  ANCIENT GREECE The evolution of moral reasoning throughout Western history, focusing on ancient Greece and the contributions of notable philosophers: 1. Socrates (c. 469-399 B.C.E.) 2. Plato (c. 429-347 B.C.E.) 3. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) SOCRATES (C. 469-399 B.C.E.): Promoter of Moral Reasoning: Socrates encouraged critical thinking and moral reflection among the citizens of Athens. Socratic Method: He developed the Socratic method—a dialogue-based approach to questioning assumptions and exploring deeper truths. Unexamined Life: Socrates famously stated that “the unexamined life is not worth living.” Controversy and Execution: His teachings upset the sociopolitical status quo, leading to accusations of corrupting youth. He chose death (by drinking hemlock) over compromising his beliefs. PLATO (C. 429-347 B.C.E.): Student of Socrates: Plato was deeply influenced by Socrates. Two Realms of Reality: ▪ Realm of Forms: Plato believed in an eternal, unchanging realm of perfect “Forms” (ideal copies) that transcended time and space. ▪ Physical World: The physical world was a mere reflection of these Forms. Philosophical Legacy: Plato’s works, including “The Republic,” explored justice, ethics, and the ideal state. Tripartite Soul: Plato proposed that humans have three parts to their soul—Reason, Spirit, and Appetite—each influencing behavior differently. Allegory of the Cave: Plato’s famous allegory prompts reflection on closed minds and flawed reasoning. ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.E.): Student of Plato: Aristotle studied under Plato but diverged in his philosophical views. Empirical Approach: ▪ Aristotle emphasized empirical observation and practical reasoning. ▪ He believed that knowledge arises from experience and the study of the natural world. ▪ He also believed that all things have a purpose or end goal (telos) Virtue Ethics: ▪ Aristotle’s virtue ethics focused on cultivating virtuous character traits. ZJMG 7  ▪ He emphasized eudaimonia (flourishing or well-being) achieved through moral excellence. ▪ His work “Nicomachean Ethics” remains influential. Phronesis (Practical Wisdom): Aristotle believed in practical wisdom for deliberating about what is good and advantageous. It involves knowing how to act in specific situations and embody excellence of character. THE MIDDLE AGES Period: After the fall of the Roman Empire (c. 476 C.E.) until about 1500 C.E. End of Intellectualism: The golden age of intellectualism and cultural progress in Western Europe ended. Dominance of Christianity: o Christianity became the dominant religion in Western Europe. o The Catholic Church took on the powerful role of educating the European people. o Christianity is a monotheistic (one God), revelatory religion. Contrast with Greek Philosophy: o Ancient Greek philosophy was based on reason and polytheism (many gods). o Greek philosophy was considered heretical and its examination was discouraged during the Church-dominated Middle Ages. Influence of Catholic Saints: o St. Augustine (354-430 C.E.): ▪ Often considered the Plato of the Middle Ages. ▪ Believed in a heavenly place of unchanging moral truths, similar to Plato’s realm of ideal Forms. ▪ Moral truths are imprinted by God on the soul of each human being. ▪ Duty to love God and moral reasoning should direct one’s senses in accordance with that duty. ▪ Evil is present only when good is missing or perverted from its existence as an ideal Truth. ▪ Famous work: The City of God. ▪ Compared the fall of the Roman Empire to Plato’s worlds of Forms and Appearances. ▪ People who live according to the spirit live in the City of God (world of perfection/Forms). ▪ People who live according to the flesh live in the City of Man (world of imperfection/Appearances). ZJMG 8  ▪ Divine aid of grace is needed to bridge the gap to have a relationship with God. o St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274): ▪ Influenced by Aristotle’s ethical teachings. ▪ Tried to reconcile Aristotle’s teachings with the teachings of the Catholic Church. The Crusades: o Influenced Europe’s exodus from the Dark Ages. o Christians reintroduced to intellectualism, including texts of the ancient Greeks, especially Aristotle, when they entered Islamic lands such as Spain, Portugal, and North Africa. Sure! Here’s the information in bullet format, including important details: The Middle Ages Time Period: After the fall of the Roman Empire (c. 476 C.E.) until about 1500 C.E. End of Intellectualism: The golden age of intellectualism and cultural progress in Western Europe ended. Dominance of Christianity: o Christianity became the dominant religion in Western Europe. o The Catholic Church took on the powerful role of educating the European people. o Christianity is a monotheistic (one God), revelatory religion. Contrast with Greek Philosophy: o Ancient Greek philosophy was based on reason and polytheism (many gods). o Greek philosophy was considered heretical and its examination was discouraged during the Church-dominated Middle Ages. Influence of Catholic Saints: o St. Augustine (354-430 C.E.): ▪ Often considered the Plato of the Middle Ages. ▪ Believed in a heavenly place of unchanging moral truths, similar to Plato’s realm of ideal Forms. ▪ Moral truths are imprinted by God on the soul of each human being. ▪ Duty to love God and moral reasoning should direct one’s senses in accordance with that duty. ▪ Evil is present only when good is missing or perverted from its existence as an ideal Truth. ▪ Famous work: The City of God. ZJMG 9  ▪ Compared the fall of the Roman Empire to Plato’s worlds of Forms and Appearances. ▪ People who live according to the spirit live in the City of God (world of perfection/Forms). ▪ People who live according to the flesh live in the City of Man (world of imperfection/Appearances). ▪ Divine aid of grace is needed to bridge the gap to have a relationship with God. o St. Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274): ▪ Influenced by Aristotle’s ethical teachings. ▪ Tried to reconcile Aristotle’s teachings with the teachings of the Catholic Church. The Crusades: o Influenced Europe’s exodus from the Dark Ages. o Christians reintroduced to intellectualism, including texts of the ancient Greeks, especially Aristotle, when they entered Islamic lands such as Spain, Portugal, and North Africa. Aristotle’s Philosophy: o Believed in moving toward an end goal or dynamic state of eudaimonia (happiness or well- being). o Emphasized the cultivation of excellent intellect and moral character. Aquinas’ Adaptation: o Expanded Aristotle’s concept of perfect happiness to include knowledge and love of God and Christian virtues. o Replaced Aristotle’s virtue of pride with the virtue of humility. o Valued humility as it represented dependence on the benevolence of God. o Associated with reasoning according to the natural law theory of ethics. MODERN PHILOSOPHY AND THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT Period of Modern Philosophy: o Began as the influence of the Catholic Church diminished. o The influence of science began to increase. Scientific Revolution: o Began in 1543 with the Copernican theory. o Advanced significantly in the 17th century with Kepler and Galileo. New Freedom in Moral Reasoning: o Based on people being autonomous, rational-thinking creatures. ZJMG 10  o Less influenced and controlled by Church dogma and rules. 18th-Century Enlightenment: o Humans believed they were emerging from the darkness of the Middle Ages into the light of true knowledge. o Some scientists and philosophers believed in the potential for human perfection and the discovery of all knowledge. Empirical Science and Reductionism: o Compare the universe and people to machines. o Belief that the world and human behavior could be reduced to parts. o Reductionists hoped to predict and control the universe and human behavior. o Evidence of this thinking persists in healthcare, where cure is often valued over care. Mechanistic vs. Humanistic/Holistic Approaches: o Mechanistic Approach: Focuses on fixing problems as if fixing a machine. o Humanistic/Holistic Approach: Acknowledges well-being and health as complex and sometimes unpredictable. David Hume (1711-1776): o Proposed the distinction between facts and values in moral reasoning. o Known as the fact/value distinction or is/ought gap. o Argued that one cannot logically derive an ethical judgment (what ought to be) from a fact (what is). o Example: ▪ Fact: All dogs have fleas. ▪ Fact: Sara is a dog. ▪ Value Judgment: Sara ought not to sleep on the sofa because having fleas on the sofa is bad. o Hume’s position suggests that determining the value judgment is based on feelings, not facts. Care-Based Versus Justice-Based Reasoning Care Approach: o Often associated with a feminine way of thinking. o Focuses on interpersonal relationships and helping others. Justice Approach: o Usually associated with a masculine, Enlightenment-era way of thinking. o Emphasizes fairness, rights, and abstract principles. ZJMG 11  Lawrence Kohlberg’s Research (1981): o Studied moral reasoning based on 84 boys over 20 years. o Defined 6 stages of moral development from childhood to adulthood. o Did not include women in his research but expected his scale to apply to both genders. Application to Women: o Women seemed to score only at the third stage of Kohlberg’s sequence. o Third stage describes morality in terms of interpersonal relationships and helping others. o Kohlberg viewed this stage as somewhat deficient in mature moral reasoning. Carol Gilligan’s Critique: o Raised concerns about gender bias in Kohlberg’s research. o Published In a Different Voice (1982), arguing that women’s moral reasoning is different but not deficient. o Distinguished between Kohlberg’s male-oriented ethic of justice and her own more feminine ethic of care. Learning from History Hindsight Analysis: o People often analyze historical eras in hindsight to understand the convergence of norms and beliefs. o These norms and beliefs are held in high esteem or valued by large groups within a society. Influences of Historical Eras: o Historical influences build upon each other and are often hard to separate. o Christians still base much of their ethical reasoning on Middle Ages philosophy. o Individualistic thinking from the Enlightenment era remains popular today, especially in Western societies where autonomy (self-direction) is highly valued. Pattern of Values: o Varied historical influences have created a rich and interesting pattern of values, perspectives, and practices. o These influences are evident in the globally connected world today. Ethical Theories and Approaches Function: o Normative ethical theories and approaches serve as moral guides to answer questions like “What ought I do or not do?” and “How should I be?” o They provide guidance in moral thinking and reasoning. o They also offer justification for moral actions. ZJMG 12  Scope: o Theories and approaches discussed are not all-inclusive. o They do not necessarily include all variations of the theories and approaches. Sure! Here’s the information in bullet format, including important details: Western Ethics: Virtue Ethics Watch your thoughts; they become words. Watch your words; they become actions. Watch your actions; they become habits. Watch your habits; they become character. Watch your character; it becomes your destiny. - FRANK OUTLAW Focus: o Emphasizes the excellence of one’s character and considerations of what sort of person one wants to be. o Contrasts with focusing on duties or consequences of actions. Virtues (Arête): o Refers to excellence in persons or objects being the best they can be by their purpose. o Example: A knife’s virtue is its sharp edge that cuts well. Human Virtue Ethics: o Addresses the question: “What sort of person must I be to be an excellent person?” o Virtues are habitual, excellent traits developed throughout one’s life. o A virtuous person is an excellent friend, thinker, and citizen. Aristotle’s Approach: o Grounded in two categories of excellence: intellectual virtues and character (moral) virtues. o Intellectual virtues come from teaching and experience. o Character virtues result from habituation with mindful attention to excellent habits. Interconnection of Virtues: o Intellectual and character virtues cannot be distinctly separated. o Excellence of character and wisdom are interdependent. Golden Mean: o Virtues exist as a moderate way of being between two extremes (vices). o Example: Courage is a virtue, with rashness and cowardice as its related vices. ZJMG 13  o Truthfulness is the mean between boastfulness and self-deprecation. Examples of Virtues: o Benevolence, compassion, fidelity, generosity, patience. Plato’s Cardinal Virtues: o Prudence (wisdom), fortitude (courage), temperance (moderation), and justice. o All other virtues hinge on these primary four. o Prudence corresponds to the Faculty of Reason. o Fortitude corresponds to the Faculty of Spirit. o Temperance corresponds to the Faculty of Appetite. o Justice encompasses and ties together the other three virtues. Virtue Ethics: Other Philosophers David Hume (1711-1776): o Believed virtues flow from a natural human tendency to be sympathetic or benevolent. o Virtues are human character traits admired by most people and judged to be generally pleasing. o Virtues are useful to others, oneself, or both. o Associated with utilitarianism due to the focus on the usefulness of virtues. o Ethics based on emotion as the primary motivator for admirable behavior, rather than reason. o Virtuous behavior is validated by community consensus on what is useful for the community’s well-being. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900): o Proposed a radical view of virtue ethics based on the “will to power.” o Believed the best character is motivated by achieving dominance in the world. o Strength is praised as virtuous, while “feminine” virtues like caring and kindness are seen as weaknesses. o Virtue is consistent with hierarchical power, making the Christian virtue of humility a vice. o Nietzsche’s philosophy influenced figures like Adolph Hitler. o Nietzsche’s approach has little place in nursing ethics. Decline and Revival of Virtue Ethics Decline in Interest: o Virtue ethics experienced a significant decline among Western philosophers and nurses. o Enlightenment-era emphasis on individualism and autonomy contributed to the decline. Florence Nightingale’s Influence: ZJMG 14  o Nightingale’s view of virtues in nursing included the virtue of obedience. o Obedience was seen as unfashionable over time. o Nightingale’s liberal education in Greek philosophy influenced her use of obedience, reflecting Aristotle’s practical wisdom. o Nightingale’s conception of obedience is now understood as intelligent obedience, not subservient allegiance to physicians. Natural Law Theory Historical Background: o Dates back to the work of Plato and Aristotle. o Modern versions are based on the religious philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas. Core Belief: o The rightness of actions is self-evident because morality is inherently determined by nature, not by customs and preferences. o The law of reason is implanted in the order of nature, providing rules or commands for human actions. Ambiguity of Terms: o Terms like “nature” and “natural” are ambiguous and can be interpreted in various ways. Difference from Divine Command Theory: o Divine Command Theory: An action is good because a divine being (e.g., God) commands it. o Natural Law Theory: A divine being commands an action because it is moral, irrespective of the divine being’s command. Association with Judeo-Christian Ethics: o Often associated with rule-based Judeo-Christian ethics. o Basis for religious prohibitions against acts considered unnatural, such as homosexuality and the use of birth control. Sure! Here’s the information in bullet format, including important details: Deontology Definition: o Literally means the “study of duty.” o Focuses on duties and rules. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): o Most influential philosopher associated with deontological thinking. ZJMG 15  o Defined a person as a rational, autonomous being with the ability to know universal, objective moral laws. o Believed people have the freedom to decide to act morally. Kantian Deontology: o Each rational being is ethically bound to act only from a sense of duty. o Consequences of one’s actions are considered irrelevant when deciding how to act. o Moral actions are those motivated by duty, not by love or emotion. o Rational choice is within one’s control, unlike personal emotions. Respect for Persons: o People are ends in themselves and should be treated accordingly. o Each person has dignity and is due respect. o One should never use others as a means to personal ends. o Example: Failing to obtain informed consent from a research participant. Types of Duties: o Hypothetical Imperative: ▪ Optional duties or rules to achieve certain ends. ▪ Conditional actions (if-then imperatives). ▪ Example: “If I want to become a nurse, then I have to graduate from nursing school.” o Categorical Imperative: ▪ Absolute and unconditional duties. ▪ Universal maxims or rules to guide moral actions. ▪ One should act according to a categorical imperative and ask: “If I perform this action, could I will that it should become a universal law for everyone to act in the same way?” ▪ Example: One should never tell a lie because it cannot be a universal law. Examples of Categorical Imperatives: o Never tell a lie. o Suicide is never acceptable because it cannot be rationally wished as a universal action. Consequentialism Definition: o Consequentialists consider consequences to be an important indication of the moral value of one’s actions. Utilitarianism: ZJMG 16  o Most well-known consequentialist theory of ethics. o Actions are judged by their utility, i.e., the usefulness of their consequences. o Aim to promote the greatest good (happiness or pleasure) and produce the least harm (unhappiness, suffering, or pain). o Belief in achieving “the greatest good for the greatest number” of people affected by an action. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832): o Early promoter of the principle of utilitarianism. o Contemporary and associate of Florence Nightingale’s father. o Developed a theory to achieve a fair distribution of pleasure among all British citizens. o Created a systematic decision-making method using mathematical calculations. o Method aimed to allocate pleasure and diminish pain by measuring intensity and duration. o Criticized for equating all types of pleasure as being equal. Historical Context: o During Bentham’s life, British society functioned according to aristocratic privilege. o Poor people were mistreated and had to work long hours in deplorable conditions. John Stuart Mill Challenge to Bentham: o John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) challenged Jeremy Bentham’s views. o Pointed out that experiences of pleasure and happiness have different qualities. o Different situations do not necessarily produce equal consequences. Higher vs. Lower Pleasures: o Higher intellectual pleasures (e.g., enjoying art or a scholarly book) are better than lower physical pleasures. o Only humans possess the mental faculties to enjoy higher levels of happiness. Quality over Quantity: o Happiness and pleasure are measured by quality, not quantity (duration or intensity). o Mill’s philosophy focuses more on ethics than politics and social utility. o Each person’s happiness is equally important. Community Agreement: o Communities usually agree on what is good and what promotes the well-being of most people. ZJMG 17  o Example: Mandatory vaccination laws limit individual liberties to protect society from diseases, resulting in greater overall happiness. Guidance from Traditions: o Mill’s utilitarian theory uses widely supported traditions to guide decisions about rules and behaviors. o Example: The maxim that stealing is wrong. Types of Utilitarianism Rule Utilitarianism: o Believes in following certain rules (e.g., do not kill, do not break promises, do not lie) that generally create the best consequences for most people. o Difference from deontology: Utilitarian theories focus on achieving good consequences, while deontologists focus on right duty. Act Utilitarianism: o Each action in a particular circumstance should be chosen based on its likely good consequences. o Focuses on the utility of each action in achieving the most happiness. o Permits promise-breaking if it causes more happiness than suffering in a particular situation. o Rule utilitarians would uphold a promise because promise-keeping generally causes more happiness than suffering. Prima Facie Rights Definition: o Prima facie means “on the face of things” or accepted as correct until shown otherwise. Example: o Promise-keeping is an accepted ethical rule. o A nurse promises to be on time for dinner but stays at the hospital to attend to patients when the replacement nurse is late. Associated Philosopher: o Sir William David Ross (1877-1971). o Known for his 1930 book, The Right and the Good. o Called an ethical intuitionist. Ross’s Beliefs: o Certain things are intrinsically good and self-evidently true. o Prima facie good actions include keeping promises, repaying kindnesses, helping others, and preventing distress. ZJMG 18  Conflict of Prima Facie Duties: o When prima facie good actions conflict, one must decide where one’s actual duty lies. o Human knowledge is imperfect, so people must use their imperfect knowledge to assess each situation and make informed judgments. Relevance to Nursing: o Nurses frequently make quick determinations to prioritize important actions. o These decisions can cause distress for one person while helping another. PRINCIPLISM Principlism: An approach in ethics that uses principles as the basis for ethical decision-making. Principles: Rule-based criteria for conduct derived from obligations and duties. Deontology: A theory that is a precursor to principlism, focusing on duties and rules. Key Principles: o Beneficence: Doing good and acting in the best interest of others. o Autonomy: Respecting an individual’s right to make their own decisions. Applications: Principles are often used in ethical documents and declarations. o Examples: ▪ “The Patient Care Partnership” by the American Hospital Association (2003). ▪ The Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations (1948). Field of Bioethics: Principlism is particularly popular in bioethics for addressing ethical issues in healthcare and medical research. CASUISTRY Casuistry: An approach to ethics with roots in Judeo-Christian history. Decision-Making: o Inductive: Based on individual cases. o Paradigm Cases: Analysis of similar or outstanding cases guides decisions. Approach: o Bottom-Up: Starts with specific case details rather than applying absolute rules. Historical Context: o Jewish Tradition: Practical, case-based relevance of sacred laws. o Catholic Practice: Individual confession and personal penance for absolution. Modern Application: o Healthcare Ethics Committees: Use casuistry to analyze specific patient cases. ZJMG 19  o Four Topics Method: An ethical decision-making method based on casuistry. NARRATIVE ETHICS Narrative Ethics: A story-based approach to ethics. Similarities to Casuistry: Both focus on individual cases and context. Connection to Virtue Ethics: Closely linked to virtue ethics and human relationships. Alasdair MacIntyre’s View: o Humans are “story-telling animals.” o People are “tellers of stories that aspire to truth.” Impact of Narratives: o Stories, such as novels and fables, influence moral education and character development. o Narratives change us in significant ways. Approach in Ethics: o Storied View of Life: Sensitivity to how personal and community stories evolve and can be changed. o Context-Bound: Decisions are made based on the context of specific situations. Interconnected Stories: o Personal life narratives intersect with the stories of others. o People create their own stories through interactions and choices. Application in Nursing: o Nurses use narrative ethics to understand and influence patients’ unfolding life stories. o Nurses' actions impact patients’ stories in both large and small ways. Focus on Patients: o Narrative ethics emphasizes the importance of patients’ stories. o Critical reflection is necessary; no single story should be accepted without scrutiny. CRITICAL THEORY Critical Theory: Also known as critical social theory, it addresses domination and oppression by powerful groups. Origins: Developed by a group of German philosophers. Purpose: To promote human emancipation and liberate people from oppressive circumstances. Core Assumptions (Brookfield, 2005): 1. Inequality in Democracies: Western democracies are highly unequal, with economic inequity, racism, and class discrimination being real issues. ZJMG 20  2. Dominant Ideology: This inequality is maintained and normalized through the dissemination of dominant ideology. 3. Understanding for Change: Critical theory aims to understand these inequalities as a necessary step towards changing them. Application in Nursing: o Feminist Approach to Ethics: A widely used critical theory in nursing. o Ethics of Care: Originated from the Gilligan-Kohlberg debate, focusing on care and relationships in ethical decision-making. FEMINIST ETHICS AND EASTERN ETHICS Feminist Ethics Focus: Evaluate ethical situations through the lens of gender. Political Connotation: Addresses women’s oppression by dominant social groups, especially powerful men. Ethic of Care: o Grounded in women’s moral experiences and feminist ethics. o Gained popularity from the Gilligan-Kohlberg debate on moral reasoning differences between genders. o Emphasizes traditionally feminine traits: love, compassion, sympathy, and concern for others’ well-being. o Accepts natural partiality in caring more for some people than others. o Recognizes the role of emotions as a complement to rational thinking. Distinction: Differs from ethic of justice and duty-based ethics that prioritize reason over emotion. Eastern Ethics Intertwined with Philosophy: Ethics is often indistinguishable from general Eastern philosophies. Comparison with Western Ethics: o Both examine human nature and well-being. o Western ethics focuses on self-direction and personal understanding. o Eastern ethics focuses on universal interconnections, liberation from the self, or the non- existence of self. Theological Perspectives: o Western ethics often involves belief in human flaws needing an intermediary (God). o Eastern ethics emphasizes innate but unrecognized perfection and self-transcendence. Internal Discipline: Ethics is imposed from within oneself, focusing on mind training. ZJMG 21  Karmic Results: Unethical behavior leads to consequences based on the universal law of cause and effect. Major Systems: o Indian Ethics: Hinduism and Buddhism. o Chinese Ethics: Taoism and Confucianism. INDIAN ETHICS: HINDUISM AND BUDDHISM Hinduism Ancient Ethical System: Originated with the Vedas (c. 2000 to 1000 B.C.E.). Main Emphasis: Cosmic unity. Key Concepts: o Reincarnation: People are stuck in Maya, an illusory, impermanent experience. o Karma: The quality of past actions influences present and future existences. o Moksha: Liberation where the soul becomes one with the cosmic self (atman) and the absolute reality (Brahman). Buddhism Founder: Siddhartha Gautama (6th century B.C.E.), a Hindu prince. Core Teachings: The Four Noble Truths. o First Noble Truth: Suffering (dukkha) exists in all forms of existence. o Second Noble Truth: The cause of suffering is attachment to impermanent things. o Third Noble Truth: Suffering can be transcended (enlightenment). o Fourth Noble Truth: The path to enlightenment is the Eightfold Path. Eightfold Path: Right View, Right Thinking, Right Mindfulness, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Diligence, Right Concentration, Right Livelihood. Virtue Ethics: Central place of virtues in Buddhist philosophy. o Four Immeasurable Virtues: Compassion (karuna), loving-kindness (metta), sympathetic joy (mudita), equanimity (upekkha). CHINESE ETHICS: TAOISM AND CONFUCIANISM Taoism Founder: Lao-tzu (c. 571 B.C.E.). Key Text: Tao Te Ching. Core Concept: Tao (way or path) - the natural order or harmony of all things. Perspective: o No belief in a creator God. ZJMG 22  o Humans and nature’s purposes are inseparable. Philosophy: o Emphasizes the flux and balance of nature through yin (dark) and yang (light). o Ethical living means living authentically, simply, and unselfishly in harmony with nature. Confucianism Founder: K’ung Fu-tzu (Confucius) (551-479 B.C.E.). Teachings: Contained in moral maxims and sayings attributed to Confucius and his followers. Core Concepts: o Li: Guidance on social order and human relationships, including etiquette and social rituals. o Yi: Importance of motivations toward achieving rightness, rather than focusing on consequences. Virtues: o Jen: Benevolence or human goodness. o Emphasizes sincerity, teamwork, and balance. Ethical System: o Communitarian, valuing social goals, the good of society, and human relationships. KEY POINTS: Ethics vs. Morals: o Ethics: Analysis of right and wrong. o Morals: Actual beliefs and behaviors. o Terms often used interchangeably. Values: o Judgments about what is good or desirable. o Influence character development and behavior. Normative Ethics: o Decides or prescribes values, behaviors, and ways of being. o Questions: How ought humans behave? What should I do? What sort of person should I be? Ethical Thinking: o Falls along a continuum between ethical relativism and ethical objectivism. Historical Study: o Useful for understanding values and moral reasoning in the 21st century. o Specific values and moral reasoning tend to overlap and converge over time. ZJMG 23  Virtue Ethics: o Emphasizes the excellence of one’s character. Deontological Ethics: o Emphasizes duty over consequences. Utilitarian Ethics: o Emphasizes consequences in achieving the most good for the most people. Eastern Philosophies: o Often inseparable from systems of ethics. WEEK 2 INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS AND CONTRIBUTION 1. The Moral Aspect of Human Existence 2. Value Judgments Beyond the Scope of Ethics 3. 2 Approaches in Ethic THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF HUMAN EXISTENCE Ethics as a subject for us to study is determining the grounds for values with particular and special significance to HUMAN LIFE VALUE JUDGMENTS BEYOND THE SCOPE OF ETHICS Value Judgments: Not all value judgments are part of ethics. Examples include: 1. AESTHETIC VALUATION 2. TECHNICAL VALUATIONS 3. MORAL VALUATION AESTHETIC VALUATIONS Aesthetic considerations and questions of etiquette are important facets of human life but do not necessarily translate into genuine ethical or moral value. Choice of Clothing: The choice of clothing, such as wearing spaghetti straps for women or shorts for men inside a church, is generally a question of aesthetics and taste. Cultural Differences: In some cultures, clothing choices can have severe consequences. For example, in Afghanistan in the 1990s under Taliban rule, women were required to wear full-body burqas, and violations could result in severe punishment. Sure, here is the information in bullet format: TECHNICAL VALUATIONS o The English terms “technique” and “technical” come from the Greek word “techne,” which denotes the correct or proper method of performing tasks. o It is important to note that a technical assessment, representing the right or wrong approach to doing things, might not inherently align with ethical considerations. ZJMG 24 MORAL VALUATIONS o They involve valuations that we make in a sphere of human actions, characterized by certain gravity and concern for human well-being and human life itself. o Matters that concern life and death, such as war, capital punishment, or abortion, and matters that concern human well-being, such as poverty, inequality, or sexual identity, are often included in discussions of ethics. NORMATIVE AND NON-NORMATIVE ETHICS Normative Ethics Evaluative Approach: Formulates principles, rules, and standards to guide human conduct. General Normative Ethics: Focuses on philosophical attempts to defend basic moral principles and virtues. Ethical Theories: Includes theories like utilitarianism, natural law theory, deontology, and virtue ethics. Applied Ethics: Uses principles from general normative ethics to address specific moral problems in fields like medicine and nursing. Non-Normative Ethics Descriptive Approach: Describes actions, practices, and events without evaluating them as right or wrong. Descriptive Ethics: Reports and explains moral behavior and beliefs, such as Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. Meta-Ethics: Analyzes the nature of ethical language and moral reasoning. 3 MAIN BRANCHES OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY OF ETHICS 1. META-ETHICS 2. NORMATIVE ETHICS 3. APPLIED ETHICS META-ETHICS Meta-ethics consists of the attempt to answer the fundamental philosophical questions about the nature of ethical theory itself. Examples: Nature of Ethical Statements: Are ethical statements like “lying is wrong”, or "friendship is good" true or false? o Cognitivism: Moral judgments can be true or false. o Non-cognitivism: Moral judgments are not true or false; they are like commands or interjections. Truths of Morality: What makes moral truths true? o Subjectivism: Moral truths depend on individual attitudes, values, desires, and beliefs. o Objectivism: Moral truths are based on facts independent of individual attitudes, values, desires, and beliefs. ZJMG 25  Meaning of Ethical Discourse: What makes ethical discourse meaningful? How do the rules of logic apply to ethical arguments and reasoning? Source of Moral Knowledge: o What is the source of our knowledge of moral truths? Is it based on reason, intuition, scientific experimentation, or something else? o What is the connection between morality and religion? If God exists, is God’s will the basis of morality? Can there be morality if God doesn’t exist? NORMATIVE ETHICS Study of what makes actions right or wrong, situations good or bad, and people virtuous or vicious. 1. AXIOLOGY: Study of goodness and badness. Some theories: Hedonism: Pleasure and absence of pain are the only intrinsic goods. Desire Satisfactionism: Satisfaction of desires is the only intrinsic good. Non-naturalism: Goodness is a simple, irreducible property. 2. NORMATIVE ETHICS OF BEHAVIOR: Study of right and wrong actions. Some theories: Egoism: An action is right if it has the best consequences for the person doing it. Utilitarianism: An action is right if it produces the best balance of goodness over badness for everyone involved. Kantian Deontology: An action is right if it can be consistently willed as a universal law. 3. VIRTUE THEORY: Study of what makes a person’s character morally praiseworthy. APPLIED ETHICS Consists of the attempt to answer difficult moral questions in real-life scenarios, such as abortion, euthanasia, and the death penalty. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NORMATIVE ETHICS AND APPLIED ETHICS Normative Ethics Applied Ethics Studies what features make an action right or Attempts to figure out, in actual cases, whether or wrong. not certain acts have those features. Example: If we agree that slavery is wrong but Example: If we agree that morality is whatever disagree about what makes it wrong, this is a produces the best consequences but disagree matter of normative ethics. about whether the death penalty produces the best consequences, this is a matter of applied ethics. GOAL OF AXIOLOGY Study of Value: Axiology examines what makes things good (valuable) or bad (invaluable). Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Good: o Intrinsic Good: Good in itself (e.g., pleasure). o Extrinsic Good: Good because it leads to other good things (e.g., money). ZJMG 26  Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Bad: o Intrinsic Bad: Bad in itself (e.g., pain). o Extrinsic Bad: Bad because it leads to other bad things (e.g., drug use). Complex Goods and Bads: o Some things can be both intrinsically and extrinsically good or bad (e.g., pleasure from unprotected sex, pain from exercise). Related Questions: o Comparison of different kinds of pain or pleasure. o Relationship between goodness and badness. GOAL OF THE NORMATIVE ETHICS BEHAVIOR Primary Question: What makes actions right or wrong? Act Types vs. Act Tokens: o Act Type: A category of actions (e.g., jaywalking). o Act Token: A specific action performed by a specific person on a specific occasion. (e.g. my act of jaywalking across North Pleasant Street on my way to campus this morning at 10:37 am is an act token) Conditions for Moral Rightness: o Theories focus on conditions under which an act token is morally right or wrong. o Conditions may refer to the type or types the token is an instance of. Interconnected Terms: o Right: Morally permissible or acceptable. o Wrong: Not morally right. o Obligatory: Morally wrong not to do. Criterion of Moral Rightness: o Sufficient Condition: If X, then Y (e.g., being a thief is sufficient for being a criminal). o Necessary Condition: Y cannot occur without X (e.g., being 35 years old is necessary to be US President). Examples of Criteria for Rightness: o 10C: Does not violate the Ten Commandments. o GR: Treats others as one would like to be treated. o GHP: Leads to the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Counterexamples: ZJMG 27  o A criterion may not be sufficient or necessary for morality, showing problems for a given criterion. DIFFERENCES OF ETHICS, META-ETHICS, AND APPLIED ETHICS Normative Ethics Focuses on creating theories that provide general moral rules governing behavior. Examples include Utilitarianism and Kantian Ethics. The normative ethicist is like a referee who sets up the rules for how the game is played. Meta-ethics Studies how we engage in ethics. The meta-ethicist is similar to a football commentator, judging and commenting on how the ethical game is played. They do not advance practical arguments but analyze the meaning and appropriateness of ethical language. Applied Ethics Studies how we should act in specific areas of our lives. Deals with issues like meat-eating, euthanasia, or stealing. The applied ethicist is like a football player who kicks the philosophical football around, offering arguments to change our moral views in specific areas. ZJMG 28  WEEK 3 SOURCES OF AUTHORITY External Authority Origin: Derived from societal norms, legal systems, religious doctrines, or cultural traditions. Influence: Guides behavior through external rules, regulations, or expectations, often driven by fear of punishment or societal approval. Internal Authority Origin: Stems from an individual’s values, conscience, and sense of morality. Influence: Guides behavior based on personal convictions, moral values, and ethical beliefs, driven by an internal moral compass. EXTERNAL AUTHORITY 1. LAW (STATE) 2. RELIGION (FAITH) 3. CULTURE Law (State) o Law refers to a system of rules, regulations, and principles established by a governing authority (such as a government) to regulate the behavior of individuals and groups within a society. o "Not all legal is moral, and not all moral is legal." o Examples: ▪ Abortion may be permitted by law in the United States, but the Catholic Church considers it immoral. ▪ Expressing one’s opinions freely is against the law in North Korea, but it is generally considered morally right. Religion (Faith) o Religion is a set of organized beliefs, practices, and systems that most often relate to the belief and worship of a controlling force, such as a personal god or another supernatural being. o Religion often involves cultural beliefs, worldviews, texts, prophecies, revelations, and morals that have spiritual meaning to members of the particular faith. o Multiplicity of Religion: ▪ Polygamy is considered morally acceptable in Islam but is deemed immoral in Christianity. ▪ Eating dinuguan is considered immoral by certain religions but not Catholic. ZJMG 29  Culture o A set of beliefs, practices, and symbols that are learned and shared. Together, they form an all-encompassing, integrated whole that binds people together and shapes their worldviews and lifeways. o Cultural Relativism: 1. Aesthetic differences 2. Religious differences 3. Etiquette differences James Rachels (1941-2003) o Defines cultural relativism as the position that claims: ▪ “There is no such thing as objective truth in the realm of morality.” ▪ “There is no one correct moral code that all cultures must follow.” Eskimos and Infanticide o Infanticide was common among Eskimos. o Knud Rasmussen, an early explorer, reported meeting a woman who had borne 20 children but killed 10 at birth. o Female babies were especially likely to be killed, permitted at the parents’ discretion with no social stigma. o Elderly family members, when too feeble, were left out in the snow to die. Female Circumcision in Some Filipino Tribes o Female circumcision has been a source of enormous and bitter international controversy. o Viewed as a harmful and devastating procedure on women, becoming a public health concern in several countries. o In the Philippines, female circumcision is carried out by the Yakan tribe of Basilan. Rachels’ Three Absurd Consequences of Accepting Cultural Relativism Criticism of Other Cultures ▪ If cultural relativism was correct, one cannot criticize the practices or beliefs of another culture as long as that culture thinks it is correct. ▪ Example: Jews cannot criticize the Nazis’ plan to exterminate all Jews in World War II since the Nazis believed they were doing the right thing. Criticism of One’s Own Culture ▪ If cultural relativism was correct, one cannot criticize the practices or beliefs of one’s own culture. ▪ Example: Black South African citizens under apartheid could not criticize the official state position. ZJMG 30  Moral Progress ▪ If cultural relativism was correct, one cannot accept that moral progress can happen. ▪ Example: Recognizing women’s and children’s rights does not necessarily represent a better situation than before when societies refused to recognize these rights. Rachels believed that moral progress is possible and that societies can improve their moral standards over time. Accepting moral beliefs without questioning them can hinder this progress because it may prevent individuals from challenging and revising outdated or harmful moral norms. WHAT WE CAN LEARN FROM CULTURAL RELATIVISM Danger of Assumptions: Cultural Relativism warns against assuming all practices are based on absolute rational standards. Many customs are merely conventional. Funeral Practices Example: Different cultures have varying funeral practices, such as the Callatians eating their dead as a sign of respect, which contrasts with our customs. Monogamous Marriage: The ideal of monogamous marriage is questioned, with alternatives like extramarital flings or open relationships being suggested as potentially more fulfilling. Open-Mindedness: Cultural Relativism encourages keeping an open mind and recognizing that our feelings may be due to cultural conditioning. Strong Feelings and Challenges: As we grow up, we develop strong feelings about what is acceptable or outrageous. These feelings can be challenged, such as views on homosexuality. Antidote to Dogmatism: Cultural Relativism helps counter dogmatism by showing that our feelings may be due to cultural conditioning rather than truth. Broadened Perspectives: Realizing that our beliefs are culturally conditioned can help us be more open-minded and less defensive when our culture is criticized. The appeal of Cultural Relativism: Despite its shortcomings, Cultural Relativism is attractive because it highlights that many practices and attitudes are cultural products, encouraging openness to new ideas. Cultural Relativism vs. Universalism The debate between cultural relativism and universalism in the context of female genital mutilation (FGM). Cultural relativism argues that no culture is superior to another and that practices should be understood within their cultural context. Universalism, on the other hand, asserts that certain human rights are universal and should be upheld regardless of cultural practices. Health Risks of FGM FGM involves the partial or total removal of female genitalia for non-medical reasons, leading to severe health risks. These include: Immediate complications: Severe pain, shock, hemorrhage, infections, and injury to nearby organs. Long-term consequences: Chronic infections, cysts, infertility, complications in childbirth, and psychological trauma. ZJMG 31 Human Rights Violations FGM is a violation of several fundamental human rights as outlined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR): Right to health: Article 25, Section 1. Right to life, liberty, and security: Article 3. Freedom from cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment: Article 5. Potential Remedies Suggests that education and respectful dialogue are essential in addressing FGM. Rather than condemning the practice outright, it advocates for understanding the cultural context and educating communities about the health risks and human rights implications. This approach aims to foster change from within the community, respecting cultural practices while promoting health and human rights. “DIFFERENT CULTURES HAVE DIFFERENT MORAL CODES” Cultural Differences: Darius, a Persian king, observed that different cultures have distinct moral codes, such as the Callatians who ate their dead and the Greeks who practiced cremation. Eskimo Practices: Early 20th-century Eskimos had customs like polygamy, wife-sharing, and infanticide, which differed significantly from modern Western norms. Anthropological Insight: These examples illustrate that what is considered morally right in one culture can be seen as wrong in another, highlighting the diversity in moral beliefs across societies. Cultural Relativism in “The Elements of Moral Philosophy” Cultural Differences: Different cultures have different moral codes. Examples include the Callatians who ate their dead and the Greeks who cremated them. Cultural Relativism: This theory suggests that there are no universal moral truths, only various cultural codes. It challenges the objectivity and legitimacy of moral judgments. Consequences of Cultural Relativism: o We cannot criticize other societies’ customs. o We cannot criticize our own society’s code. o The idea of moral progress is called into doubt. Shared Values: Despite differences, some values like honesty and caring for children are shared by all cultures. Criticism of Cultural Practices: Practices like female genital mutilation can be judged by whether they promote or hinder human welfare, suggesting a culture-independent standard of right and wrong. INTERNAL AUTHORITY 1. SUBJECTIVISM 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM 3. ETHICAL EGOISM ZJMG 32  1. Subjectivism o The individual thinking person (the subject) is at the heart of all moral valuations. o The individual is the sole determinant of what is morally good or bad, right or wrong. o Senses of the Self ▪ "No one can tell me what is right and wrong." ▪ “No one knows my situation better than myself.” 2. Psychological Egoism o Human beings are naturally self-centered, so all our actions are always motivated by self- interest. o It is often confused with Ethical Egoism but is distinct because it describes how people behave, not how they should behave. o “All People are Selfish in Everything They Do.” 3. Ethical Egoism o We should make our own ends, our own interest, the single overriding concern. o An act is right for a person to perform if and only if that act is in the person’s best interest. o "We may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but we should do that only if it ultimately benefits us." ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST ETHICAL EGOISM Arguments for Ethical Egoism: 1. Altruism is Self-Defeating: o Familiarity with Personal Needs: Each person knows their own needs and desires best and is in the best position to pursue them effectively. o Privacy and Dignity: Helping others can be seen as intrusive and degrading, potentially harming their dignity and self-respect. o Better Outcomes: If everyone pursues their own interests, it could lead to better overall outcomes than if people tried to help others. 2. Ayn Rand’s Argument: o Value of the Individual: Altruism denies the value of the individual by suggesting that one’s life should be sacrificed for others. o Moral Superiority of Self-Interest: Ethical Egoism respects the individual’s life and projects, promoting a society where individuals are not treated as sacrificial animals. 3. Compatibility with Common-Sense Morality: o Derived Duties: Common moral duties like not harming others, telling the truth, and keeping promises can be derived from self-interest. ZJMG 33  o Golden Rule: Ethical Egoism can lead to the Golden Rule, as treating others well can result in them treating you well in return. Arguments against Ethical Egoism: 1. Endorsement of Wickedness: o Immoral Actions: Ethical Egoism could justify immoral actions if they benefit the individual, such as harming others for personal gain. 2. Logical Inconsistencies: o Contradictory Duties: If two people’s interests conflict, Ethical Egoism can lead to contradictory duties, making it logically inconsistent. 3. Arbitrary Nature: o Principle of Equal Treatment: Ethical Egoism arbitrarily values one’s own interests over others without a justified reason, similar to how racism unjustifiably values one race over another. WEEK 4 STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT LAWRENCE KOHLBERG Harvard Professor: Kohlberg was a professor at Harvard University, known for his work in moral education (theory of stages of moral development) Developmental Psychologist: Initially focused on developmental psychology before moving to moral education. Influences: His theory was influenced by: o Jean Piaget, Swiss psychologist o John Dewey, American philosopher, and o James Mark Baldwin Interested in how people develop a sense of right and wrong. Believed moral reasoning changes as we grow older and gain experience. Suggested that humans are intrinsically motivated to explore and become competent in their environments. Emphasized that our earliest references for right and wrong come from adult role models we regularly interact with. Research and Methodology: o Conducted extensive research on moral development. o Asked people of different ages to respond to moral dilemmas. o Famous scenario used in his research: the “Heinz dilemma.” ZJMG 34 THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Moral Development: It’s the gradual development of an individual’s concept of right or wrong, influenced by conscious, religious values, social attitudes, and behavior. Theory Moral Development: Kohlberg proposed that people progress through six stages of moral reasoning, grouped into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Six Stages: The theory includes six stages divided into THREE LEVELS: o Preconventional Morality (Stages 1-2): Focus on obedience and self-interest. o Conventional Morality (Stages 3-4): Emphasis on social approval and law/order. o Postconventional Morality (Stages 5-6): Based on social contracts and universal ethical principles. 6 KEY POINTS FROM LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Progression Through Stages: o One must progress through the stages in order. o Cannot reach a higher stage without passing through the preceding stage. o Moral development is like growth; it follows a pre-determined sequence (e.g., can’t walk before you crawl). Comprehension Limitations: o Subjects cannot comprehend moral reasoning more than one stage beyond their own. o Example: A child focused on self-satisfaction cannot understand concepts of good that don’t bring tangible pleasure. Attraction to Higher Reasoning: o Individuals are cognitively attracted to reasoning one level above their current stage. o Higher stage reasoning is more intelligible and resolves more difficulties, making it more attractive. Cognitive Disequilibrium: o Movement through stages occurs when cognitive disequilibrium is created. o When a person’s current cognitive outlook can’t cope with a moral dilemma, they seek more adequate solutions, prompting growth. Physical vs. Moral Maturity: o It’s possible to physically mature without morally maturing. o Example: A spoiled child who never accommodates others’ needs may not generate enough questions to propel moral growth. Minority of High-Level Thinkers: o Only about 25% of people reach the highest level (Level 6). ZJMG 35  o Level 6 thinkers might be misunderstood or persecuted by the majority at Level 4. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S 3 STAGES with 6 LEVELS OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Level Stage Meaning Examples - A child avoids taking a Stage 1: Obedience Moral reasoning is cookie because they fear Level 1: Pre- and Punishment based on avoiding punishment. - A child Conventional (Ages 2-4) punishment. follows the rules to avoid being scolded by parents. - A child helps a friend with Stage 2: Right behavior homework expecting the Level 1: Pre- Individualism and means acting in friend to help them in return. Conventional Exchange one’s own best (Ages 4-7) interests. - A child does a favor expecting a favor in return. Behavior is judged Stage 3: Good - A child behaves well to Level 2: by intention and Boy/Good Girl gain approval from parents Conventional the desire to be (Ages 7-10) and teachers. “nice.” - A teenager follows school Emphasis on rules because they believe in Stage 4: Law and maintaining order. Level 2: obeying laws and Order Conventional respecting - An individual follows laws (Ages 10-12) authority. strictly and respects authority. - A young adult supports laws that protect human Stage 5: Social Focus on the rights, even if it means Level 3: Post- Contract and common good and challenging existing laws. Conventional Individual Rights reasoning based on (Teens) principles. - An adult supports laws that benefit the majority but respects minority rights. ZJMG 36  Level Stage Meaning Examples - An adult acts based on Moral reasoning is principles of justice and Stage 6: Universal based on equality, regardless of the Level 3: Post- consequences. Ethical Principles internalized Conventional (Adult) principles and - A person follows their integrity. moral principles even if it conflicts with laws. From other sources… Level Stage Description Examples - I won’t cheat because I Stage 1: Decisions based on will get caught and get Preconventional Punishment and fear of detention. Obedience punishment. - I won’t steal because I will go to jail. - I will cheat because I will Decisions based on get a better score on the Stage 2: Individual exam. Preconventional rewards or Self-Interest personal gain. - I will help you if I get to play with your Wii. - I won’t cheat on the test Stage 3: Seeking because my parents will be Decisions based on ashamed of me. Approval or Conventional approval from Avoiding - I will give to charity close people. Disapproval because everyone will think highly of me. ZJMG 37  Level Stage Description Examples - You must not shoplift Decisions based on because it is illegal. Stage 4: Law and Conventional society’s rules and - We must follow the Order laws. workplace rules so there is order at the job. - Piracy of movies in China should not be done because it infringes upon Stage 5: Decisions based on intellectual property rights. Postconventional Interpretation of society’s rules are - Speeding laws are useful the Law viewed as fallible. in town, but in rural areas, they violate my freedom to choose the speeds I wish to drive. - Lying to the Nazis about the Jews in the basement is all right if it is going to Decisions are save an innocent life. Stage 6: Universal Postconventional based on universal Ethical Principles - Saving a life comes ethical principles. before financial gain, even if it is the person is a stranger. ZJMG 38  CRITICISMS OF KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Criticism Details Kohlberg’s early research was conducted with male subjects, and most Gender Bias dilemmas involve a male perspective. Carol Gilligan argues that his model is based on an ethic of individual rights, which is more common for men. The model reflects Western values of individual rights, harm, and justice, Cultural Bias which may not be universal. For example, a man in New Guinea said, “If no one helped Heinz, then we are all guilty of a crime.” It is easy to give a “highly moral reason” but engage in behavior that reflects a Behavior vs. lower level of moral reasoning. For instance, people may say education is Reasoning important but not fund it, or claim equality is important but give preference to certain groups. Justice The theory overemphasizes justice when making moral choices, potentially Overemphasis neglecting other factors like compassion, caring, and interpersonal feelings. ZJMG 39  WEEK 5: ETHICAL DILEMMA AND DECISION MAKING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MORAL ISSUE, MORAL DECISION, MORAL JUDGMENT, AND MORAL DILEMMA Concept Definition Example Situations often debated due to their Moral Issue Deciding whether to cheat on an exam. ethical implications. Moral Choosing an action when Deciding to steal food to feed a hungry Decision confronted with an ethical choice. child. Moral Assessing the actions or behavior of Judging someone for lying to protect a Judgment others. friend. Moral Being torn between two equally Choosing between saving one person or Dilemma compelling ethical choices. five in a runaway trolley scenario. ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING PROCESS Definition: Ethical decision-making involves considering ethical rules, principles, and guidelines to make decisions. Goals: Aim to benefit society, ensure fairness, and protect individual rights. 7-STEP MODEL FOR MORAL DECISION-MAKING Example: Example: Example: Step Description Trolley Footbridge Doctor Dilemma Dilemma Dilemma Five patients A trolley is A trolley is need Clarify the heading towards heading transplants, and 1. Gather Facts facts of the five workers, towards five one healthy case. with no lever to workers. patient divert. available. ZJMG 40  Example: Example: Example: Step Description Trolley Footbridge Doctor Dilemma Dilemma Dilemma State the ethical Saving five Saving five Saving five 2. Determine issues in terms lives vs. lives vs. lives vs. Ethical Issues of competing sacrificing one. sacrificing one. sacrificing one. interests. Identify moral 3. Identify values or Value of life, Value of life, Value of life, Ethical principles utilitarianism. utilitarianism. utilitarianism. Principles central to the case. Come up with 4. List various Pull the lever Push the man or Harvest organs Alternatives alternative or do nothing. do nothing. or do nothing. actions. Eliminate Pulling the Harvesting 5. Compare Pushing the man alternatives lever aligns organs aligns Alternatives aligns with based on moral with with with Principles utilitarianism. principles. utilitarianism. utilitarianism. Consider the 6. Weigh the consequences One death vs. One death vs. One death vs. Consequences of remaining five deaths. five deaths. five deaths. alternatives. Select the action that best Pull the lever Harvest organs 7. Make a Push the man to aligns with to save five to save five Decision save five lives. ethical lives. lives. principles. ZJMG 41  3 STEPS IN ETHICAL DECISION-MAKING Step Description Format Example A situation where an individual needs to make a choice but faces a 1. Identify conflicting situation Whether A or B Whether to cheat during the Moral between one or more (not)? exam or not? Problem alternatives because making a decision will violate some other moral principle(s). Option A: If I cheat: I Process of critically Option A: positive & will get high scores but I examining the moral negative will violate fairness and 2. Do Moral problem by evaluating consequences integrity. Analysis them in light of moral Option B: positive & Option B: If I do not principles, values, and negative cheat: I can uphold theories. consequences integrity and fairness but I will fail. Option A: I will cheat Selecting since I want to pass in the 3. Choose action/alternative that course. Option A or B, Moral best aligns with an (explain why?) Option B: I will not cheat Decision individual’s ethical principles. because I want to uphold