Ethics Finals Notes PDF

ETHICS FRANCESCA KARL MARX – German philosopher and A. Capitalism’s Uniqueness economist, best known for developing the theory...

ETHICS FRANCESCA KARL MARX – German philosopher and A. Capitalism’s Uniqueness economist, best known for developing the theory Involves capital (money) being of Marxism – critiques capitalism and advocates used to generate profit through for a classless, communist society commodity transformation Wrote influential works along with Friedrich B. Profit Explanation Engels, such as “The Communist Capitalists purchase labor power – Manifesto” and “Das Kapital” worker’s ability to labor He argued that history is driven by class Labor power’s cost is the value of struggle, particularly between the essential goods required for the bourgeoisie – capitalist class owning the worker’s survival means of product, and proletariat – Necessary labor – the portion of working class labor needed to produce value He believed that capitalism would equivalent to wages inevitably lead to its own destruction, Surplus labor – extra labor that giving way to socialism – means of requires surplus value – the source production are owned and managed by of all profit the government, and, eventually, Types of capital: communism – all means of production a. Variable capital – labor are communally owned; no private power, which creates property surplus value Economics b. Constant capital – I. Commodity Production machinery/materials, which Commodity – a useful external transfer existing value object produced for market III. Implications of Marx’s Analysis exchange A. Falling Rate of Profit A. Conditions Mechanization reduces labor input, Existence of a market for exchange lowering profit rates over time Social division of labor Leads to capitalism’s eventual (specialization motivates collapse exchange) B. Transformation Problem B. Dual Value Labor-intensive industries should a. Use-Value – the utility of a theoretically yield higher profits, but commodity empirically this isn’t true b. Exchange-Value – determined by Marx’s attempt to reconcile this the labor input required to produce (prive-value variations) faced the commodity technical difficulties C. Labor Theory of Value C. Criticism A commodity’s value is based on Lack of argument for labor’s unique socially necessary labor time – role in creating value average labor intensity and Alternate theories (e.g., corn theory productivity in the economy of value – labor, land quality, and For Marx, exchangeability implies a production costs determine the shared “third thing,” which he value of agricultural goods) could identifies as labor replace labor as the focal point II. Capitalism and Profit IV. Legacy of Marx’s Theory ETHICS FRANCESCA A. Class Conflict Allen Wood: “Justice is tied to Rejects harmony between workers historical context; capitalism and capitalists, emphasizing their cannot be critiqued as a whole opposing interests from outside its epoch” B. Market Dynamics Ziyad Husami: “Proletarian views – Denies long-run equilibrium (a ‘work for all’ and ‘feed all’ on justice state of intellectual or emotional align with communism, implying balance) in markets, describing Marx saw capitalism as unjust. cycles of boom and bust However, Marx avoided explicitly C. Modern Relevance stating this” Joan Robinson highlights Marx’s G. A. Cohen: “Marx may have insights into worker-capitalist unconsciously believed capitalism conflict and trade-cycle was unjust, revealed in his critical mechanisms as critical correctives language” to orthodox economics – the study D. Moral Critique of Capitalism of how people make decisions While Marx refrained from when faced with scarcity traditional moral critiques, he saw Morality capitalism as harmful to human A. Marx’s Ambiguous Stance on Morality flourishing (e.g., alienation, lack of Marx expressed disdain for fulfillment) capitalism and endorsed He avoided moral terminology, communism but avoided explicitly possibly to: labeling capitalism as “unjust” or a. Recognize capitalism’s communism as “just" historical role in enabling He deliberately distanced himself communism from moral discourse, reflecting his b. Distinguish his “scientific scientific rather than utopian socialism” from utopian socialist approach – early ideas of socialism socialism that focus on creating an E. Communism and Justice ideal, fair society, through peaceful Marx described communism as and cooperative means fulfilling needs and abilities, B. Key Questions on Marx’s Perspective resembling a theory of justice but Did Marx consider capitalism potentially transcending it unjust? Inspired by Hume, Marx suggested Could capitalism be morally that in a society with material criticized on other grounds? abundance or complete harmony, Did Marx view communism as just? justice becomes unnecessary Could communism be morally F. Ethical Appeal of Communism approved on other grounds? Communism promotes human C. Capitalism and Justice flourishing and aligns with the Marx argued that capitalism concept of living well exploits workers but did not label it Marx downplayed morality to unjust, considering justice an contrast with utopian socialists, ideological construct serving the emphasizing historical and social ruling class forces over moral ideals ETHICS FRANCESCA A. Affirmation of Life FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE — German philosopher Nietzsche celebrates “amor fati” known for his profound and provocative ideas (love of fate) and the acceptance that challenged traditional values, religion, and of life as it is morality Eternal recurrence – time is a “Yes, I am human, but am I humane never-ending loop; tests our ability enough?” to affirm life fully Some Nietzschean Values B. Critique of Morality Nietzsche avoids traditional systematic Nietzsche opposes Christian accounts of “the good” (e.g., pleasure, morality for negating life, tranquility, or morality) advocating instead for values that He values multiple principles without affirm earthly existence deriving them from a single foundation, C. Connection to Nihilism creating a complex axiological landscape Affirmation combats nihilism – – philosophical study of value rejects the idea that human I. Power and Life existence has meaning, morality, or A. Central Claim knowledge; by rejecting values that Power, life, strength, and health are devalue the world and articulating pivotal life-affirming alternatives Good – anything that heightens III. Truthfulness/Honesty power and the will to power A. Core Virtue Bad – anything born of weakness Honesty is crucial for affirming life B. Will to Power Doctrine authentically Life inherently aims to enhance B. Requirements power, associating power with Genuine affirmation demands a growth and overcoming resistance clear-eyed acceptance of reality, Early critiques misunderstood it as avoiding self-delusion or idealized “might makes right” falsehoods Modern interpretations highlight IV. Art and Artistry self-control and cultural excellence, Nietzsche believes that art is distinguishing between tyranny essential for living well because it (destructive) and mastery provides illusions that help us cope (constructive dominance) with harsh truths Scholars emphasize power as ○ “We possess art lest we overcoming resistance, connecting perish of the truth.” it to a creative reshaping of one’s Art offers a model for creating environment and countering value, teaching us to make life Schopenhauer’s pessimism – no more beautiful and desirable, even individual human actions are free in challenging situations Alternative views tie power to Nietzsche advocates giving artistic ethical naturalism – the idea that style to one’s life, transforming it only natural laws and forces exist in into something beautiful, the universe, suggesting growth meaningful, and admirable and expansion as intrinsic to life Art counteracts the unsettling II. Affirmation realization from science that ETHICS FRANCESCA human knowledge is rooted in Nietzsche values diverse delusion and error perspectives, asserting that ○ It provides a necessary multiple viewpoints enhance escape from the oppressive understanding and objectivity demands of complete This adaptability in values and honesty perspectives is equally important V. Individuality, Autonomy, “Freedom of for practical and moral Spirit” decision-making, promoting a Nietzsche praises individuality and richer, more nuanced engagement the freedom of the “free spirit” from with life societal, religious, and moral conventions MAX SCHELER – German philosopher known for True individuality is achieved his work in phenomenology, ethics, and sociology through self-determination and He is recognized for his exploration of self-governance values, emotions, and the human ○ Creating one’s own values experiencing, contributing significantly to and standing surety for the philosophy of personalism one’s future Emotions/feelings come first before Nietzsche opposes blind adherence thinking to external value systems, Catharsis – feeling of release/relief emphasizing the need for Others, Community, and Solidarity independent thought and I. Key Concepts self-created purpose A. No Problem of the Other Nietzsche’s ideal individuals give Scheler rejects the “other minds” themselves laws and rise above problem, asserting that ordinary existence, embodying his self-consciousness always exists concept of the with a communal context “overman/superman Experiencing oneself as a “member (übermensch)” – an ideal of totality” is fundamental, with individual who transcends ordinary communal experiences forming the human limitations and lives life with background of individual purpose, creativity, and consciousness self-mastery B. Primordial Background VI. Pluralism Experiences of community arise at Nietzsche promotes a pluralistic the affective level, preceding approach to values, rejecting the intellectual understanding idea of reducing all values to a Scheler’s “The Nature of Sympathy” single principle – outlines how shared feelings form While some values, like life the foundation of ethical intentions, affirmation, art and honesty, particularly love support one another, others, like II. Types of Shared Feelings honesty and artistry, are A. Feeling With (Miteinanderfühlen) – oppositional yet essential for a sharing the same feeling simultaneously, balanced life e.g., parents mourning their child together ETHICS FRANCESCA B. Vicarious Feeling (Nachfühlen) – b. Culture/People – grasping another’s emotions without truly bound by shared sharing them; foundational for empathy values and beliefs C. Fellow Feeling (Mitgefühl) – genuine c. Church – the sympathy or pity, where one feels for broadest, another and is often motivated to help encompassing all D. Psychic Contagion (Gefühlansteckung) – humanity as a “love losing oneself in the group’s emotions, e.g., community” joyous celebration or mob violence IV. Solidarity and Responsibility E. Identification (Einsfühlung) – losing the A. Dual Responsibility – responsibility for sense of self entirely, deeply inhabiting one’s actions and co-responsibility for another’s experience, e.g., mystical or others and the community hypnotic states B. Call to Love and Justice III. Social Unity and the Collective Person Evil in a community signifies Scheler identifies four types of insufficient love and shared communities based on shared responsibility to address and feelings and acts: prevent it A. Herd or Mass – formed V. Significance of Community through psychic contagion, The person is shaped and realized driven by irrational impulses within the communal context Can be liberating but Solidarity emphasizes love, justice, dangerous and the unique role of individuals in B. Life-Community improving their community (Lebensgemeinschaft) – Religious Experience bonds of solidarity based on I. Critique of Modernity co-feeling and shared Scheler critiques modernity for striving reducing valid experiences to those Responsibility is that can be rationally proven, collective, not deeply excluding religious experiences individual from meaningful consideration C. Society (Gesellschaft) – He contrasts his perspective with artificial, individual-focused the approaches of philosophers like relations based on utility Husserl and Heidegger, who focus Contracts rely on on bracketing out religious matters trust cultivated in in their phenomenology life-communities II. The Nature of Religious Experience D. Collective Person – a Religious experience – for Scheler, profound unity where it is a direct experience of the divine individuals are or the holy, revealed in a way that co-responsible for cannot be reduced to rational community actions explanation Types: He argues that the divine is a. State/Nation – manifest through revelation, not defined by national scientific or rational validation borders ETHICS FRANCESCA III. Three Essential Characteristics of contributing to a greater Religious Acts understanding A. World Transcendence – religious acts are While acknowledging potential directed toward something beyond the religious conflicts, Scheler highlights finite world, seeking meaning in the infinite the interconnectedness of the B. Infinite Objective Correlate – the object of modern world and the opportunity religious intention is the infinite; only the for greater understanding among divine can fulfill the religious quest faiths C. Assimilation of the Divine – the religious act is fulfilled when the divine is revealed in a personal and unique manner to the individual, distinguishing positive religion – specific, revealed, and communal; from natural religion – general, rational, and individualistic IV. Aufweis: The Truth of Religious Experience Aufweis – demonstration ○ Scheler introduces this concept to explain that the truth of religious experience cannot be rationally proven but is shown through the revelation of the divine Religious experience is not subjective or imagined; rather, it is a response to the givenness of the divine V. Human Beings as God-Seekers Scheler emphasizes that all humans are essentially God-seekers Even atheists engage in a religious act by negating the existence of the divine, thus showing the inherent tendency of humans to relate to the absolute VI. Religious Diversity and Its Significance Scheler discusses the diversity of religious experiences, suggesting that all religions offer unique glimpses of the holy These experiences are not contradictory but offer different perspectives on the divine,