ETHC 1013 Lesson 6: Schools of Thought PDF

ETHC 1013 Lesson 6: Schools of Thought 1. Idealism Core Idea: Reality is mentally constructed; it depends on the mind. Origin: Based on Plato’s concept that ideas are the ultimate reality, with the physical world being mere refl...

ETHC 1013 Lesson 6: Schools of Thought 1. Idealism Core Idea: Reality is mentally constructed; it depends on the mind. Origin: Based on Plato’s concept that ideas are the ultimate reality, with the physical world being mere reflections of these ideas. Explanation: Idealism posits that the mind or ideas form reality rather than a tangible, independent world. Types: Subjective Idealism: Reality is only as it is perceived by consciousness; the physical world is created by the mind. Reality is subjective, shaped by individual perception. Divine Idealism: The world exists within a divine mind or God, where reality is a manifestation of divine consciousness. Ontological Idealism: The universe is made up of ideas rather than matter. For example, numbers or scientific laws are seen as part of fundamental reality (e.g., E=MC² is an aspect of reality itself, not merely a description). Epistemological Idealism: Whether a physical world exists is secondary, as knowledge is fundamentally processed and understood through the mind’s structure. Comparison: Idealism contrasts with materialism, which argues reality is made of matter, and rationalism, which emphasizes reason as the primary path to knowledge. Notable Figures: Plato: Believed in a “perfect realm” of ideas, with the physical world as a shadow. ETHC 1013 1  Immanuel Kant: Developed Transcendental Idealism, emphasizing that knowledge originates from phenomena organized by mental categories. George Hegel: Promoted Absolute Idealism, stating that reality and ideas are identical and all knowledge is a system of ideas. 2. Realism Core Idea: Reality exists independently of the human mind and perceptions. Origin: Aristotle’s philosophy; Realism posits a tangible, material reality. Explanation: Realists assert that the external world exists independently of our thoughts and perceptions. Knowledge comes through empirical observation and sensory experience. Comparison: Realism contrasts with idealism, which asserts that reality is mentally constructed. Realism focuses on material objects, while idealism focuses on ideas as the foundation of reality. Notable Concepts: Realism aligns with empiricism (knowledge through sensory experience), rejecting the idea that perception creates reality. Materialism opposes Idealism, viewing matter as the basis of all existence. Key Figures: Aristotle, who argued that reality is external, objective, and can be understood through sensory perception. 3. Pragmatism Core Idea: Truth is practical, determined by its outcomes and usefulness. Origin: Founded by Charles Sanders Peirce and further developed by William James and John Dewey. Explanation: Pragmatism values ideas that are practical, beneficial, workable, and useful. An idea is true if it produces positive outcomes and can be effectively applied. Truth is not static but constantly evaluated based on results. Pragmatic Ethics: Moral decisions are judged by practicality and benefits. For example, pragmatism might argue that aborting a deformed fetus could be moral if it prevents suffering for both the child and parents. In pragmatic ETHC 1013 2  ethics, an action’s morality depends on its practical outcomes, rather than fixed principles. Key Figures: Charles Sanders Peirce: Introduced pragmatism, emphasizing practical implications of beliefs. William James: Suggested that ideas are true if they work in real life. John Dewey: Advocated that ideas are meaningful if they serve as instruments to achieve goals (Instrumentalism). 4. Existentialism Core Idea: Individuals create their own values and meaning through personal choice in an indifferent world. Origin: Developed from the writings of Jean-Paul Sartre. Explanation: Existentialism focuses on personal freedom, authenticity, and the creation of meaning. People define their own values without relying on objective standards. Existentialists reject social restrictions that limit free will and personal growth. Existential Crisis: Occurs when someone’s personal identity is challenged (e.g., an athlete faces an existential crisis if an injury ends their career). Key Figures: Jean-Paul Sartre emphasized individual choice and personal responsibility in defining one’s reality. Lesson 7: Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics Core Idea: Happiness (Eudaimonia) is achieved through virtuous actions and developing good character. Explanation: Aristotle believed that human life aims for Eudaimonia, or “living well.” Virtue Ethics focuses on cultivating a virtuous character to achieve happiness, emphasizing the development of practical wisdom over strict adherence to rules. Key Concepts ETHC 1013 3  Eudaimonia (Human Flourishing): The ultimate goal of human life, defined as a life lived in accordance with virtue and reason. It is about achieving personal fulfillment and striving for excellence. Function Argument: Each being has a unique function; for humans, this is the use of reason. Happiness is reached by fulfilling this rational function in line with virtue. Virtue as a Mean: Virtue lies between extremes; for example, courage is a balance between recklessness and cowardice. Golden Mean: A virtuous action is the balanced, moderate choice between excess and deficiency. Moral and Intellectual Virtues: Moral Virtues: Include courage, temperance, and generosity, developed through habit and practice. Intellectual Virtues: Governed by prudence (good judgment), helping one to reason and act virtuously. External Goods and Happiness: Aristotle argued that happiness is supported by external goods (e.g., friends, wealth). A lack of these can hinder one's ability to live virtuously over time. Virtue Development Practical Wisdom (Phronesis): This form of wisdom helps individuals judge and choose the right actions, guided by experience and habituation. Virtues List: Aristotle outlined virtues such as courage, temperance, magnanimity, right ambition, friendliness, and justice. Habituation: Virtue is developed by consistently practicing virtuous actions. Acting virtuously becomes second nature over time, forming a stable and reliable character. Self-Control and Temperance: Temperate Person: Harmonizes reason and desire, choosing good actions naturally. Self-Controlled Person: Manages desires despite conflicting urges, guided by right reason. ETHC 1013 4  Weakness of Will (Akrasia): Occurs when one fails to control desires against better judgment. Nicomachean Ethics Purpose: To understand what constitutes the “good life” for humans, defined as an activity of the soul in line with reason and virtue. Virtue and Practical Wisdom: Aristotle reasoned that virtue is about becoming a good person through practical wisdom rather than merely following rules. A virtuous person acts rightly and achieves Eudaimonia. Key Figures & Terms Eudaimonia: A well-lived life, defined by hard work, personal achievement, and growth, not simply pleasure or happiness. Practical Wisdom: The intellectual virtue that enables one to apply moral virtues wisely in each situation. Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics proposes that moral character and personal growth are fundamental to achieving happiness. Through continuous practice and self- improvement, one can live a fulfilling and ethical life. Lesson 8: Thomas Aquinas on Natural Law Introduction to Natural Law Definition: Natural Law is the inherent order within creation that guides humanity towards God (often referred to as Likas na Dapat). Historical Background: Natural Law has origins in Ancient Greece and is rooted in both philosophy and the Bible. In Romans 1:20, it’s noted that the understanding of God can come through observing nature. Thomas Aquinas and Natural Law Background: ETHC 1013 5  Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), known as “the dumb ox” for his quiet demeanor, is a pivotal figure in Catholic theology. He integrated Aristotle’s philosophy with Christian theology, using Aristotle’s concept of teleology (purpose or end-goal) and linking it to God’s purpose. Main Ideas: Final Causes: Aquinas believed that all creatures have a natural purpose or end, assigned by God, which they naturally seek. Human Nature and Reason: Humans uniquely have rationality, allowing them to understand and follow Natural Law. Key Features of Aquinas’s Natural Law Theory 1. Divine Providence: Natural Law is part of God’s eternal law, guiding the universe with a divine plan. 2. Practical Rationality: Natural Law provides the foundational principles of right and wrong. These principles are: Universally binding: Applicable to all humans due to our shared nature. Knowable by nature: Humans can recognize these principles intuitively through reason. Basic Principles of Natural Law: “Good is to be done and pursued, and evil avoided.” Natural Law aligns human actions with intrinsic goods such as life, knowledge, and community. Two Interpretations of Natural Law 1. Order of Nature: Source: Moral norms are “written” in nature itself. Knowledge: Derived from observing natural processes. Key Figures: Stoics (3rd century BC): Emphasized harmony with nature. ETHC 1013 6  Ulpian (228 AD): Defined jus naturale (natural law) based on shared instincts between humans and animals. 2. Order of Reason: Source: Moral norms are derived from human reason and relationships. Knowledge: Rational judgment of what promotes human well-being. Key Figures: Aristotle: Suggested that morally good actions are directed toward fulfilling human potential. Cicero (43 BC): Natural Law stems from rational human nature, guiding us toward right actions. The Role of Natural Law in Contemporary Issues In Church Teachings: Order of Nature: Enforced in doctrines against practices like artificial contraception and same-sex relations (e.g., Casti Connubii, Humanae Vitae). Order of Reason: Allows for decisions in modern ethical contexts (e.g., ending disproportionate medical treatment as per Gaudium et Spes). Aquinas’s Basic Goods and Natural Law 1. Self-Preservation: The instinct to survive. 2. Reproduction: Instilled by God for continuation of the species. 3. Education of Offspring: Essential for preparing future generations. 4. Seek God: Humans have an innate desire for God. 5. Live in Society: Humans are social beings by nature. 6. Avoid Offense: Humans instinctively seek approval within their community. 7. Shun Ignorance: A natural desire for knowledge and understanding. These basic goods shape laws and moral behavior, with each good corresponding to specific actions, both positive (to pursue the good) and negative (to avoid harm). ETHC 1013 7  Arguments For and Against Natural Law Proponents argue that Natural Law is objective and foundational, offering universal moral principles. Critics (e.g., David Hume) challenge it, stating that just because something “is” does not mean it “ought” to be. Natural Law also raises questions on issues like reproduction, where some may feel not all must or can reproduce. Modern Relevance of Natural Law Debates continue on whether Natural Law can address current issues like transgender rights, artificial contraception, and IVF. Figures like Pope Paul VI have rejected IVF, while others argue it fulfills a natural desire to parent. Summary of Aquinas’s Paradigmatic View on Natural Law 1. Given by God, binding for all, and knowable by nature. 2. Prioritizes “good” over “right,” guiding humans toward inherent goods. 3. Accepts universal principles but acknowledges the need for situational wisdom. Aquinas’s Natural Law theory remains influential, especially in religious and ethical discussions, promoting a moral framework based on rational pursuit of basic human goods. Module 9: Immanuel Kant’s Ethics (Deontological Ethics) Introduction to Kantian Ethics Kantian ethics is based on deontology (duty-based ethics), where morality is determined by motives and duties rather than consequences. Kant argued that actions are morally right when performed out of respect for moral law. Good Will: For Kant, "good will" is the only thing inherently good, meaning the will that acts from duty. Good will aligns with moral law without being influenced by personal desires or outcomes. ETHC 1013 8  Background Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): A significant Enlightenment philosopher, Kant’s ethics focused on rational principles that could serve as universal laws for moral conduct. The Categorical Imperative: Kant’s central ethical concept, suggesting that morality consists of universal, absolute duties that apply to everyone. Core Concepts of Kantian Ethics 1. Universalizability Principle: According to Kant, moral actions must be universalizable, meaning that one’s action should be permissible for everyone in similar situations without leading to contradictions. Example: Stealing cannot be morally justified because if everyone stole, the concept of property would become meaningless, causing a contradiction. 2. Moral Consistency: Kant’s ethics prohibits making exceptions for oneself. For instance, if one lies to benefit personally, it implies lying is acceptable universally, which would lead to social disorder as trust would erode. 3. Elvira and Tony Thought Experiment: In a hypothetical scenario, if Elvira lies to a murderer to protect her friend Tony but the lie accidentally leads to his death, Kant holds her morally responsible. This is because her lie violated the universal moral law, and according to Kant, only the murderer would be at fault if Elvira had told the truth. Thus, lying is prohibited even to save a life, demonstrating Kant’s strict adherence to duty. 4. Second Formulation of the Categorical Imperative: This principle states, “Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end, and never as a mere means.” This means respecting people’s autonomy and not using them solely for personal gain. Treating someone as an end requires acknowledging their ability to make rational, autonomous decisions. ETHC 1013 9  5. Means vs. Mere Means: Kant clarifies that using people as a means (such as hiring someone for a job) is acceptable as long as they are not treated solely as tools for personal gain without regard for their interests. Example: Lying to borrow money by pretending it’s for books (when it’s really for an Xbox) is unethical because it deceives the lender, denying them an autonomous decision based on truthful information. 6. Autonomy and Rational Consent: Kant believed that individuals, as rational beings, have intrinsic moral worth, and using others without respect for their autonomy is immoral. 7. Human Rights and Moral Autonomy: Kant’s emphasis on autonomy and equality laid a philosophical foundation for human rights. He argued that moral obligations arise from rational duty rather than inclinations or outcomes. Key Terms and Distinctions 1. Hypothetical Imperative: Hypothetical imperatives are conditional commands based on desires, e.g., “If you want to stay healthy, exercise regularly.” They are subjective and contingent on specific goals. 2. Categorical Imperative: Unlike hypothetical imperatives, categorical imperatives are unconditional and universally applicable, such as “Do not lie,” regardless of personal goals or desires. This imperative serves as a moral compass, guiding the evaluation of actions to determine if they align with universal moral law. Formulations of the Categorical Imperative 1. First Formulation: Universalizability – Actions are right if their maxims can be universally applied without contradiction. 2. Second Formulation: Humanity as an End – We must treat all people as ends in themselves, respecting their autonomy. ETHC 1013 10  3. Third Formulation: Autonomy of Will – Rational beings have the capacity for moral lawmaking, acting as legislators within the "kingdom of ends," able to determine moral actions. Summary Points of Kant’s Theory Duty and Rationality: Morality arises from rational duty rather than selfish inclinations or personal gain. Categorical Imperative: Commands that apply unconditionally, asserting that moral duties are not flexible or dependent on outcomes. Human Dignity and Free Will: Kant emphasized free choice and rationality as central to human dignity and moral worth. Module 10: Utilitarianism Introduction Utilitarianism developed during the Industrial Revolution as a shift from religious (theocentric) to human-centered (anthropocentric) moral philosophy. It views morality as the pursuit of maximizing happiness and reducing suffering for the greatest number of people. Key Figures 1. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832): Developed the Principle of Utility, advocating for actions that maximize happiness and minimize suffering. 2. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873): Expanded on Bentham’s ideas, differentiating between higher (intellectual) and lower (sensory) pleasures and emphasizing the quality of happiness. Core Concepts of Utilitarianism 1. Greatest Happiness Principle: Utilitarianism defines moral actions as those that result in the greatest happiness and least suffering. Actions are evaluated based on their consequences rather than adherence to specific rules. This principle is revolutionary, as it shifts moral focus from strict codes to outcome-based assessments of happiness. 2. Mill’s Theory of Value: ETHC 1013 11  Mill emphasized qualitative hedonism, valuing intellectual and moral pleasures (higher pleasures) above physical or sensory pleasures (lower pleasures). He argued that educated individuals consistently prefer intellectual pleasures, providing empirical support for the value of higher faculties. 3. Higher vs. Lower Pleasures: Mill distinguishes pleasures by quality: Higher pleasures (intellectual, emotional) are considered more valuable than lower pleasures (sensory, physical). Famous Quote: “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied.” This means intellectual fulfillment is superior to mere physical enjoyment. 4. Principle of Utility: Consequentialism: Morality depends entirely on the consequences of actions. Equity Principle: Every individual’s happiness is considered equally, avoiding preferential treatment and promoting fairness. Applications and Case Studies 1. Euthanasia: Utilitarianism supports euthanasia when it alleviates suffering with the patient’s consent, contrasting with religious doctrines that hold life sacred and prohibit any form of killing. Utilitarianism assesses euthanasia’s moral permissibility based on whether it maximizes happiness and minimizes suffering. Classical Utilitarianism Principles 1. Consequentialist Principle: Morality is outcome-based; actions are right if they result in favorable consequences. 2. Hedonic Principle: The right actions are those that produce happiness or pleasure. 3. Equity Principle: Happiness is valued equally for everyone, fostering a fair consideration of all interests. ETHC 1013 12  Diagram Explanation Utilitarianism can be represented by the Greatest Happiness Principle, combining the Consequentialist Principle (morality is judged by outcomes), Hedonic Principle (happiness is the goal), and Equity Principle (everyone’s happiness is equally valued) to maximize overall happiness and reduce suffering. Summary Points Utilitarian Ethics: Focuses on the results of actions, prioritizing happiness as the highest moral good. Moral Equality: Emphasizes equal consideration for each individual’s happiness, promoting an egalitarian approach to ethics. Hedonistic Foundation: Considers pleasure and pain as fundamental measures of good and bad, following a tradition rooted in hedonism. Comparison Between Kantian Ethics and Utilitarianism Kantian Ethics: Based on duty and adherence to universal moral laws. Morality is defined by intent and is absolute, emphasizing the inherent dignity of rational beings. Kant’s theory upholds moral absolutes and prohibits actions like lying, regardless of outcomes. Utilitarianism: Outcome-based, focusing on maximizing happiness for the greatest number. It allows for flexibility in moral rules if they lead to greater happiness, even if some individuals experience harm. Utilitarianism assesses morality based on consequences rather than universal duties. ETHC 1013 13