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Ethics Midterm Reviewer 2SEDM-A Week 7: Universal Values Here are some primary universal values according to...

Ethics Midterm Reviewer 2SEDM-A Week 7: Universal Values Here are some primary universal values according to Aquinas. Values - means something the individual or community - all beings possess intrinsic goodness as they participate in believes has a worth those merits when pursued, promoted, the divine order established by God. Goodness is the or privileged. It can be a thing, a state of mind, or a behavior fulfillment of a thing's nature or purpose, and it is that results from those things or states of mind. objectively determined by its conformity to God's plan. - not the same as a desire. (wanting a thing w/o a reflection, - He considered truth to be the correspondence between A value may originate in a desire, but a value arises after what is in the mind and what exists in reality. reflection on whether or not the thing I desire is good.) - Justice is the cardinal virtue that involves giving each - Morals and morality, according to most philosophers, person their due, whether in terms of rights, obligations, result from rationality, while values might arise from social or rewards. Aquinas distinguished between commutative contexts, emotional dispositions, or rationality. justice, distributive justice, and legal justice. - Prudence is the virtue of practical wisdom, enabling Universal Values - collection of fundamental ideas or ideals individuals to make sound decisions and choose the right that people from many countries,societies, and eras of means to achieve good ends. It involves careful deliberation, history have in common. foresight, and consideration of consequences in moral - serve as the foundation for moral and ethical judgments, actions. helping individuals differentiate between right and wrong. - surpass cultural, religious, and geographical boundaries, Why are Universal Values Essential to Human? reflecting a common understanding of human rights, dignity, - provide a common ground for diverse societies and and the inherent worth of all individuals. cultures. - Universal, however, is an adjective that is related to what - serve as ethical guidelines that help individuals distinguish belongs or which relates to the universe. The concept refers right from wrong. to the set of all the things created and what is common to all - form the basis for human rights frameworks. its kind. - enables societies to navigate periods of change, adversity, and uncertainty with resilience and adaptability. The Universal Values for Philosophers Why are Universal Values Essential to Survival? Plato - a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. - Values such as tolerance, forgiveness, and justice play a argued that the idea of virtues leads to understanding ethics crucial role in preventing and resolving conflicts. and values. - Universal values like stewardship, responsibility, and - Values are the standards of excellence within particular sustainability are crucial for the survival of the planet and all activities as our guide to how we should act its inhabitants. - Plato emphasizes the following values: temperance, - contribute to the resilience and survival of cultural courage, and wisdom. Plato believes that universal values identities and traditions. exist apart from the concrete world. Week 8: Development of Moral Character Aristotle - He believe that people need to be knowledgeable in the virtues. Individuals might desire many things that will What is Moral Character? make them happy. According to Aristotle, each of these is Aristotle - In Book II of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, he important, but all of them, on reflection, need to be enjoyed describes the two kinds of human excellence: excellence of in moderation to become significantly valued. thought and excellence of character. - Only by using our rationality for thinking and creating a - The excellence of character is phrased by Aristotle community in which thinking is encouraged, and in which ēthikē aretē, translated as moral virtue or moral education is valued, can universal values flourish. excellence. The concept of moral virtue or the excellence of character emphasizes not one’s mere uniqueness or Jesus Christ - universal values center around love, from individuality, but the combination of qualities that make which springs patience, kindness, goodwill, compassion, and an individual ethically good. forgiveness. These values are expressed through his - Aristotle believes that excellence of character or good teachings as recorded in the Bible moral character is a state concerned with choice that is - He summarized the entire law and prophets as being determined by reason. rooted in love for God and love for one's neighbor - Aristotle means that it is not a feeling, a capacity, or a mere tendency to act in specific ways but the firm condition St. Thomas Aquinas - universal values are grounded in the that one is in an ideal state of their beliefs and values. If, on natural order established by God and are discernible the other hand, one does not have good moral character, through human reason. they are in a state that makes them vulnerable to vices. K.A.D. Ethics Midterm Reviewer 2SEDM-A Lawrence Pervin - defines moral character as “a disposition LEVEL 1. PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY to express behavior in consistent patterns of functions - “Morality is externally controlled. across a range of situations”. (Timpe, 2008) - lowest level of moral development. It lasts until around the - This means that moral character isn't just about internal age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily values or beliefs. It is about how those values translate into shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences actions and conduct in the real world. of breaking the rules. - Individuals with strong moral character consistently make - people follow rules because they don’t want to get in ethical choices across various situations. Their actions reflect trouble or they want to get a reward. This level of morality stable moral principles, guiding them to behave similarly is mostly based on what authority figures like parents or whether in personal dilemmas, social interactions, teachers tell you to do rather than what you think is right or professional settings, or moral challenges. They do not act wrong. differently depending on the context. - Authority is outside the individual, and children often make moral decisions based on the physical consequences of Development of Moral Character actions. If an action leads to punishment, it must be bad; if it - In childhood and adolescence, it is crucial to learn how to leads to a reward, it must be good. distinguish between right and wrong or good and bad to Example: If you get candy for behaving, you think you were develop moral character. To be a moral person is to think good, but if you get a scolding for misbehaving, you think morally and act accordingly. you were bad. Understanding moral development in children involves three Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment Orientation aspects: - Moral decisions are based on fear of punishment. 1. Emotions - the feelings and values that shape and or - Children obey because adults tell them to obey. It is a develop the moral standards of an individual. matter of obey or you get punished. 2. Knowledge - learning the moral code of one’s community Example Situation: A parent tells a child not to touch a and making judgments about whether something is good or particular item in the house. bad, right or wrong. Response: The child refrains from touching the item not - Children learn moral values, beliefs, and rules from sources because they understand why it's wrong but because they like parents, caregivers, peers, teachers, religious teachings, fear being punished by the parent. and cultural norms. As they grow and develop cognitively, they become better at understanding abstract concepts like Stage 2 - Instrumental Orientation fairness, justice, and honesty, and can apply these ideas to - Right behavior is defined by whatever the individual real-life situations. believes to be in his/her best interest. 3. Actions - It is how one decides on the appropriate actions - The child is focused on receiving rewards or satisfying to take in controlling negative impulses, responding based personal needs. on rules and requests, obeying parents and other authorities, - It is a matter of "you scratch my back, and I'll scratch or behaving in a caring, helpful manner, depending on the yours" mentality. situation. How children behave in different situations Example Situation: A student studies hard to get good reflects their moral reasoning, emotional responses, and grades and receive praise from parents or teachers. internalized moral values. − Motivation: The student's ethical behavior (studying) is driven by the desire for external rewards, such as approval, Tips to Develop Moral Character recognition, or potential future opportunities. 1. Identify Your Values 2. Practice Good Character Traits LEVEL 2. CONVENTIONAL MORALITY 3. Surround Yourself with Positive Influences: - This is characterized by accepting social rules about what is 4. Take Small Risks moral and good. 5. Commit to Lifelong Growth - Children continue to support or accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this Week 9: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development is necessary to win their approval, ensure positive relationships and societal order. - first proposed in the early 1960s by developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg. He proposed a framework STAGE 3 – “Good boy or Nice Girl” Orientation consists six stages, grouped into three levels, each - Children want the approval of others and act in ways to representing a different level of moral reasoning. avoid disapproval. - They pay attention to performing designated roles and living up to the expectations of society. K.A.D. Ethics Midterm Reviewer 2SEDM-A - Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being Example Situation: An individual protests against an unjust "nice" to others. law or policy because it goes against - The individual is good in order to be seen as being a good the principles of fairness and equality. person by others. Reasoning: The person believes in challenging unjust laws to Example Situation: A child follows their family's traditions contribute to societal progress and uphold shared principles and values to maintain harmony and approval within the of justice. family. Motivation: The child’s adherence to family norms is driven STAGE 6 – Universal, Ethical, Principle Orientation by the desire to be viewed as a "good son" or "nice - Individuals have developed their own set of moral daughter" and to avoid disappointing or upsetting family guidelines which may or may not fit the law. They have members. developed moral judgments that are based on universal human rights. STAGE 4 – Law and Order Orientation - The person will be prepared to act to defend these - The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of principles even if it means going against the rest of society in society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to the process and having to pay the consequences of uphold the law and to avoid guilt. disapproval and/or imprisonment. - Individuals start to see society as a whole while making - Individuals obey internalized guidelines of justice, even if moral judgments about others. they go against moral aspects of laws and rules. - Moral decision making becomes more than consideration Example Situation: Someone actively supports LGBTQIA+ of close ties to others. rights, working to eliminate discrimination. - It is a matter of "I have to do this because the law says so.” Reasoning: The person's advocacy is grounded in a universal - Individuals believe that rules and laws maintain social ethical principle of equality, recognizing the rights and order that is worth preserving. dignity of individuals regardless of their sexual gender Example Situation: A child shares toys and takes turns during identity. playtime, understanding that not doing so may result in conflicts or being told off by parents or caregivers. Week 10: Human Act vs Act of Man − Motivation: The child's behavior is motivated by a desire to maintain order in social interactions and avoid negative Human Act - the acts of a moral agent. consequences. - involves conscious decision-making, where the individual understands the nature and consequences of their actions LEVEL 3. POST-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY and freely chooses to perform. - People decide based on what they think is right rather than - Fr. Coppens, (2017) "(h)uman acts are those of which a just following the rules of society. man is master, which he has the power of doing or not doing - People think about what is fair, what is just, and what as he pleases." values are important. - Panizo, (1964) "(h)uman acts are those acts which proceed - Think about how their choices might affect others and try from man as a rational being." to make good decisions for everyone, not just themselves. - Example: Observing prescribed diet, tutoring the - Morality is completely internalized and not based on slow learners and preparing for board exams. external standards. - Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles and Acts of Man - actions committed by unconscious and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. insane persons, infants, or by those who are physically - According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far forced to do something as most people get. - without the awareness of the mind or the control of will - done instinctively without reflection and free will. STAGE 5 – Social Contract Orientation - Instinctive acts are those that are dictated by nature. - The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws These are acts people do automatically and mechanically. might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are Example: breathing, blinking of the eyes, dilation of pupil of times when they will work against the interest of particular the eye, perspiring and jerking of the knee individuals. - Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid The Determinants of the Morality of Human Acts orders. Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest The object of an act is the thing done. In reality, it is not good for the greatest number of people. distinct from the act itself; for we cannot act without - Rules of law play a major role in maintaining a society; it is doing something, and that thing that is done is the important that the members of the society must approve object of the act; say, of going,eating, praising, etc. The these standards. K.A.D. Ethics Midterm Reviewer 2SEDM-A object is usually regarded as the primary factor for Moral Statements as Expression of Feelings moral judgement of a human act. Is it a fact that "stealing is wrong?" Everyone will say yes. - It is the "what" of the action—the concrete deed that is We all know that stealing is wrong and is punishable by law. being performed. However, in emotivism, "stealing is wrong" is not a The end, or purpose intended by the agent is the statement of fact but rather a statement of a desire or second determinant of an act's morality. emotion. Instead, stealing is wrong means “I desire that you - the intention or purpose behind the action—the "why" of do not steal.” the action. the motive or goal that the actor seeks to achieve through their behavior. The morality of an action Emotivism suggests that when someone makes a moral can be influenced by the intentions behind it. statement, they are not primarily expressing a belief about The circumstances of time, place and persons have the facts of a situation but are instead expressing their their part in determining the morality of an individual feelings or attitudes, or preferences, and they cannot be act. The moral character of an act may be so affected objectively true or false. by attendant circumstances that an act good in itself may be evil when accompanied by certain For example, "Pedro stole my cat" is verifiable and can be circumstances. established by evidence. If there is evidence that (1) Pedro - Time: Time-related pressures or deadlines may impact the has taken a cat, (2) the cat belongs to someone else, and (3) decision-making process the taking is without consent, then it can be decided that - Place: The physical surroundings and environmental theft is committed; in other words, the statement has been conditions can affect the feasibility and appropriateness of verified. certain actions. - Person: Factors related to persons may include their roles, However, "Pedro's act of stealing my cat is morally wrong," relationships, and characteristics that influence the moral equivalent to "I desire Pedro should not steal," is not context of the action (object). verifiable. As explained in Britannica Encyclopedia, according to the Emotivist, when we say, "You acted Feelings - emotional states or reactions, experiences of wrongly in stealing that money," we are not expressing any physical sensations like feelings of joy, warmth, love, fact beyond that stated by "You stole that money." It is, affection, tenderness, and the like. In addition, it is dynamic however, as if we had stated this fact with a special tone of and can change in response to different stimuli or situations. abhorrence, for in saying something is wrong, we are - They are not fixed states and can vary in intensity, duration, expressing our disapproval toward it. and complexity. Feelings are personal and subjective experiences. The emotivist says that ethical statements being emotional - They are influenced by an individual's thoughts, expressions are not verifiable. perceptions, and past experiences, making them unique to each person. Week 11: Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for Morality Advantages of involving emotions in decision-making. - an entirely emotional decision is made relatively quickly. Reason: referred to as rationality. It is also associated - could facilitate the coding and compacting process with thinking, cognition, and intellect. - may be required to support logical decisions - declaration to explain or justify an action, decision. - It is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, Emotions in decision-making comes with a number of establishing and verifying facts, applying logic, and changing consequences: or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new - We tend to act on impulse without fully understanding the or existing information (Komprodis, 2000). reasoning behind our decisions, then rationalize poor Impartiality: being fair, unbiased, and neutral in one's emotional decisions. judgments or actions. An impartial person does not - The intensity of emotions can override rational decision- favor one side and strives to treat all individuals or making in cases where it is needed. groups fairly without showing favoritism or prejudice. - Immediate and unrelated emotions can create mistakes by - involves making decisions or forming opinions based on distorting and creating judgment bias. In some cases, this objective criteria rather than personal feelings. can lead to unexpected and reckless action. Morality: personal or cultural values, beliefs, and - Projected emotions can lead to errors because people are principles about right and wrong behavior. It often subject to systemic inaccuracy about how they will feel in involves an individual's internal compass for making the future. decisions. K.A.D. Ethics Midterm Reviewer 2SEDM-A - it can be more flexible and subject to personal IMPARTIALITY interpretation since individuals or cultures may have diverse - It ensures that individuals or groups are treated fairly and moral perspectives. without bias. It prevents favoritism and discrimination, - rooted in personal or cultural values, religious beliefs, or promoting an equal approach to moral decision-making. individual conscience. - It helps in finding resolutions that consider the interests of all parties involved. It contributes to a more harmonious ethics are based on societal standards, while morals refer to and cooperative social environment. personal beliefs Reason and impartiality refer to a mental activity following the basic principle of consistency, the lack of contradiction between one idea and another Consistency involves aligning ideas, beliefs, and judgments to create a cohesive and reliable framework for thinking and decision-making. Moral judgments must be backed up by good reason and impartiality Good reason requires to provide sound and logical reasons to support moral judgments. It involves: ✔ thoughtful consideration, ✔ critical thinking, and ✔ the ability to articulate the underlying principles or values that inform one's ethical stance. Reason avoids ad misericordiam, appeal to pity, since appearing miserable does not improve an argument. Example: "Yes, I exceeded the speed limit, but I was rushing to the hospital because my wife was in labor. I'm sure you can understand and show some mercy." The situation is indeed sympathetic, it doesn't change the fact that the person broke the law. Reason does not resort to ad verecundiam, appeal to authority, one's power and influence cannot make a wrong right. Example: "This diet plan is the best because it was recommended by Dr. Dela Cruz, a renowned nutrition expert." It doesn't provide specific reasons or evidence regarding the effectiveness or scientific basis of the diet plan. How do reason and impartiality influence morality? REASON - allows individuals to evaluate situations objectively - helps in making decisions based on logical analysis rather than subjective preferences. - helps in developing consistent moral principles. By relying on rational thinking, individuals can avoid emotionally driven judgments. - allow individuals to articulate and justify their moral beliefs and actions. - Providing reasoned explanations for moral choices enhances accountability and encourages thoughtful reflection. K.A.D.