ENVIRSC 1C03 Study Sheet PDF

ENVIRSC 1C03 Study Sheet Week 2 - 4................................................................................................................. 2 Week 5 - 9................................................................................................................. 6 Week 10 - 13...........

ENVIRSC 1C03 Study Sheet Week 2 - 4................................................................................................................. 2 Week 5 - 9................................................................................................................. 6 Week 10 - 13............................................................................................................. 9 GIS.......................................................................................................................... 12 Glossary.................................................................................................................. 14  Jino Surendra 2 Week 2 - 4 Weather: The state of the atmosphere at a specific place and time, including temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, and visibility. ○ Importance: Influences daily activities and agriculture. Affects transportation and infrastructure. Plays a crucial role in disaster management and preparedness. Climate: The average weather conditions over a long period, typically 30 years or more, in a particular region. ○ Importance: Determines biodiversity and ecosystems. Guides urban planning and agriculture. Informs policies for addressing climate change. Distinction Between Weather and Climate: ○ Weather: Short-term and variable atmospheric conditions. ○ Climate: Long-term trends and averages in atmospheric patterns. Key Elements of Weather and Climate ○ Primary Components: Temperature, precipitation, humidity, air pressure, wind, and solar radiation. ○ Atmospheric Hazards: Hurricanes, tornadoes, droughts, floods, and heatwaves.  Jino Surendra 3 Atmospheric Composition: ○ Key Components: Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), and trace gases (e.g., greenhouse gases like CO₂, CH₄). ○ Impact on Weather and Climate: Greenhouse gases regulate Earth's temperature. Aerosols and pollutants modify weather and climate dynamics. Atmospheric Pressure: The force exerted by the weight of air above a surface. ○ Applications: Influences weather systems (e.g., high-pressure systems bring clear skies). Impacts human activities like aviation and mountain climbing. Atmospheric Density: Mass of air per unit volume; decreases with altitude. ○ Relation to Pressure: Higher density increases atmospheric pressure. Ideal Gas Law in Atmosphere: Describes how temperature, pressure, and density interact in the atmosphere. ○ Formula: P=nRTVP=VnRT​. Human Impacts on Air Quality: ○ Sources: Industrial emissions, vehicle exhaust, deforestation. ○ Health Impacts: Respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Reduced life expectancy due to prolonged exposure. ○ Forms of Smog: Industrial Smog: Sulfur dioxide from burning coal. Photochemical Smog: Reactions between sunlight and pollutants. ○ Thermal Inversions: Atmospheric condition where a layer of warm air traps cooler air below, exacerbating pollution. ○ Air Quality Indices: Air Quality Index (AQI): Measures levels of pollutants like ozone and PM2.5. Air Quality Health Index (AQHI): Links air quality directly to health outcomes.  Jino Surendra 4 Radiation Balance: Balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial heat. ○ Key Laws: Stefan-Boltzmann Law: Total energy radiated increases with temperature. Wien’s Law: Peak emission wavelength is inversely proportional to temperature. Kirchhoff’s Law: Describes the greenhouse effect, where gases trap heat. Climate Change ○ Human Contributions: Fossil fuel combustion increases greenhouse gases. Deforestation reduces carbon absorption. ○ Impacts on the Arctic: Melting ice caps and rising sea levels. Disruption of ecosystems and human communities. ○ Climate Models: Project significant global warming and its consequences. ○ Solutions: Transition to renewable energy. Carbon capture technologies. Adaptive measures to mitigate impacts.  Jino Surendra 5 Temperature and Seasonal Cycles ○ Earth’s Tilt: Effect: Causes variation in solar radiation and seasonal changes. Urban Heat Island Effect: Cities retain more heat due to human activities and building materials. Heat Transfer Mechanisms: ○ Conduction: Direct heat transfer through contact. ○ Convection: Heat transfer via fluid movement. ○ Radiation: Emission of energy as electromagnetic waves. Solar Radiation: ○ Fate: Reflected, absorbed, or re-emitted by Earth’s surface and atmosphere.  Jino Surendra 6 Week 5 - 9 Variation of Humidity with Latitude: Humidity tends to decrease with distance from the Equator, influenced by temperature and air circulation patterns. Specific Humidity: The actual amount of water vapor in the air, usually measured in grams of water per kilogram of air. Air Saturation with Water: ○ Process: When air becomes saturated, the excess water vapor condenses to form clouds, dew, or precipitation. Relative Humidity Calculation: ○ Formula: (Actual water vapor content/Saturation water vapor content)×100(Actual water vapor content/Saturation water vapor content)×100% ○ Indicates how close the air is to saturation. Importance of Atmospheric Moisture: Influences weather phenomena, agriculture, and climate systems. Atmospheric Stability and Adiabatic Processes ○ Atmospheric Stability: Refers to the tendency of air parcels to rise or sink. ○ Absolutely Stable Air: Occurs when the environmental lapse rate (ELR) is less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate (MALR). ○ Absolutely Unstable Air: Occurs when the ELR exceeds the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR). Orographic Uplift: As air is forced over a mountain range, it cools and may lead to cloud formation and precipitation. Air Temperature and Water Vapor: ○ Warmer air can hold more water vapor; as temperature increases, saturation vapor pressure also rises. Relative Humidity Changes in Nature: ○ Through temperature changes, water vapor addition/removal, and condensation/evaporation. Relative Humidity vs. Dew-Point Temperature: ○ Dew-point indicates the temperature at which air becomes saturated; relative humidity measures current saturation level.  Jino Surendra 7 Clouds and Precipitation ○ Cloud Formation: Requires adiabatic cooling and cloud condensation nuclei. Basic Cloud Types: ○ By Form: Cirrus (wispy), Cumulus (puffy), Stratus (layered). ○ By Height: High, middle, and low clouds. Nimbostratus vs. Cumulonimbus Clouds: ○ Nimbostratus: Thick, layered, associated with steady rain. ○ Cumulonimbus: Towering, associated with thunderstorms. Fog Types: ○ Radiation Fog: Forms on clear nights due to ground cooling. ○ Advection Fog: When warm, moist air moves over a cooler surface. Adiabatic Processes ○ Adiabatic Temperature Changes: Dry Adiabatic Rate: 10°C per 1,000m; moist adiabatic rate: ~6°C per 1,000m. Moist rate is lower due to latent heat release during condensation. Mechanisms for Air Rising: ○ Convection, orographic lifting, frontal wedging, and convergence. Environmental Lapse Rate and Stability: ○ Stability is determined by comparing ELR to DALR and MALR. Water Movement in the Hydrologic Cycle Processes include evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, and runoff. Water Balance: A method to track water inputs and outputs in a system. Types of Droughts: ○ Meteorological: Below-average precipitation. ○ Agricultural: Insufficient moisture for crops. ○ Hydrological: Reduced water in lakes, rivers, and aquifers. Palmer Drought Index: Measures the severity of drought based on temperature and rainfall.  Jino Surendra 8 Types of Precipitation: ○ Rain, snow, sleet, freezing rain, and hail. ○ Each type forms under specific atmospheric temperature profiles. Acid Rain Formation: Occurs when sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) react with water in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acid. Atmospheric Circulation and Winds ○ Winds: Defined as horizontal movements of air, driven by pressure differences. ○ Forces Acting on Winds: Pressure gradient force, Coriolis effect, and friction. ○ Jet Streams: Strong, high-altitude winds that influence weather patterns. Ocean and Climate Connections ○ El Niño and La Niña: Periodic climate phenomena that disrupt global air and ocean circulation patterns. Impacts include altered rainfall, droughts, and temperature changes. Thermohaline Circulation: Global conveyor belt driven by differences in water density, salinity, and temperature.  Jino Surendra 9 Week 10 - 13 Overdrawing Groundwater: ○ Consequences: Land subsidence due to compaction. Depletion of aquifers, impacting ecosystems and agriculture. ○ Salinization of Soils: Caused by irrigation in arid regions. Water evaporates, leaving salts behind. ○ Impacts: Decreases agricultural productivity and promotes desertification. ○ Solutions: Improved irrigation, salt-tolerant crops, and flushing soils. Groundwater Environment: ○ Nature: Subsurface water that fills voids in soils and rocks. ○ Key Elements: Aquifers, recharge zones, and groundwater flow systems. Eutrophication: Nutrient enrichment in water bodies, leading to algal blooms. ○ Consequences: Anoxia/hypoxia: Low oxygen levels disrupt ecosystems. Dead zones: Areas unable to support aquatic life, e.g., Lake Erie. ○ Solutions: Improve sewage treatment. Control agricultural runoff. Nutrient Cycles: ○ Carbon: Released through respiration, combustion, absorbed by photosynthesis. ○ Phosphorus: Mined, used in fertilizers, returned to soil through decay. ○ Nitrogen: Fixed by bacteria, used in agriculture, contributes to eutrophication.  Jino Surendra 10 Human Impacts on Biodiversity: Habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. Biodiversity Metrics: Species Richness: Number of species in an area. Diversity Index: Incorporates abundance and evenness of species. ○ Importance of Biodiversity: Stabilizes ecosystems and supports ecosystem services. ○ Protecting Biodiversity: Establishing protected areas & promoting sustainable land use. Types of Pollutants: ○ Organic: e.g., pesticides. ○ Inorganic: Heavy metals, salts. Assimilative Capacity: The ability of a water body to absorb pollutants without ecological damage. Pollution in Aquifers: ○ Moves through groundwater plumes. ○ Long recovery times for polluted aquifers. Waste Management: ○ Proper disposal and recycling reduce environmental footprint. ○ Composting and reuse can mitigate landfill dependency. Toxicology and Chemicals: ○ Bioaccumulation: Build-up of chemicals in organisms. ○ Biomagnification: Increased concentration of toxins through food chains.  Jino Surendra 11 Global Trends: Increasing population and consumption impact resources. Stewardship Principles: ○ Promote conservation and sustainable practices. ○ Balance population growth with resource use. Ecological Footprint: ○ Measures human demand on Earth's ecosystems. ○ Aim to reduce consumption and waste.  Jino Surendra 12 GIS Definition: A platform for managing, analyzing, and applying geographic data. Function: ○ Insight (analysis): A function of GIS that allows for advanced data analysis and pattern recognition. ○ Record (data management): A GIS role in maintaining the integrity and accuracy of geographic data. ○ Engagement (interaction): GIS's capacity to enable interaction and collaboration through maps and spatial tools. Tackles issues like: ○ Environmental: Air pollution, climate change, water quality, land degradation, biodiversity loss. ○ Social: Inequality, poverty, food insecurity, sustainability. Applications of GIS Air Quality Monitoring (Road Dust Mapping): ○ Findings: Only 18% of particulate matter comes from smokestacks. ○ Results: Pre-workshop: Avg. PM = 114 µg/m³. Post-workshop: Avg. PM = 73 µg/m³. Climate Change & Land Degradation: ○ Example: Basilicata, Italy. ○ Uses: Track land degradation, assess climate impact. Social Impacts: Code Red (Hamilton): ○ Code Red: A GIS-based study examining health disparities in Hamilton, focusing on determinants like ER visits, birth weight, and mortality rates. ○ Explored health disparities using GIS maps (2010). ○ Key outcomes: Health reforms, new health strategies, community scholarships. ○ 10-Year Update: Rising ER visits, psychiatric emergencies up by 60%, persistent health gaps.  Jino Surendra 13 Remote Sensing: The acquisition of data about Earth's surface from satellite or airborne sensors, often integrated into GIS for spatial analysis. Raster GIS: A GIS data format that represents spatial data as a grid of cells, typically used for continuous data like elevation or temperature. Vector GIS: Represents spatial features as points, lines, and polygons, used for discrete data like roads or property boundaries. Web GIS: GIS applications designed for online use, enabling data sharing and collaboration over the internet. GIS At McMaster Courses: Intro to GIS, remote sensing, advanced GIS programming, and applications. ECCE Opportunities: Free software, networking, annual challenges, and awards. Career Paths: Co-op programs, internships, and thesis projects.  Jino Surendra 14 Glossary Atmospheric and Climatic Processes Adiabatic Processes: Processes in which air temperature changes without the exchange of heat with its surroundings. Commonly occurs during the ascent (cooling) and descent (warming) of air parcels in the atmosphere. Orographic Uplift: The process by which air is forced to rise over a mountain range, leading to cooling, condensation, and precipitation on the windward side and dry conditions on the leeward side. Hydrology and Water Resources Groundwater: Water that occupies voids in soils and rocks beneath the Earth's surface, often found in aquifers. Eutrophication: Nutrient enrichment of water bodies, resulting in algal blooms, decreased oxygen levels, and disrupted aquatic ecosystems. Anoxia/Hypoxia: Conditions in water with very low (hypoxia) or no oxygen (anoxia), often caused by eutrophication. Water Balance: A calculation of water inputs, outputs, and storage in a system, essential for understanding hydrological cycles. Palmer Drought Index: A metric used to measure the severity of drought based on precipitation and temperature anomalies. Soil Science Soil Horizons: Layers in the soil profile, including organic-rich topsoil (O and A horizons), subsoil (B horizon), and parent material (C horizon). Soil Texture: The proportion of sand, silt, and clay particles in soil, influencing water infiltration, nutrient retention, and aeration. Stokes Law: A principle describing the settling velocity of particles in a fluid, used to understand soil sedimentation. Liming Problem: The issue of adding lime (calcium carbonate) to acidic soils to neutralize pH and improve soil fertility.  Jino Surendra 15 Ecology and Biodiversity Species Richness: The total number of species in a given area. Species Diversity: A measure of the variety of species, taking into account both abundance and evenness. Biogeographical Similarity: A metric to compare species composition between two 2𝐶 regions, calculated as: 𝐼 = 𝐴+𝐵 , where C is the number of common species, and A and B are the species richness of each region. Atmospheric and Energy Systems Atmospheric Pressure: The force exerted by the weight of air above a surface, measured in units like millibars (mb) or Pascals (Pa). Adiabatic Lapse Rate: The rate of temperature change in a parcel of air as it moves vertically: ○ Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR): 10°C/1000m. ○ Moist adiabatic lapse rate (MALR): ~6°C/1000m (lower due to latent heat release). Environmental Impacts and Conservation Bioaccumulation: The buildup of toxic substances in an organism over time. Biomagnification: The increasing concentration of toxic substances in organisms at higher trophic levels in a food chain. Assimilative Capacity: The ability of a water body to absorb pollutants without adverse ecological effects. Climate and Global Systems El Niño: A climate phenomenon involving warmer-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, disrupting global weather patterns. Thermohaline Circulation: A global ocean current driven by differences in temperature and salinity, often referred to as the "global conveyor belt." Ecological Footprint: A measure of human demand on Earth's ecosystems, expressed in terms of land and water area required to sustain resource use and waste assimilation.  Jino Surendra 16 Pollution and Waste Management Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD): The amount of oxygen consumed by microbes to decompose organic matter in water. High BOD indicates pollution. Municipal Solid Waste (MSW): Waste generated by households and businesses, including biodegradable, recyclable, and non-recyclable materials. Scientific Laws and Equations Stefan-Boltzmann Law: Describes the total energy radiated by a black body as 4 proportional to the fourth power of its temperature: 𝐸 = σ𝑇 , where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Wien’s Law: Relates the peak wavelength of emission to the temperature of a black 𝑏 body: λ𝑀𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇 , where b is Wien's constant.