Environmental Studies Book 32-79 PDF

1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE 1.1.1 Definition Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural wo...

1.1 DEFINITION, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE 1.1.1 Definition Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and human impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science as its seeks practical answers to making human civilization sustainable on the earth’s finite re- sources. earth’s environmental resources. Thus most tra- ditions refer to our environment as ‘Mother Its components include biology, geology, chem- Nature’ and most traditional societies have istry, physics, engineering, sociology, health, learned that respecting nature is vital for their anthropology, economics, statistics, computers livelihoods. This has led to many cultural prac- and philosophy. tices that helped traditional societies protect and preserve their natural resources. Respect for nature and all living creatures is not new to In- 1.1.2 Scope dia. All our traditions are based on these values. Emperor Ashoka’s edict proclaimed that all As we look around at the area in which we live, forms of life are important for our well being in we see that our surroundings were originally a Fourth Century BC. natural landscape such as a forest, a river, a mountain, a desert, or a combination of these Over the past 200 years however, modern soci- elements. Most of us live in landscapes that have eties began to believe that easy answers to the been heavily modified by human beings, in vil- question of producing more resources could be lages, towns or cities. But even those of us who provided by means of technological innovations. live in cities get our food supply from surround- For example, though growing more food by ing villages and these in turn are dependent on using fertilizers and pesticides, developing bet- natural landscapes such as forests, grasslands, ter strains of domestic animals and crops, irri- rivers, seashores, for resources such as water gating farmland through mega dams and for agriculture, fuel wood, fodder, and fish. Thus developing industry, led to rapid economic our daily lives are linked with our surroundings growth, the ill effects of this type of develop- and inevitably affects them. We use water to ment, led to environmental degradation. drink and for other day-to-day activities. We breathe air, we use resources from which food The industrial development and intensive agri- is made and we depend on the community of culture that provides the goods for our increas- living plants and animals which form a web of ingly consumer oriented society uses up large life, of which we are also a part. Everything amounts of natural resources such as water, around us forms our environment and our lives minerals, petroleum products, wood, etc. Non- depend on keeping its vital systems as intact as renewable resources, such as minerals and oil possible. are those which will be exhausted in the future if we continue to extract these without a Our dependence on nature is so great that we thought for subsequent generations. Renew- cannot continue to live without protecting the The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies 3 Chapter1.p65 3 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  able resources, such as timber and water, are those which can be used but can be regener- ated by natural processes such as regrowth or rainfall. But these too will be depleted if we con- tinue to use them faster than nature can re- place them. For example, if the removal of timber and firewood from a forest is faster than the regrowth and regeneration of trees, it can- not replenish the supply. And loss of forest cover not only depletes the forest of its resources, such as timber and other non-wood products, but ronment and change the way in which we use affect our water resources because an intact every resource. Unsustainable utilization can natural forest acts like a sponge which holds result from overuse of resources, because of water and releases it slowly. Deforestation leads population increase, and because many of us to floods in the monsoon and dry rivers once are using more resources than we really need. the rains are over. Most of us indulge in wasteful behaviour pat- terns without ever thinking about their environ- Such multiple effects on the environment re- mental impacts. Thus, for all our actions to be sulting from routine human activities must be environmentally positive we need to look from appreciated by each one of us, if it is to provide a new perspective at how we use resources. For us with the resources we need in the long-term. every resource we use we must ask ourselves the following questions: Our natural resources can be compared with money in a bank. If we use it rapidly, the capital What is the rarity of the resource and where will be reduced to zero. On the other hand, if does it originate? we use only the interest, it can sustain us over the longer term. This is called sustainable Who uses it most intensively and how? utilisation or development. How is it being overused or misused? Activity 1: Who is responsible for its improper use – the resource collector, the middleman, the Take any article that you use in daily life – end user? a bucket full of water, or an item of food, a table, or a book. Trace its components jour- How can we help to conserve it and pre- ney backwards from your home to their ori- vent its unsustainable use? gins as natural resources in our environment. How many of these compo- nents are renewable resources and how Activity 2: many non-renewable? Try to answer the questions above for one Understanding and making ourselves more of the components in the article you chose aware of our environmental assets and prob- in Activity 1. Then answer the following lems is not enough. We, each one of us, must questions: become increasingly concerned about our envi- 4 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter1.p65 4 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  each of us uses also increases, the earth’s re- source base must inevitably shrink. The earth cannot be expected to sustain this expanding level of utilization of resources. Added to this is misuse of resources. We waste or pollute large amounts of nature’s clean water; we create more and more material like plastic that we dis- card after a single use; and we waste colossal amounts of food, which is discarded as garbage. Manufacturing processes create solid waste Are you using that resource byproducts that are discarded, as well as chemi- unsustainably? cals that flow out as liquid waste and pollute water, and gases that pollute the air. Increasing In what ways could you reduce, reuse amounts of waste cannot be managed by natu- and recycle that resource? ral processes. These accumulate in our environ- ment, leading to a variety of diseases and other Is there an unequal distribution of this adverse environmental impacts now seriously af- resource so that you are more fortunate fecting all our lives. Air pollution leads to respi- than many others who have less access ratory diseases, water pollution to to it? gastro-intestinal diseases, and many pollutants are known to cause cancer. Once we begin to ask these questions of our- selves, we will begin to live lifestyles that are more sustainable and will support our environ- ment. 1.1.3 Importance Environment is not a single subject. It is an inte- gration of several subjects that include both Improving this situation will only happen if each Science and Social Studies. To understand all of us begins to take actions in our daily lives the different aspects of our environment we that will help preserve our environmental re- need to understand biology, chemistry, physics, sources. We cannot expect Governments alone geography, resource management, economics to manage the safeguarding of the environment, and population issues. Thus the scope of envi- nor can we expect other people to prevent ronmental studies is extremely wide and covers environmental damage. We need to do it our- some aspects of nearly every major discipline. selves. It is a responsibility that each of us must take on as ones own. We live in a world in which natural resources are limited. Water, air, soil, minerals, oil, the products we get from forests, grasslands, oceans and from agriculture and livestock, are all a part of our life support systems. Without them, life itself would be impossible. As we keep increas- ing in numbers and the quantity of resources The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies 5 Chapter1.p65 5 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  Activity 3: What happens to it when you throw it away/ where does it go? Think of all the things that you do in a day. List these activities and identify the main resources used during these ac- Example – Fossil fuels: tivities. What can you do to prevent waste, reuse articles that you normally How much do you use? Can you reduce your throw away, what recycled materials consumption? can you use? What effect does it have on the air we breathe? Think of the various energy sources you use everyday. How could you reduce When we leave a motorbike or car running dur- their use? ing a traffic stop, we do not usually remember that the fuel we are wasting is a part of a non- renewable resource that the earth cannot re- Activity 4: Exercises in self learning about form. Once all the fossil fuels are burnt off, it the environment will mean the end of oil as a source of energy. Only if each of us contributes our part in con- Attempt to assess the level of damage to serving fossil based energy can we make it last the environment due to your actions that longer on earth. have occurred during your last working day, the last week, the last year. Then estimate the damage you are likely to do in your life- Example – Water: time if you continue in your present ways. How much do you really need to use, as against Use the following examples for the above exer- how much you waste when you: cise: (a) Brush your teeth? (b) Have a bath? (c) Wash Example – Plastic: Plastic bags, plastic ball pens clothes? (d) Wash the scooter or car? Think about all the articles you use daily that Where did the water come from? What is its are made from plastic. Plastic plays an impor- actual source? How has it reached you? tant part in our modern lives. Where will the waste water go? Make a list of the plastic articles you usually use. Do you feel you should change the way you use How can you reduce the amount of plastic you water? How can you change this so that it is use? more sustainable? What effects does plastic have on our environ- ment? Example – Food: Where did the plastic come from/ how is it Where has it come from? How is it grown? What made? chemicals are used in its production? How does it reach you? 6 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter1.p65 6 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  How is it cooked? struction of a forest, wetland or other natural area and do not protest about it, future gen- How much is wasted? How is the waste dis- erations are being denied the use of these valu- posed off? able resources and will blame us for these rash and negligent actions towards the environment. Example – Paper: Thus the urgent need to protect all living spe- cies is a concept that we need to understand What is it made from? and act upon. While individually, we perhaps cannot directly prevent the extinction of a spe- Where does it come from and what happens cies, creating a strong public opinion to protect during manufacture? the National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in which wild species live is an importance aspect How much do you use and how much do you of sustainable living. There is a close link be- waste? How can you prevent it from being tween agriculture and the forest, which illus- wasted? trates its productive value. For crops to be successful, the flowers of fruit trees and veg- etables must be pollinated by insects, bats and Example – Electrical Energy: birds. Their life cycles however frequently require intact forests. How much do you use everyday? Where does it come from? Aesthetic/Recreational value of nature: The How do you waste it? How can you conserve aesthetic and recreational values that nature energy? possesses enlivens our existence on earth. This is created by developing National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in relatively undisturbed Productive value of nature: As scientists make areas. A true wilderness experience has not only new advances in fields such as biotechnology recreational value but is an incredible learning we begin to understand that the world’s spe- experience. It brings about an understanding of cies contain an incredible and uncountable num- the oneness of nature and the fact that we are ber of complex chemicals. These are the raw entirely dependent upon the intricate function- materials that are used for developing new ing of ecosystems. medicines and industrial products and are a storehouse from which to develop thousands The beauty of nature encompasses every aspect of new products in the future. The flowering of the living and non-living part of our earth. plants and insects that form the most species- One can appreciate the magnificence of a moun- rich groups of living organisms are thus vital for tain, the power of the sea, the beauty of a for- the future development of man. If we degrade est, and the vast expanse of the desert. It is these their habitat these species will become extinct. natural vistas and their incredible diversity of If one sees being sold or used, a product that plant and animal life that has led to the devel- comes from an illegally killed wild species, if we opment of several philosophies of life. It has also do not inform the authorities, we become party inspired artists to develop visual arts and writ- to its extinction. Once they are lost, man can- ers and poets to create their works that vitalize not bring them back. When we permit the de- our lives. The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies 7 Chapter1.p65 7 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  A wilderness experience has exceptional recre- be developed in a small woodlot, a patch of ational value. This has been described as nature grassland, a pond ecosystem, or be situated tourism, or wildlife tourism, and is also one as- along an undisturbed river or coastal area. This pect of adventure tourism. These recreational would bring home to the visitor the importance facilities not only provide a pleasurable experi- of protecting our dwindling wilderness areas. ence but are intended to create a deep respect and love for nature. They are also key tools in educating people about the fragility of the en- The option values of nature: While we utilise vironment and the need for sustainable lifestyles. several goods and services of nature and enjoy its benefits, we In an urban setting, green spaces and gardens must recognize are vital to the pschycological and physical health that every activity of city dwellers. It provides not only an aesthetic that we do in our and visual appeal but the ability to ensure that daily lives has an each individual is able to access a certain amount adverse impact of peace and tranquility. Thus urban environ- on nature’s integ- mental planners must ensure that these facili- rity. Thus if we use up all our resources, kill off ties are created in growing urban complexes. and let species of plants and animals become Another important conservation education fa- extinct on earth, pollute our air and water, de- cility in urban settings includes the need to set grade land, and create enormous quantities of up well designed and properly managed zoo- waste, we as a generation will leave nothing logical parks and aquariums. These have got for future generations. Our present generation great value in sensitizing school students to wild- has developed its economies and lifestyles on life. Many young people who frequented zoos unsustainable patterns of life. however, nature as young children grow up to love wildlife and provides us with various options on how we become conservationists. utilize its goods and services. This is its option value. We can use up goods and services greedily In the absence of access to a Protected Area, a and destroy its integrity and long term values, botanical garden or a zoo, one concept that can or we can use its resources sustainably and re- be developed is to create small nature aware- duce our impacts on the environment. The op- ness areas with interpretation facilities at dis- tion value allows us to use its resources trict and taluka levels. These areas can be sustainably and preserve its goods and services developed to mimic natural ecosystems even for the future. though they could be relatively small in size. Such nature trails are invaluable assets for creating conservation education and awareness. They can 1.2 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS As the earth’s natural resources are dwindling and our environment is being increasingly degraded by human activities, it is evident that something needs to be done. We often feel that managing all this is something that the Government should do. But if we go on endan- gering our environment, there is no 8 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter1.p65 8 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  way in which the Government can perform all Practice and promote issues such as saving these clean-up functions. It is the prevention of paper, saving water, reducing use of plas- environment degradation in which we must all tics, practicing the 3Rs principle of reduce, take part that must become a part of all our reuse, recycle, and proper waste disposal. lives. Just as for any disease, prevention is bet- ter than cure. To prevent ill-effects on our envi- Join local movements that support activi- ronment by our actions, is economically more ties such as saving trees in your area, go on viable than cleaning up the environment once nature treks, recycle waste, buy environ- it is damaged. Individually we can play a major mentally friendly products. role in environment management. We can re- duce wasting natural resources and we can act Practice and promote good civic sense such as watchdogs that inform the Government as no spitting or tobacco chewing, no about sources that lead to pollution and degra- throwing garbage on the road, no smoking dation of our environment. in public places, no urinating or defecating in public places. This can only be made possible through mass public awareness. Mass media such as newspa- Take part in events organised on World pers, radio, television, strongly influence public Environment Day, Wildlife Week, etc. opinion. However, someone has to bring this about. If each of us feels strongly about the Visit a National Park or Sanctuary, or spend environment, the press and media will add to time in whatever nature you have near your our efforts. Politicians in a democracy always home. respond positively to a strong publicly supported movement. Thus if you join an NGO that sup- ports conservation, politicians will make green 1.2.1 Institutions in Environment policies. We are living on spaceship earth with a limited supply of resources. Each of us is respon- There have been several Government and Non- sible for spreading this message to as many government organizations that have led to en- people as possible. vironmental protection in our country. They have led to a growing interest in environmental pro- Suggested further activities for concerned stu- tection and conservation of nature and natural dents: resources. The traditional conservation practices that were part of ancient India’s culture have Join a group to study nature, such as WWF- however gradually disappeared. Public aware- I or BNHS, or another environmental group. ness is thus a critical need to further environ- mental protection. Among the large number of Begin reading newspaper articles and peri- institutions that deal with environmental pro- odicals such as ‘Down to Earth’, WWF-I tection and conservation, a few well-known newsletter, BNHS Hornbill, Sanctuary maga- organizations include government organisations zine, etc. that will tell you more about our such as the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs such as BNHS, environment. There are also several envi- WWF-I, etc. ronmental websites. Lobby for conserving resources by taking Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), up the cause of environmental issues dur- Mumbai: the BNHS began as a small society of ing discussions with friends and relatives. six members in 1883. It grew from a group of The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies 9 Chapter1.p65 9 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  shikaris and people from all walks of life into a ence and Environment fortnightly. It is involved major research organisation that substantially in the publication of material in the form of influenced conservation policy in the country. books, posters, video films and also conducts The influence on wildlife policy building, re- workshops and seminars on biodiversity related search, popular publications and peoples issues. action have been unique features of the multi- faceted society. Undoubtedly its major contri- bution has been in the field of wildlife research. CPR Environmental Education Centre, Ma- It is India’s oldest conservation research based dras: The CPR EEC was set up in 1988. It con- NGO and one that has acted at the forefront of ducts a variety of programs to spread the battle for species and ecosystems. The BNHS environmental awareness and creates an inter- publishes a popular magazine called Hornbill and est in conservation among the general public. It also an internationally well-known Journal on focussed attention on NGOs, teachers, women, Natural History. Its other publications include the youth and children to generally promote con- Salim Ali Handbook on birds, JC Daniel’s book servation of nature and natural resources. Its of Indian Reptiles, SH Prater’s book of Indian programs include components on wildlife and Mammals and PV Bole’s book of Indian Trees. biodiversity issues. CPR EEC also produces a large One of its greatest scientists was Dr. Salim Ali number of publications. whose ornithological work on the birds of the Indian subcontinent is world famous. The BNHS has over the years helped Government to frame Centre for Environment Education (CEE), wildlife related laws and has taken up battles Ahmedabad: The Centre for Environment Edu- such as the ‘Save the Silent Valley’ campaign. cation, Ahmedabad was initiated in 1989. It has a wide range of programs on the environment and produces a variety of educational material. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I), New CEE’s Training in Environment Education {TEE} Delhi: The WWF-I was initiated in 1969 in program has trained many environment educa- Mumbai after which the headquarters were tors. shifted to Delhi with several branch offices all over India. The early years focused attention on wildlife education and awareness. It runs sev- Bharati Vidyapeeth Institute of Environ- eral programs including the Nature Clubs of In- ment Education and Research (BVIEER), dia program for school children and works as a Pune: This is part of the Bharati Vidyapeeth think tank and lobby force for environment and Deemed University. The Institute has a PhD, a development issues. Masters and Bachelors program in Environmen- tal Sciences. It also offers an innovative Diploma in Environment Education for in-service teach- Center for Science and Environment (CSE), ers. It implements a large outreach programme New Delhi: Activities of this Center include that has covered over 135 schools in which it organising campaigns, holding workshops and trains teachers and conducts fortnightly Envi- conferences, and producing environment related ronment Education Programs. Biodiversity Con- publications. It published a major document on servation is a major focus of its research the ‘State of India’s Environment’, the first of initiatives. It develops low cost Interpretation its kind to be produced as a Citizen’s Report on Centres for Natural and Architectural sites that the Environment. The CSE also publishes a popu- are highly locale specific as well as a large lar magazine, ‘Down to Earth’, which is a Sci- amount of innovative environment educational 10 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter1.p65 10 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  material for a variety of target groups. Its unique Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natu- feature is that it conducts environment educa- ral History (SACON), Coimbatore: This insti- tion from primary school level to the postgradu- tution was Dr. Salim Ali’s dream that became a ate level. The BVIEER has produced several EE reality only after his demise. He wished to sup- aids. It has developed a teacher’s handbook port a group of committed conservation scien- linked to school curriculum, a textbook for UGC tists on a permanent basis. Initially conceived as for its undergraduate course on environment. being a wing of the Bombay Natural History Its Director has developed a CD ROM on India’s Society (BNHS) it later evolved as an indepen- biodiversity published by Mapin Publishers, dent organisation based at Coimbatore in 1990. Ahmedabad. It has instituted a variety of field programs that have added to the country’s information on our threatened biodiversity. Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), Almora: The Organisation is a Nodal Agency which supports NGOs in need of funds for their environment Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dehradun: related activities. Its major program is organising This Institution was established in 1982, as a and training school teachers to use its locale major training establishment for Forest Officials specific Environment Education Workbook Pro- and Research in Wildlife Management. Its most gram. The main targets are linked with sustain- significant publication has been ‘Planning A able resource use at the village level through Wildlife Protected Area Network for India’ training school children. Its environment edu- (Rodgers and Panwar, 1988). The organisation cation program covers about 500 schools. has over the years added an enormous amount of information on India’s biological wealth. It has trained a large number of Forest Depart- Kalpavriksh, Pune: This NGO, initially Delhi ment Officials and Staff as Wildlife Managers. based, is now working from Pune and is active Its M.Sc. Program has trained excellent wildlife in several other parts of India. Kalpavriksh works scientists. It also has an Environment Impact on a variety of fronts: education and awareness; Assessment (EIA) cell. It trains personnel in investigation and research; direct action and ecodevelopment, wildlife biology, habitat man- lobbying; and litigation with regard to environ- agement and Nature interpretation. ment and development issues. Its activities in- clude talks and audio-visuals in schools and colleges, nature walks and outstation camps, Botanical Survey of India (BSI): The Botani- organising student participation in ongoing cam- cal Survey of India (BSI) was established in 1890 paigns including street demonstrations, push- at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta. How- ing for consumer awareness regarding organic ever it closed down for several years after 1939 food, press statements, handling green alerts, and was reopened in 1954. In 1952 plans were and meetings with the city’s administrators. It is made to reorganise the BSI and formulate its involved with the preparation of site-specific, objectives. By 1955 the BSI had its headquar- environmental manuals for schoolteachers. ters in Calcutta with Circle Offices at Kalpavriksh was responsible for developing Coimbatore, Shillong, Pune and Dehra Dun. India’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Between 1962 and 1979, offices were estab- Plan in 2003. lished in Allahbad, Jodhpur, Port Blair, Itanagar and Gangtok. The BSI currently has nine regional centres. It carries out surveys of plant resources in different regions. The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies 11 Chapter1.p65 11 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  Zoological Survey of India (ZSI): The ZSI was in the US in the 1920s. He designed the early established in1916. Its mandate was to do a policies on wilderness conservation and wildlife systematic survey of fauna in India. It has over management. In the 1960s Rachel Carson pub- the years collected ‘type specimens’ on the bases lished several articles that caused immediate of which our animal life has been studied over worldwide concern on the effects of pesticides the years. Its origins were collections based at on nature and mankind. She wrote a well- the Indian Museum at Calcutta, which was es- known book called ‘Silent Spring’ which even- tablished in 1875. Older collections of the Asi- tually led to a change in Government policy and atic Society of Bengal, which were made public awareness. EO Wilson is an entomolo- between 1814 and 1875, as well as those of gist who envisioned that biological diversity was the Indian Museum made between 1875 and a key to human survival on earth. He wrote ‘Di- 1916 were then transferred to the ZSI. Today it versity of Life’ in 1993, which was awarded a has over a million specimens! This makes it one prize for the best book published on environ- of the largest collections in Asia. It has done an mental issues. His writings brought home to the enormous amount of work on taxonomy and world the risks to mankind due to man made ecology. It currently operates from 16 regional disturbances in natural ecosystems that are lead- centers. ing to the rapid extinction of species at the glo- bal level. 1.2.2 People in Environment There have been a number of individuals who have been instrumental in shaping the environ- There are several internationally known environ- mental history in our country. Some of the well- mental thinkers. Among those who have made known names in the last century include landmarks, the names that are usually men- environmentalists, scientists, administrators, le- tioned are Charles Darwin, Ralph Emerson, gal experts, educationists and journalists. Salim Henry Thoreau, John Muir, Aldo Leopald, Rachel Ali’s name is synonymous with ornithology in Carson and EO Wilson. Each of these thinkers India and with the Bombay Natural History So- looked at the environment from a completely ciety (BNHS). He also wrote several great books different perspective. Charles Darwin wrote including the famous ‘Book of Indian Birds’. His the ‘Origin of Species’, which brought to light autobiography, ‘Fall of a Sparrow’ should be the close relationship between habitats and spe- read by every nature enthusiast. He was our cies. It brought about a new thinking of man’s country’s leading conservation scientist and in- relationship with other species that was based fluenced environmental policies in our country on evolution. Alfred Wallace came to the same for over 50 years. Indira Gandhi as PM has conclusions during his work. Ralph Emerson played a highly significant role in the preserva- spoke of the dangers of commerce to our envi- tion of India’s wildlife. It was during her period ronment way back in the 1840s. Henry as PM, that the network of PAs grew from 65 Thoreau in the 1860s wrote that the wilder- to 298! The Wildlife Protection Act was formu- ness should be preserved after he lived in the lated during the period when she was PM and wild for a year. He felt that most people did not the Indian Board for Wildlife was extremely ac- care for nature and would sell it off for a small tive as she personally chaired all its meetings. sum of money. John Muir is remembered as India gained a name for itself by being a major having saved the great ancient sequoia trees in player in CITES and other International Environ- California’a forests. In the 1890s he formed the mental Treaties and Accords during her tenure. Sierra club, which is a major conservation NGO BNHS frequently used her good will to get con- in the USA. Aldo Leopald was a forest official servation action initiated by the Government. 12 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter1.p65 12 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  S P Godrej was one of India’s greatest support- local people for guarding their forest resources. ers of wildlife conservation and nature aware- His fight to prevent the construction of the Tehri ness programs. Between 1975 and 1999, SP Dam in a fragile earthquake prone setting is a Godrej received 10 awards for his conservation battle that he continues to wage. The Garhwal activities. He was awarded the Padma Bhushan Hills will always remember his dedication to the in 1999. His friendship with people in power cause for which he has walked over 20 thou- combined with his deep commitment for con- sand kilometers. servation led to his playing a major advocacy role for wildlife in India. M S Swaminathan is one of India’s foremost agricultural scientists and has also been concerned with various aspects of biodiversity conservation both of cultivars and wild biodiversity. He has founded the MS Swaminathan Research Foundation in Chennai, which does work on the conservation of bio- logical diversity. Madhav Gadgil is a well- known ecologist in India. His interests range from broad ecological issues such as develop- ing Community Biodiversity Registers and con- serving sacred groves to studies on the behaviour of mammals, birds and insects. He has written several articles, published papers in journals and is the author of 6 books. M C Mehta is un- doubtedly India’s most famous environmental lawyer. Since 1984, he has filed several Public Interest Litigations for supporting the cause of environmental conservation. His most famous and long drawn battles supported by the Su- preme Court include protecting the Taj Mahal, cleaning up the Ganges River, banning inten- sive shrimp farming on the coast, initiating Gov- ernment to implement environmental education in schools and colleges, and a variety of other conservation issues. Anil Agarwal was a jour- nalist who wrote the first report on the ‘State of India’s Environment’ in 1982. He founded the Center for Science and Environment which is an active NGO that supports various environ- mental issues. Medha Patkar is known as one of India’s champions who has supported the cause of downtrodden tribal people whose en- vironment is being affected by the dams on the Narmada river. Sunderlal Bahugna’s Chipko Movement has become an internationally well- known example of a highly successful conser- vation action program through the efforts of The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies 13 Chapter1.p65 13 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  UNIT 2: Natural Resources 2.1 INTRODUCTION 16 2.2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES 20 2.2.1 Natural resources and associated problems 20 2.2.2 Non-renewable resources 22 2.2.3 Renewable resources 22 a. Forest Resources: Use and over-exploitation, deforestation, case studies. 23 Timber extraction, mining, dams and their effects on forests and tribal people b. Water Resources: Use and over-utilisation of surface and ground water, 26 floods, drought, conflicts over water, dams – benefits and problems. c. Mineral Resources: Use and exploitation, environmental effects of extracting 30 and using mineral resources, case studies. d. Food Resources: World food problems, Changes in landuse by agriculture and 32 grazing, Effects of modern agriculture, Fertilizer/ pesticide problems, Water logging and salinity e. Energy Resources: Increasing energy needs, Renewable/ non renewable, 35 Use of Alternate energy sources, Case studies f. Land resources: Land as a resource, land degradation, man-induced land-slides, 48 soil erosion and desertification. 2.3 ROLE OF AN INDIVIDUAL IN CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 50 2.4 EQUITABLE USE OF RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE LIFESTYLES 51 Natural Resources 15 Chapter2.p65 15 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  2.1 INTRODUCTION History of our global environment: About ten thousand years ago, when mankind changed Our environment provides us with a variety of from a hunter-gatherer, living in wilderness ar- goods and services necessary for our day to day eas such as forests and grasslands, into an agri- lives. These natural resources include, air, wa- culturalist and pastoralist, we began to change ter, soil, minerals, along with the climate and the environment to suit our own requirements. solar energy, which form the non-living or ‘abi- As our ability to grow food and use domestic otic’ part of nature. The ‘biotic’ or living parts animals grew, these ‘natural’ ecosystems were of nature consists of plants and animals, includ- developed into agricultural land. Most traditional ing microbes. Plants and animals can only sur- agriculturists depended extensively on rain, vive as communities of different organisms, all streams and rivers for water. Later they began closely linked to each in their own habitat, and to use wells to tap underground water sources requiring specific abiotic conditions. Thus, for- and to impound water and created irrigated land ests, grasslands, deserts, mountains, rivers, lakes by building dams. Recently we began to use fer- and the marine environment all form habitats tilizers and pesticides to further boost the pro- for specialised communities of plants and ani- duction of food from the same amount of land. mals to live in. Interactions between the abiotic However we now realize that all this has led to aspects of nature and specific living organisms several undesirable changes in our environment. together form ecosystems of various types. Mankind has been overusing and depleting Many of these living organisms are used as our natural resources. The over-intensive use of land food resources. Others are linked to our food has been found to exhaust the capability of the less directly, such as pollinators and dispersers ecosystem to support the growing demands of of plants, soil animals like worms, which recycle more and more people, all requiring more in- nutrients for plant growth, and fungi and ter- tensive use of resources. Industrial growth, mites that break up dead plant material so that urbanisation, population growth and the enor- micro-organisms can act on the detritus to re- mous increase in the use of consumer goods, form soil nutrients. have all put further stresses on the environment. They create great quantities of solid waste. Pol- lution of air, water and soil have begun to seri- ously affect human health. Changes in land and resource use: During the last 100 years, a better health care delivery system and an improved nutritional status has led to rapid population growth, especially in the develop- ing countries. This phe- nomenal rise in human numbers has, in the recent past, placed great de- mands on the earth’s natural resources. Large stretches of land such as forests, grasslands and wetlands have been converted into intensive ag- riculture. Land has been taken for industry and 16 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter2.p65 16 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  the urban sectors. These changes have brought Earth’s Resources and Man: The resources on about dramatic alterations in land-use patterns which mankind is dependent are provided by and rapid disappearance of valuable natural eco- various sources or ‘spheres’. systems. The need for more water, more food, more energy, more consumer goods, is not only 1) Atmosphere the result of a greater population, but also the Oxygen for human respiration (metabolic re- result of over-utilization of resources by people quirements). from the more affluent societies, and the afflu- Oxygen for wild fauna in natural ecosystems ent sections of our own. and domestic animals used by man as food. Industrial development is aimed at meeting Oxygen as a part of carbon dioxide, used growing demands for all consumer items. How- for the growth of plants (in turn are used ever, these consumer goods also generate waste by man). in ever larger quantities. The growth of indus- trial complexes has led to a shift of people from The atmosphere forms a protective shell over their traditional, sustainable, rural way of life to the earth. The lowest layer, the troposphere, urban centers that developed around industry. the only part warm enough for us to survive in, During the last few decades, several small ur- is only 12 kilometers thick. The stratosphere is ban centers have become large cities, some have 50 kilometers thick and contains a layer of even become giant mega-cities. This has in- sulphates which is important for the formation creased the disparity between what the sur- of rain. It also contains a layer of ozone, which rounding land can produce and what the large absorbs ultra-violet light known to cause can- number of increasingly consumer-oriented cer and without which, no life could exist on people in these areas of high population den- earth. The atmosphere is not uniformly warmed sity consume. Urban centers cannot exist with- by the sun. This leads to air flows and variations out resources such as water from rivers and in climate, temperature and rainfall in different lakes, food from agricultural areas, domestic parts of the earth. It is a complex dynamic sys- animals from pasture lands and timber, fuel tem. If its nature is disrupted it affects all man- wood, construction material and other resources kind. Most air pollutants have both global and from forests. Rural agricultural systems are de- regional effects. pendent on forests, wetlands, grasslands, rivers and lakes. The result is a movement of natural Living creatures cannot survive without air even resources from the wilderness ecosystems and for a span of a few minutes. To continue to sup- agricultural sector to the urban user. The mag- port life, air must be kept clean. Major pollut- nitude of the shift of resources has been increas- ants of air are created by industrial units that ing in parallel with the growth of industry and release various gases such as carbon dioxide, urbanisation, and has changed natural land- carbon monoxide and toxic fumes into the air. scapes all over the world. In many cases, this Air is also polluted by burning fossil fuels. The has led to the rapid development of the urban buildup of carbon dioxide which is known as economy, but to a far slower economic devel- ‘greenhouse effect’ in the atmosphere is lead- opment for rural people and serious impover- ing to current global warming. The growing ishment of the lives of wilderness dwellers. The number of scooters, motorcycles, cars, buses and result is a serious inequality in the distribution trucks which run on fossil fuel (petrol and die- of resources among human beings, which is both sel) is a major cause of air pollution in cities and unfair and unsustainable. along highways. Natural Resources 17 Chapter2.p65 17 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  Air pollution leads to acute and chronic respira- Chemicals from industry and sewage find their tory diseases such as various lung infections, way into rivers and into the sea. Water pollu- asthma and even cancer. tion thus threatens the health of communities as all our lives depend on the availability of clean 2) Hydrosphere water. This once plentiful resource is now be- Clean water for drinking (a metabolic re- coming rare and expensive due to pollution. quirement for living processes). Water for washing and cooking. 3) Lithosphere Water used in agriculture and industry. Soil, the basis for agriculture to provide us Food resources from the sea, including fish, with food. crustacea, sea weed, etc. Stone, sand and gravel, used for construc- Food from fresh water sources, including tion. fish, crustacea and aquatic plants. Micronutrients in soil, essential for plant Water flowing down from mountain ranges growth. harnessed to generate electricity in hydro- Microscopic flora, small soil fauna and fungi electric projects. in soil, important living organisms of the lithosphere, which break down plant litter The hydrosphere covers three quarters of the as well as animal wastes to provide nutri- earth’s surface. A major part of the hydrosphere ents for plants. is the marine ecosystem in the ocean, while only a small part occurs in fresh water. Fresh water A large number of minerals on which our in rivers, lakes and glaciers, is perpetually being industries are based. renewed by a process of evaporation and rain- Oil, coal and gas, extracted from under- fall. Some of this fresh water lies in underground ground sources. It provides power for ve- aquifers. Human activities such as deforestation hicles, agricultural machinery, industry, and create serious changes in the hydrosphere. Once for our homes. land is denuded of vegetation, the rain erodes the soil which is washed into the sea. The lithosphere began as a hot ball of matter which formed the earth about 4.6 billion years ago. About 3.2 billion years ago, the earth cooled down considerably and a very special event took place - life began on our planet. The crust of the earth is 6 or 7 kilometers thick and lies under the continents. Of the 92 elements in the lithosphere only eight are common constitu- ents of crustal rocks. Of these constituents, 47% is oxygen, 28% is silicon, 8% is aluminium, 5% is iron, while sodium, magnesium, potassium and calcium constitute 4% each. Together, these elements form about 200 common min- eral compounds. Rocks, when broken down, form soil on which man is dependent for his agriculture. Their minerals are also the raw ma- terial used in various industries. 18 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter2.p65 18 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  4) Biosphere such as the amount of water within the pond at Food, from crops and domestic animals, different times of the year, the quantity of nu- providing human metabolic requirements. trients flowing into the pond from the surround- ing terrestrial ecosystem, all affect the ‘nature’ Food, for all forms of life which live as in- of the pond. terdependent species in a community and form food chains in nature on which man is Natural cycles between the spheres: All four dependent. spheres are closely inter-linked systems and are Energy needs: Biomass fuel wood collected dependent on the integrity of each other. Dis- from forests and plantations, along with turbing one of these spheres in our environment other forms of organic matter, used as a affects all the others. source of energy. Timber and other construction materials. The linkages between them are mainly in the form of cycles. For instance, the atmosphere, This is the relatively thin layer on the earth in hydrosphere and lithosphere are all connected which life can exist. Within it the air, water, rocks through the hydrological cycle. Water evapo- and soil and the living creatures, form structural rated from the hydrosphere (the seas and fresh- and functional ecological units, which together water ecosystems), forms clouds in the atmo- can be considered as one giant global living sys- sphere. This becomes rain, which provides mois- tem, that of our Earth itself. Within this frame- ture for the lithosphere, on which life depends. work, those characterised by broadly similar The rain also acts on rocks as an agent of ero- geography and climate, as well as communities sion and over millions of years has created soil, of plant and animal life can be divided for con- on which plant life grows. Atmospheric move- venience into different biogeographical realms. ments in the form of wind, break down rocks These occur on different continents. Within into soil. The most sensitive and complex link- these, smaller biogeographical units can be iden- ages are those between the atmosphere, the tified on the basis of structural differences and hydrosphere and the lithosphere on the one functional aspects into distinctive recognizable hand, with the millions of living organisms in ecosystems, which give a distinctive character the biosphere on the other. All living organisms to a landscape or waterscape. Their easily vis- which exist on earth live only in the relatively ible and identifiable characteristics can be de- thin layer of the lithosphere and hydrosphere scribed at different scales such as those of a that is present on the surface of land and in the country, a state, a district or even an individual water. The biosphere which they form has valley, hill range, river or lake. countless associations with different parts of the three other ‘spheres’. The simplest of these ecosystems to understand is a pond. It can be used as a model to under- It is therefore essential to understand the inter- stand the nature of any other ecosystem and to relationships of the separate entities soil, wa- appreciate the changes over time that are seen ter, air and living organisms, and to appreciate in any ecosystem. The structural features of a the value of preserving intact ecosystems as a pond include its size, depth and the quality of whole. its water. The periphery, the shallow part and the deep part of the pond, each provide spe- cific conditions for different plant and animal communities. Functionally, a variety of cycles Natural Resources 19 Chapter2.p65 19 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  Activity 1: water from irrigation systems but are still de- pendent on solar energy for the growth of crops. Observe a nearby pond in different sea- Moreover modern agriculture creates a variety sons and document the seasonal of environmental problems, which ultimately changes in it. One can also observe lead to the formation of unproductive land. changes in a river or the seasonal These include irrigation, which leads to the changes in a forest or grassland. development of saline soil, and the use of artifi- cial fertilizers eventually ruin soil quality, and pesticides, which are a health hazard for Activity 2: humans as well as destroying components vital to the long-term health of agricultural ecosys- Take a simple object in daily use and tems. track its components back to each of its spheres. To manufacture consumer products, industry requires raw materials from nature, including Eg: this textbook: paper from wood – water, minerals and power. During the manu- biosphere facturing process, the gases, chemicals and Water for pulping – hydrosphere waste products pollute our environment, unless the industry is carefully managed to clean up Bleach to whiten paper – a mineral this mess. from lithosphere 2.2.1 Natural resources and associated prob- 2.2 RENEWABLE AND NON-RENEWABLE RE- lems SOURCES The unequal consumption of natural re- Ecosystems act as resource producers and pro- sources: A major part of natural resources are cessors. Solar energy is the main driving force today consumed in the technologically advanced of ecological systems, providing energy for the or ‘developed’ world, usually termed ‘the North’. growth of plants in forests, grasslands and The ‘developing nations’ of ‘the South’, includ- aquatic ecosystems. A forest recycles its plant ing India and China, also over use many re- material slowly by continuously returning its sources because of their greater human popu- dead material, leaves, branches, etc. to the soil. lation. However, the consumption of resources Grasslands recycle material much faster than per capita (per individual) of the developed coun- forests as the grass dries up after the rains are tries is up to 50 times greater than in most de- over every year. All the aquatic ecosystems are veloping countries. Advanced countries produce also solar energy dependent and have cycles of over 75% of global industrial waste and green- growth when plant life spreads and aquatic house gases. animals breed. The sun also drives the water cycle. Energy from fossil fuels is consumed in relatively much greater quantities in developed countries. Our food comes from both natural and agricul- Their per capita consumption of food too is tural ecosystems. Traditional agricultural ecosys- much greater as well as their waste of enor- tems that depended on rainfall have been modi- mous quantities of food and other products, fied in recent times to produce more and more such as packaging material, used in the food food by the addition of extra chemicals and industry. The USA for example with just 4% of 20 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter2.p65 20 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  the world’s population consumes about 25% Land as a resource is now under serious pres- of the world’s resources. sure due to an increasing ‘land hunger’ - to pro- duce sufficient quantities of food for an explod- Producing animal food for human consumption ing human population. It is also affected by deg- requires more land than growing crops. Thus radation due to misuse. Land and water re- countries that are highly dependent on non-veg- sources are polluted by industrial waste and ru- etarian diets need much larger areas for ral and urban sewage. They are increasingly pastureland than those where the people are being diverted for short-term economic gains mainly vegetarian. to agriculture and industry. Natural wetlands of great value are being drained for agriculture and other purposes. Semi-arid land is being irrigated Planning Landuse: Land itself is a major re- and overused. source, needed for food production, animal husbandry, industry, and for our growing hu- The most damaging change in landuse is dem- man settlements. These forms of intensive land- onstrated by the rapidity with which forests have use are frequently extended at the cost of ‘wild vanished during recent times, both in India and lands’, our remaining forests, grasslands, wet- in the rest of the world. Forests provide us with lands and deserts. Thus it is essential to evolve a a variety of services. These include processes rational land-use policy that examines how much such as maintaining oxygen levels in the atmo- land must be made available for different pur- sphere, removal of carbon dioxide, control over poses and where it must be situated. For in- water regimes, and slowing down erosion and stance, there are usually alternate sites at which also produce products such as food, fuel, tim- industrial complexes or dams can be built, but a ber, fodder, medicinal plants, etc. In the long natural wilderness cannot be recreated artifi- term, the loss of these is far greater than the cially. Scientists today believe that at least 10 short-term gains produced by converting for- percent of land and water bodies of each eco- ested lands to other uses. system must be kept as wilderness for the long- term needs of protecting nature and natural resources. Natural Resources 21 Chapter2.p65 21 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  The need for sustainable lifestyles: The qual- 2.2.3 Renewable resources ity of human life and the quality of ecosystems on earth are indicators of the sustainable use of Though water and biological living resources are resources. There are clear indicators of sustain- considered renewable. They are in fact renew- able lifestyles in human life. able only within certain limits. They are linked to natural cycles such as the water cycle. Increased longevity Fresh water (even after being used) is evapo- An increase in knowledge rated by the sun’s energy, forms water vapour and is reformed in clouds and falls An enhancement of income. to earth as rain. However, water sources can be overused or wasted to such an ex- These three together are known as the ‘Human tent that they locally run dry. Water sources development index’. can be so heavily polluted by sewage and toxic substances that it becomes impossible The quality of the ecosystems have indicators to use the water. that are more difficult to assess. Forests, once destroyed take thousands of A stabilized population. years to regrow into fully developed natu- ral ecosystems with their full complement The long term conservation of biodiversity. of species. Forests thus can be said to be- have like non-renewable resources if over- The careful long-term use of natural re- used. sources. Fish are today being over-harvested until the The prevention of degradation and pollu- catch has become a fraction of the original tion of the environment. resource and the fish are incapable of breed- ing successfully to replenish the population. 2.2.2 Non-renewable resources The output of agricultural land if misman- aged drops drastically. These are minerals that have been formed in the lithosphere over millions of years and con- When the population of a species of plant stitute a closed system. These non-renewable or animal is reduced by human activities, resources, once used, remain on earth in a dif- until it cannot reproduce fast enough to ferent form and, unless recycled, become waste maintain a viable number, the species be- material. comes extinct. Non-renewable resources include fossil fuels Many species are probably becoming extinct such as oil and coal, which if extracted at the without us even knowing, and other linked present rate, will soon be totally used up. The species are affected by their loss. end products of fossil fuels are in the form of heat and mechanical energy and chemical com- pounds, which cannot be reconstituted as a re- source. 22 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter2.p65 22 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  a) Forest Resources The Dodo of Madagascar and the Cheetah in India are well known examples of extinct Use and overexploitation: Scientists estimate species. What is however not generally rec- that India should ideally have 33 percent of its ognized is that thousands of extinctions of land under forests. Today we have only about small plants and animals are occurring every 12 percent. Thus we need not only to protect year due to loss of their habitat. Over har- existing forests but also to increase our forest vesting and poaching threaten the existence cover. of many others. People who live in or near forests know the value of forest resources first hand because their lives and livelihoods depend directly on these re- Activity 3: Utilisation of resources sources. However, the rest of us also derive great benefits from the forests which we are rarely The use of a resource begins with its collec- aware of. The water we use depends on the tion, its processing into a useable product, existence of forests on the watersheds around and transport through a delivery system, river valleys. Our homes, furniture and paper are to the consumer who uses it. It also involves made from wood from the forest. We use many disposal of the waste products produced at medicines that are based on forest produce. And each step. Each step in resource use can af- we depend on the oxygen that plants give out fect the environment for better or worse. and the removal of carbon dioxide we breathe The control of these steps is known as en- out from the air. vironmental management. Forests once extended over large tracts of our Think of a resource you use and track it country. People have used forests in our coun- through these steps. try for thousands of years. As agriculture spread the forests were left in patches which were con- Eg. The cotton in the clothes you are wear- trolled mostly by tribal people. They hunted ani- ing. At each step note: mals and gathered plants and lived entirely on forest resources. Deforestation became a major What other resources are needed at this concern in British times when a large amount step to move the resource you chose to of timber was extracted for building their ships. the next? This led the British to develop scientific forestry in India. They however alienated local people What waste products are generated at by creating Reserved and Protected Forests that step? which curtailed access to the resources. This led to a loss of stake in the conservation of the for- How are they likely to be disposed off? ests which led to a gradual degradation and fragmentation of forests across the length and What pollutants are generated in the breadth of the country. process? Another period of overutilisation and forest deg- radation occurred in the early period following independence as people felt that now that the British had gone they had a right to using our forests in any way we pleased. The following Natural Resources 23 Chapter2.p65 23 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  FOREST FUNCTIONS Watershed protection: Reduce the rate of surface run-off of water. Prevent flash floods and soil erosion. Produces prolonged gradual run-off and thus prevent effects of drought. Atmospheric regulation: Absorption of solar heat during evapo-transpiration. Maintaining carbon dioxide levels for plant growth. Maintaining the local climatic conditions. Erosion control: Holding soil (by preventing rain from directly washing soil away). Land bank: Maintenance of soil nutrients and structure. Local use - Consumption of forest produce by local people who collect it for subsistence – (Consumptive use) Food - gathering plants, fishing, hunting from the forest. (In the past when wildlife was plentiful, people could hunt and kill animals for food. Now that populations of most wildlife species have diminished, continued hunting would lead to extinction.) Fodder - for cattle. Fuel wood and charcoal for cooking, heating. Poles - building homes especially in rural and wilderness areas. Timber – household articles and construction. Fiber - weaving of baskets, ropes, nets, string, etc. Sericulture – for silk. Apiculture - bees for honey, forest bees also pollinate crops. Medicinal plants - traditionally used medicines, investigating them as potential source for new modern drugs. Market use - (Productive use) Most of the above products used for consumptive purposes are also sold as a source of income for supporting the livelihoods of forest dwelling people. Minor forest produce - (non-wood products): Fuelwood, fruit, gum, fiber, etc. which are collected and sold in local markets as a source of income for forest dwellers. Major timber extraction - construction, industrial uses, paper pulp, etc. Timber extraction is done in India by the Forest Department, but illegal logging continues in many of the forests of India and the world. 24 Environmental Studies for Undergraduate Courses Chapter2.p65 24 4/9/2004, 5:07 PM  years saw India’s residual forest wealth dwindle sharply. Timber extraction continued to remain CASE STUDY the Forest Department’s main concern up to the 1970s. The fact that forest degradation and Joint Forest Management deforestation was creating a serious loss of the important functions of the forest began to over- The need to include local communities in ride its utilisation as a source of revenue from Forest Management has become a growing timber. concern. Local people will only support greening an area if they can see some eco- nomic benefit from conservation. An infor- Deforestation: Where civilizations have looked mal arrangement between local communi- after forests by usin