English Morphosyntax PDF

English Morphosyntax What is Morphology? Morphology is a part of grammar that focuses on the structure of words. What is Grammar? Grammar is a set of rules we use to understand language. Instead of focusing on rules, we 2 explore how language works practically. Grammar has two ma...

English Morphosyntax What is Morphology? Morphology is a part of grammar that focuses on the structure of words. What is Grammar? Grammar is a set of rules we use to understand language. Instead of focusing on rules, we 2 explore how language works practically. Grammar has two main parts: 1. Morphology: studying words.. Syntax: studying how sentences are formed. For example, the word morphology can be broken down into parts (morph-o-log-y), with each part contributing meaning. Example: The word unbelievable has four parts: Un-: a negative prefix (means "not"). Believe: the base word. -able: means "able to." What’s a Word? In morphology, a word is a single unit of language, used in writing or speaking. For instance: Friend and friends are two different words because they serve different purposes. Friend cannot be divided further, but friends adds an "s" to make it plural. 2 Morphology divides "word" into two concepts: 1. Word: the smallest meaningful unit in language.. Lexeme: the dictionary form of a word (e.g., "run" is the lexeme, while "runs" or "running" are different forms of it). Examples of Word Parts Words can be divided into smaller parts called morphemes. Examples: Un-believ-able: ○ Un- (prefix: meaning "not") ○ Believe (base word) ○ -able (suffix: meaning "able to do"). Friend-s: ○ Friend (base word, meaning a person you know). ○ -s (suffix, meaning plural). What is a Morpheme? 2 A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that has meaning. It can be: 1. Lexical: carries the main meaning (e.g., friend in friends).. Grammatical: shows relationships between words (e.g., -s in friends for plural). Key Points: Morphemes are abstract ideas that make up words.  They include roots (the core meaning) and affixes (prefixes and suffixes that change meaning or use). Example: In forgivable: ○ Forgiv- is the root (main meaning: to pardon). ○ -able is a suffix (meaning "able to"). Special Cases. Blended Words: ○ Example: Instagram (blend of "instant" + "photograph"). ○ The root is harder to identify.. Analyzing Words: ○ Unforgivable has three morphemes: ◆ Un- (prefix: "not"). ◆ Forgiv- (root: the main idea). ◆ -able (suffix: "able to"). ○ Unbelievable has three morphemes: ◆ Un- is a grammatical morpheme. Polymorphemic vs. Monomorphemic Words Polymorphemic Words: Have multiple morphemes (e.g., unbelievable). Monomorphemic Words: Have only one morpheme (e.g., friend). Polymorphemic words are often used creatively, like in advertisements. More Examples Friendlier: ○ -li (lexical morpheme: carries meaning). ○ -er (grammatical morpheme: shows comparison). Defriend: A word created with the rise of social media, meaning "to remove a friend." Types of Morphology Morphology studies how morphemes combine and fit into grammar. There are two types:. Inflectional Morphology ○ Focuses on grammatical changes, like making words plural or changing tenses. ○ Example: In the sentence "There are two friends", friend adapts to become friends to match the context.. Derivational Morphology ○ Focuses on creating new words or meanings. ○ Example: Words like Instagram (a blend of “instant” + “photograph”). ○ English also creates verbs from nouns, like: ◆ I WhatsApped you ◆ I bussed you Key Vocabulary Inflectional = Functional = Grammatical Derivational = Lexical What is Inflectional Morphology? What is Inflectional Morphology? Inflectional morphology deals with grammatical changes to fit words into sentences. Examples: -ing in clicking: shows present continuous tense. -s in girls: shows plural. -ed in tweeted: shows past tense. Grammatical inflections are not very common in English compared to Latin, where endings matter more. In English, word order plays a bigger role in sentence meaning. Focus on the Morpheme ’s The ’s is an inflectional morpheme used to indicate possession. Example: Lucy’s car is in the garden (Lucy owns the car). The ’s can also indicate:. Measurement (a day’s work = amount of work in a day).. Descriptions or origins. Derivational Morphology Derivational morphology studies how new words are formed by adding elements like prefixes and suffixes. Example: -ment in government – used to describe a system or group of people managing a community. Morphemes, Morphs, and Allomorphs. Morpheme: ○ Abstract idea, the smallest meaningful unit in a language. ○ Example: ◆ Houses = 2 morphemes: ◇ house (base meaning). ◇ -s (plural).. Morphs: ○ The concrete realization (physical form) of morphemes in speech or writing. ○ Example: ◆ In friends: ◇ 2 morphemes (friend + -s). ◇ 2 morphs: friend (word) and -s (plural ending).. Allomorphs: ○ Variations of a morpheme. Example: Irregular past tense forms like written are exceptions because -en is not a typical suffix. Focus on Irregular Verbs Irregular verbs can be grouped based on their inflection types: Examples: ○ Put – put – put → Zero morph (no change in form). ○ Swim – swam – swum → Vowel mutation. ○ Speak – spoke – spoken → Vowel mutation + irregular inflection.  ○ Speak – spoke – spoken → Vowel mutation + irregular inflection. ○ Lose – lost – lost → Replacing morphs. ○ Go – went – gone → Suppletion (entirely different forms). Allomorphs Allomorphs are different phonetic or graphic realizations of the same morpheme. Examples: ○ Singular and plural forms like cat vs. cats. ○ Verb forms like watch vs. watches. Types of Morphemes Morphemes can be classified into Free and Bound types:. Free Morphemes ○ These can stand alone as words. ○ Categories: ◆ Free Lexical Morphemes: ◇ Carry dictionary meaning (e.g., friend, book). ◇ Belong to content word categories like nouns, verbs, etc. ◆ Free Functional Morphemes: ◇ Have grammatical roles (e.g., and, but). ◇ Often express relationships in a sentence.. Bound Morphemes ○ These cannot exist alone and must attach to another word. ○ Subcategories: ◆ Derivational Morphemes: ◇ Change the meaning of a word (e.g., un- in unbelievable). ◆ Inflectional Morphemes: ◇ Show grammatical functions (e.g., -s for plural). Bound Morphemes Bound morphemes, also known as affixes, include prefixes and suffixes: Prefixes: ○ Appear before the root morpheme (e.g., un- in unhappy). ○ Usually do not change the word's class but alter its meaning (e.g., happy vs. unhappy). Suffixes: ○ Appear after the root morpheme (e.g., -able in believable). ○ Can change the word's class (e.g., believe [verb] → believable [adjective]). Derivational Morphology and Word Formation Strategies Example The word "noob" means a beginner. It started as a neologism in youth slang and has now been included in official dictionaries. Word Formation Processes Word Formation Processes - Word Families: Words like “nation", “nationality", and "international" belong to the same family because they share the root "nation". Semantic Change (Meaning Shift) Definition: When the meaning of a word changes. The old meaning remains, but new meanings are added. ○ Example: "Mail" used to mean a physical letter but now also refers to electronic mail. Compounding Definition: The combination of two or more free morphemes to create a new word with a new meaning. ○ Example: "Password" (pass + word). Types of Compounds: ○ Adjective + Noun: "green light". ○ Two Adjectives: "bitter-sweet". ○ Noun + Adjective: "user-friendly" (Note: "friendly" is always an adjective). ○ Verb + Noun: "checklist". ○ Verb + Verb: "stir-fry". Details about Compounds Compounds can be written as one word, with a space, or with a hyphen (e.g., "fund- raiser"). The meaning is not always obvious: ○ "School day": The head is "day" → A type of day. ○ "Day school": The head is "school" → A type of school (operating during the day). Types of Compounds Endocentric Compounds: ○ The meaning of the compound is contained within the word. ○ Examples: right fight, bedroom. Exocentric Compounds: ○ The meaning lies outside the compound and depends on context. ○ Examples: paperback, hardback. Copulative Compounds: ○ Both morphemes contribute equally to the meaning. ○ Example: African-American. Note: Compounds create new words with new meanings, different from simple word combinations or collocations. They can have more than two elements, e.g., state of the art, made in Italy. Affixation Definition: Adding affixes (prefixes or suffixes) at the beginning or end of a term. ○ Example: Googol, Megatron. Prefixes: ○ Can maintain the word class but alter meaning. ○ Examples: disappear, non-standard, intercultural. Suffixes: ○ Often change the word class. ○ Examples: ◆ sad → sadly (adjective → adverb). ◆ sad → sadness (adjective → noun). Trends: New affixes often emerge from social media and pop culture. ○ Examples: alcoholic, shopaholic, telethon. Conversion (Zero Derivation) Definition: Changing a word’s class without altering its form. ○ Example: ◆ dry (adjective) → dry (verb). ◆ facetime (app name) → facetime (verb: "to facetime"). Backformation Definition: The opposite of affixation, where a long word is shortened by removing affixes. ○ Examples: ◆ editor → edit ◆ babysitter → babysit Acronyms and Initialisms Acronyms: Words formed from the initials of phrases, pronounced as one word. ○ Examples: RAM (Random Access Memory), FAQ (Frequently Asked Questions), LOL, OMG. Initialisms: Similar to acronyms but pronounced letter by letter. ○ Examples: USA, NATO, IT, WWW. Key Idea: Both forms shorten long phrases into simpler words. Clipping Definition: Shortening words by cutting parts (beginning, end, or middle). ○ Examples: ◆ Flu → influenza ◆ Gym → gymnasium ◆ Prof → professor ◆ Ad → advertisement Blending Definition: Combining two words or parts of words to create one new term. ○ Examples: ◆ Brunch (breakfast + lunch) ◆ Camcorder (camera + recorder) ◆ Smog (smoke + fog) Modern Use: Often used in social media to form trendy hashtags. Reduplication Definition: Creating words by repeating or rhyming parts of a word, often for emphasis or humor. ○ Types of Reduplication: ◆ Exact: mama, papa. ◆ Ablaut: Alternating vowels (zig-zag, flip-flop). ◆ Rhyme: Changing consonants (hodge-podge, fuddy-duddy). Loanwords (Borrowing) Definition: Taking words from another language. ○ Examples: Pizza and croissant from Italian and French. Idioms An idiom is a group of words with a fixed and conventional meaning (e.g., "spill the beans," "under the weather"). Marketers often adapt language creatively, such as McDonald's using "I'm feeling you" despite it being ungrammatical in standard English. Word Formation Issues. With "-ly": ○ "-ly" can be inflectional (e.g., "quickly") or derivational (e.g., "happily").. With Compounds: ○ Compounds combine nouns, adjectives, or verbs (e.g., "greenhouse"). ○ Phrasal verbs ("burn down") are not compounds but behave like phrases. Prescriptivism vs. Descriptivism Prescriptivism: Sets strict grammar rules. Descriptivism: Observes how language is actually used. Grammatical Categories Lexical morphemes (e.g., "cat," "run") form words. Grammatical morphemes (e.g., tense, number) add structure to sentences. Synthetic languages (e.g., Latin): Use inflections for grammar. Analytic languages (e.g., English): Use word order for grammar. Grammatical Categories in English. Nominal Categories:  ○ Number: Singular vs. plural (e.g., "dog" vs. "dogs"). ◆ Expressed by -s, irregular forms, demonstratives (e.g., "this/these"), and pronouns (e.g., "I/we"). ◆ Includes the generic number (e.g., "the dog is loyal" to mean all dogs). ○ Gender: Masculine, feminine, neuter, and common (e.g., "he," "she," "they"). ○ Case: Indicates the grammatical function of a noun or pronoun: ◆ Nominative case: Subject (e.g., "I study"). ◆ Genitive case: Possession (e.g., "my parent’s car"). ◆ Objective case: Object of a verb (e.g., "I study English"). ○ Degree: Positive (e.g., "fast"), Comparative (e.g., "faster"), and Superlative (e.g., "fastest"). The Genitive Case Types of genitives: ○ Possessive: "My parent’s car." ○ Subjective: "The prisoners’ escape" (they perform the action). ○ Objective: "The hostages’ release" (they are the object of the action). ○ Descriptive: "A man of wisdom" or "workers’ rights." ○ Partitive: "A member of the crowd." ○ Measure: "A week’s vacation." English as an SVO Language English follows the Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) order. ○ Example: "The ship stuck the dock" → "ship" (subject), "dock" (object). Verbal Categories. Tense: Indicates when an action happens. ○ Present: Non-past, used for habits or facts. ○ Past: Actions or states in the past. ○ Future: Formed using "will," "shall," or periphrasis like "be going to.". Aspect: Explains how an event is viewed (e.g., completed or ongoing). ○ Complete (perfective aspect): e.g., past simple. ○ Ongoing (imperfective aspect): e.g., continuous forms or perfect forms. Mood: Reflects the speaker's attitude towards the event: ○ Fact (Indicative): Used for factual statements. ○ Nonfact: Includes: ◆ Imperative: Commands (e.g., "God save the king"). ◆ Subjunctive: Hypothetical or non-real scenarios, using "modal auxiliary + infinitive." Voice: Differentiates between: ○ Active: The subject performs the action. ○ Passive: The subject is affected by the action.  ◆ Passive is typically formed with "to be" or "get" + verb. Notional Passive: This occurs when a verb looks active but conveys a passive meaning, e.g., "The cook should cook slowly" implies a passive notion behind the active form. Similarly, "There are dishes to do" implies passive meaning ("dishes to be done"). Identifying Word Classes (example: "down") Adverb: "Alex is feeling rather down today" (modifies "feeling"). Preposition: "Write your address down for me" (part of the phrasal verb "write down"). Verb: "On a date, he downed the whole beer" (action verb). Noun: "There was a first down" (used as a noun). Adjective: "The computers are down today" (describes the computers). Main Classification of Word Classes. Traditional Eight Classes: ○ Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, article.. Types: ○ Close Word Classes: Fixed, no new words added (e.g., articles, auxiliary verbs, prepositions). ○ Open Word Classes: New words can be added (e.g., nouns, adjectives, adverbs).. Definitions: ○ Word Class: A group of words that behave the same morphologically (e.g., same suffixes like "-s" for plural nouns) and syntactically (used in the same way in sentences). Focus on Nouns. Types of Nouns: ○ Common Nouns: General items (e.g., "dog"). ○ Proper Nouns: Specific names (e.g., "Milan"), usually capitalized and not pluralized (except in rare cases).. Special Nouns: ○ Aggregate Nouns: Refer to groups (e.g., "police," "goods"). ○ Collective Nouns: Can be singular or plural, depending on usage (e.g., "team," "family"). Collective and Traditional Noun Distinctions Collective Nouns: Can be singular or plural, e.g., "The family is/are spending Christmas at home." Count Nouns: Can be pluralized and counted, e.g., "books." Noncount Nouns: Represent bulk substances, e.g., "water." Both Count and Noncount: Words like "fish" (fish/fishes) and "cheese" (cheese/cheeses). Concrete Nouns: Represent observable, measurable entities, e.g., "table."  Abstract Nouns: Represent intangible concepts, e.g., "love." Gender Categorization: Inanimate Nouns: Refer to non-living things. Animate Nouns: Refer to living beings. ○ Personal Animate Nouns: Humans. ○ Non-Personal Animate Nouns: Animals. Summary: Identifying Nouns, Adverbs, and Adjectives. Criteria for Identifying a Noun: ○ Belongs to an open class. ○ Comes after a determiner (e.g., "a dog"). ○ Can act as a subject, object, or complement. ○ Morphologically marked for singular/plural or genitive case.. Adjectives: ○ Can appear attributively (before a noun, e.g., "beautiful door"). ○ Can appear predicatively (after a verb, e.g., "The door is beautiful"). ○ Often derived from other words (e.g., beauty → beautiful). ○ Can form comparatives and superlatives (e.g., "beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful").. Adverbs: ○ Modify adjectives, verbs, or other adverbs. ○ Post-modified adverbs (e.g., "good enough"): Come after the adjective. ○ Pre-modified adverbs (e.g., "barely visible"): Come before. Determiners Determiners limit or define nouns and are divided into: ○ Pre-determiners: Appear before the main determiner (e.g., "such a good idea"). ○ Central Determiners: The main determiner (e.g., "a good idea"). ○ Post-determiners: Appear after the central determiner (e.g., numerals like "the two cars"). DETERMINERS Definition: Words that limit the noun they refer to. Types: ○ Pre-determiners: Appear before the main determiner (e.g., "such a good student"). ○ Central determiners: The main determiners (e.g., "the", "this"). ○ Post-determiners: Follow the central determiner (e.g., "two apples"). Numerals: ○ When before a noun, they are determiners (e.g., "two books"). ○ When alone, they are nouns (e.g., "Seven is my lucky number"). VERBS  Key Distinctions:. Lexical vs Auxiliary verbs (e.g., "to be", "to have", "to do").. Dynamic vs Stative (e.g., action vs state).. Present vs Past.. Finite vs Non-finite. Verb and Verb-Phrases: ○ Verb phrases describe how a verb is used in context. ○ Example: ◆ "I saw an elephant" (verb phrase = "saw"). ◆ "They could not have seen one" (verb phrase = "could not have seen"). Auxiliary Verbs: ○ Assist the main verb (e.g., "They are going to"). ○ Forms include "to be", "to have", "to do". ASPECTS OF VERBS Perfect Aspect: ○ Formed using: have + verb-ed/en (past participle). ○ Links actions to the present (e.g., “I’ve graduated”) or shows habits or repeated actions. ○ Example: “Davide has bought a new house.” Progressive Aspect: ○ Shows ongoing action (e.g., “The class is going to the theatre tonight.”). VOICE Distinguishes active and passive forms. ○ Active: Subject performs the action. ◆ Example: “James decided to cancel the party.” ○ Passive: Subject receives the action. ◆ Example: “The lecturer was impressed by your essay.” MODALS Central Modals: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, must, would. ○ Behave as pure modal verbs. Marginal Modals: need, dare, ought to, used to. Other Modal-Like Expressions: ○ Modal Idioms: had better, would rather. ○ Semi-Auxiliaries: have to, be supposed to. ○ Catenatives: appear to, seem to. ○ Main Verbs with Nonfinite Clauses: begin to, want to, hope to. Identifying Modals: ○ Identify central modals first, then marginal ones (e.g., “seem to” behaves like a modal). PRACTICAL EXERCISES Analyze parts of speech: ○ Examples: ◆ Has continued → Verb. ◆ Its (employee) → Determiner + Noun. ◆ Coffee → Noun. ◆ That → Pronoun. ◆ Inherently → Adverb. SUBJUNCTIVE Subjunctive Present: ○ Same as the base verb form for all persons, with no auxiliary verbs. ○ Used for: ◆ Mandative Rule: Expressing demands (e.g., “I demand that he leave”). ◆ Formulas/Standard Expressions: (e.g., “God save the King”). Subjunctive Past: ○ Similar to the past tense, but often uses were (e.g., “If I were you”). ○ Used in: ◆ Conditional Clauses: Unreal situations (e.g., “Were I to come...”). ◆ After Certain Verbs/Expressions: (e.g., “I suggest that he study”). Key Rule: Subjunctive verbs are not inflected (no -s, -ed endings). Examples: ○ “I demand that you recount the vote.” (Mandative subjunctive). ○ “The committee insists that you not participate.” (Mandative subjunctive). ○ “John, sit over here.” (Imperative; no subjunctive). FULL VERBS & AUXILIARIES Full Verbs: Carry clear meaning (e.g., “Joe did his homework”). Auxiliaries: Support grammatical structure (e.g., do, have, be). ○ Even without another verb, they can act as main verbs (e.g., “Anna had dinner early”). ASPECTS IN VERBS Progressive Aspect: ○ Indicates ongoing actions: be + verb-ing (e.g., “I was washing the car”). ○ Distinction: ◆ Static Verbs: Describe states, not used in progressive (e.g., “I love this”). ◆ Dynamic Verbs: Show actions or processes. Perfect Aspect: ○ Indicates completion: have + verb-ed/en (e.g., “I’ve finished my work”). ○ Links past actions to the present or expresses repeated habits. Perfect and Progressive Aspects Perfect Aspect: Indicates a completed action linked to the present or a repeated habit. Structure: have + verb-ed/en. Example: Davide has bought a new house. Progressive Aspect: Shows an ongoing action. Structure: be + verb-ing. Example: The whole class is going to the theatre tonight. These aspects can be combined, e.g., I have been waiting for ages. Voice: Active vs. Passive Active Voice: The subject performs the action. Example: James decided to cancel the party. Passive Voice: The subject receives the action. Example: The lecturer was impressed by your essay. Modals Central Modals: Key modals that do not change form or indicate tense. Examples: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must. Marginal Modals: Behave similarly to modals. Examples: need, dare, ought to, used to. Other Modal Categories: ○ Modal idioms: had better, would rather. ○ Semi-auxiliaries: have to, be supposed to. ○ Catenatives: appear to, seem to. ○ Main verbs + nonfinite clause: begin to, want to. To identify modals, start with central ones, then check marginal ones. Practical Exercises: Word Classes Examples of word classifications: Has discontinued: Verb. Its (employee): Determiner + noun. Two (of his): Numeral. Intention: Noun. Inherently: Adverb. Syntax Basics Phrase: The smallest unit of syntax (e.g., a noun or verb). Clause: A larger unit, made of phrases, forming a meaningful idea. Sentence: Made up of one or more clauses. Example: "The black Labrador I was chewing a juicy bone very noisily." Split into phrases: ○ "The black Labrador" (noun phrase) ○ "I was chewing" (verb phrase) ○ "a juicy bone" (noun phrase) ○ "very noisily" (adverb phrase) Heads of Phrases Every phrase has a "head," which is its core word. Example: ○ "Labrador" is the head of "The black Labrador." Without it, the phrase loses meaning. Types of Heads:. Nouns: Head of noun phrases (e.g., "Labrador").. Verbs: Head of verb phrases (e.g., "chewing").. Adjectives/Adverbs/Prepositions: Can also act as heads in their respective phrases. Structure and Analysis. Phrases can expand with extra words (e.g., "like cream" in "The cats like cream").. Breaking Down Sentences: ○ Use brackets or tree diagrams to show the structure of phrases. Example Sentence: "The Irish defeated the Italians at rugby." Analysis:. "The Irish" → Noun phrase (head = "Irish").. "Defeated" → Verb phrase (head = "defeated").. "The Italians at rugby" → Noun phrase with "rugby" being a prepositional phrase. Focus on Premodifiers and Postmodifiers Premodifiers: Add information to a noun. Common forms: Adjective phrases, noun phrases, or nouns-as-possessives. ○ Examples: an expensive idea, a leather suitcase, the London experience. Rarely include adverbs or phrases. Examples: the then teacher, do-as-you-please attitude. Postmodifiers: Add details after the head noun. Types: ○ Prepositional phrases: the proposal for a new building. ○ Relative clauses: the committee which put forward last week.  ○ Adverb phrases: he read the letter carefully. Key Clauses:. Relative clauses: the belief that God exists.. That-clauses: the proposal that was accepted.. Comparative clauses: She sang louder than him. Notes: Adverbs can split verb phrases, but this doesn't affect analysis. Example: They have certainly been told off. Adjective and adverb phrases are usually modified by intensifiers like very or rather. Example: She felt very aggressive. Prepositional phrases can also contain nouns or clauses. Example: Thank you for coming (clause). Practical Exercises: Identify the type of phrase in the examples provided:. House is unbelievably expensive → Adjective phrase.. We met Paul last week → Verb phrase.. The car that won → Noun phrase.. Eating out in restaurants → Prepositional phrase. Clauses and Sentences. Clause: A unit of grammar larger than a phrase, usually with: ○ A subject ○ A verb (often finite) ○ Other elements like objects or complements.. Sentence: The largest grammatical unit. ○ Made up of at least one clause. ○ Can have one clause (simple sentence) or multiple clauses (complex or compound). Types of Clauses Simple Clause: One clause only. Complex Clause: Main clause + subordinate clause(s). Compound Clause: Two or more main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. Elements in Clauses Subject: Who or what the sentence is about. Verb: The action or state. Object: What is affected by the action. Complement: Gives more information about the subject or object. Adverbial: Provides extra information (time, place, manner, etc.). Form vs. Function. Form (structure): ○ Declarative: Statements (SVO order, e.g., "She runs."). ○ Interrogative: Questions (e.g., "Does she run?"). ○ Imperative: Commands (no subject, e.g., "Run!"). ○ Exclamative: Expressions of emotion (e.g., "What a run!").. Function (purpose): ○ The form and function can differ. For example: ◆ A declarative form ("You’re closing the door.") might have an imperative function (a polite command). Key Takeaways A clause is larger than a phrase but smaller than a sentence. A sentence can be one main clause or a combination of clauses. Form (structure) doesn’t always match function (purpose). Declarative Sentences Structure: Subject + Verb + Object (SVO). Purpose: To make statements. Example: I am reading a book on animals. ○ I = Subject ○ am reading = Verb ○ a book = Object ○ on animals = Adverbial. Simple vs. Complex Sentences. Simple Sentence: Contains one main clause. ○ Example: I know a man. ◆ Subject: I ◆ Verb: know ◆ Object: a man ○ This sentence is complete on its own.. Complex Sentence: Contains a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. ○ Example: I know a man who has an irrational fear of spiders. ◆ Main clause: I know a man. ◆ Subordinate clause: who has an irrational fear of spiders. ○ Key Point: If you remove the subordinate clause, the main clause still works (I know a man).. Another example: The man knows that his fear of spiders is irrational. ○ Main clause: The man knows. ○ Subordinate clause: that his fear of spiders is irrational. ○ Key Point: Removing the subordinate clause makes the main clause incomplete. Compound Sentences  Definition: Combines two or more main clauses at the same level using coordination. Coordinating Conjunctions: and, or, but, so. Example: I was sleeping, and she walked in the room. ○ Clause 1: I was sleeping. ○ Clause 2: She walked in the room. ○ Both clauses are independent and equal in status. Summary Simple and Complex Sentences: Involve subordination (main + subordinate clause). Compound Sentences: Involve coordination (two or more main clauses).