Virgil and Aeneid PDF

Virgil and Aeneid On the Mediterranean Sea, Aeneas and his fellow Trojans flee from their home city of Troy, which has been destroyed by the Greeks. They sail for Italy, where Aeneas is destined to found Rome. As they near their destination, a fierce storm throws them off course and lands them in C...

Virgil and Aeneid On the Mediterranean Sea, Aeneas and his fellow Trojans flee from their home city of Troy, which has been destroyed by the Greeks. They sail for Italy, where Aeneas is destined to found Rome. As they near their destination, a fierce storm throws them off course and lands them in Carthage. Dido, Carthage’s founder and queen, welcomes them. Aeneas relates to Dido the long and painful story of his group’s travels thus far. Key Points: - The epic opens with Aeneas and his fleet sailing from Troy after its destruction. Juno, who harbors animosity towards the Trojans, causes a storm to shipwreck them near Carthage. Here, Aeneas encounters Dido, the queen of Carthage, who becomes enamored with him. Aeneas tells of the sack of Troy that ended the Trojan War after ten years of Greek siege. In the final campaign, the Trojans were tricked when they accepted into their city walls a wooden horse that, unbeknownst to them, harbored several Greek soldiers in its hollow belly. He tells how he escaped the burning city with his father, Anchises; his son, Ascanius; and the hearth gods that represent their fallen city. Key Points: - Aeneas recounts the fall of Troy, detailing the Greeks’ deceitful use of the Trojan Horse and the subsequent sack of the city. He describes his escape and the loss of many companions. Assured by the gods that a glorious future awaited him in Italy, he set sail with a fleet containing the surviving citizens of Troy. Aeneas relates the ordeals they faced on their journey. Twice they attempted to build a new city, only to be driven away by bad omens and plagues. Harpies, creatures that are part woman and part bird, cursed them, but they also encountered friendly countrymen unexpectedly. Finally, after the loss of Anchises and a bout of terrible weather, they made their way to Carthage. Key Points: - Aeneas and his followers embark on a journey, visiting various locations. They experience prophecies and omens that guide them, ultimately arriving at the shores of Italy. Impressed by Aeneas’s exploits and sympathetic to his suffering, Dido, a Phoenician princess who fled her home and founded Carthage after her brother murdered her husband, falls in love with Aeneas. They live together as lovers for a period, until the gods remind Aeneas of his duty to found a new city. He is determined to set sail once again. Dido is devastated by his departure, and kills herself by ordering a huge pyre to be built with Aeneas’s castaway possessions, climbing upon it, and stabbing herself with the sword Aeneas leaves behind. Key Points - Dido, now deeply in love with Aeneas, proposes they rule together, but Aeneas, bound by duty to fulfill his fate, decides to leave. Heartbroken, Dido takes her own life, cursing Aeneas. Book 3: Detailed Summary Departure from Troy: Aeneas begins by narrating the next stages of their journey to the Trojan refugees. After escaping Troy, he leads the survivors, who are deeply grieving their lost home. The First Stops: The Island of Delos: Aeneas and his fleet first stop at Delos, the sacred island of Apollo. Here, they consult the oracle of Apollo, who tells them to seek out their "ancestors' land." Aeneas interprets this to mean they should go to Italy, as he has been destined to find a new homeland there. The Journey to Crete: Crete: Following the oracle's advice, they sail to Crete. However, their efforts to settle there are thwarted by a plague and a series of natural disasters, leading Aeneas to believe that they are not meant to stay. They receive another prophecy, indicating they must keep moving. The Land of the Harpies: Buthrotum: Aeneas and his men next encounter the Harpies, terrifying bird-women who steal their food. In a confrontation, one of the Harpies, Celaeno, curses Aeneas, saying that they will not find peace until they are so hungry that they eat their tables. This ominous warning adds tension to their journey. The Encounter with the Greeks: The Abandonment of Crete: After leaving Crete, Aeneas learns about the fate of other Trojans who had settled there, facing various challenges. This emphasizes the hardships faced by the Trojans and the sense of loss that accompanies their journey. The Arrival at Italy: The Shores of Italy: Eventually, Aeneas arrives on the shores of Italy. They land in the region of the Latins, and Aeneas feels a sense of destiny and purpose in this new land. The Prophecy of the Sibyl: The Visit to the Sibyl: Aeneas receives a vision from the Sibyl of Cumae, who foretells that his journey will be fraught with challenges. She instructs him on the importance of the land he is destined to settle and the future glory of Rome. Foreshadowing the Future: The Scene of the Shield: The Sibyl shows Aeneas visions of the future, hinting at the greatness of the Roman people, but also the struggles they will face. This prophecy foreshadows not just Aeneas's personal challenges but also the broader historical significance of the Roman Empire. As the Trojans make for Italy, bad weather blows them to Sicily, where they hold funeral games for the dead Anchises. The women, tired of the voyage, begin to burn the ships, but a downpour puts the fires out. Some of the travel-weary stay behind, while Aeneas, reinvigorated after his father visits him in a dream, takes the rest on toward Italy. Once there, Aeneas descends into the underworld, guided by the Sibyl of Cumae, to visit his father. He is shown a pageant of the future history and heroes of Rome, which helps him to understand the importance of his mission. Aeneas returns from the underworld, and the Trojans continue up the coast to the region of Latium. Key Points: - Aeneas holds games in honor of his deceased father, Anchises, and remembers his lost friends. The Trojans face further challenges, including the intervention of Juno. - Aeneas travels to the Underworld, guided by the Sibyl of Cumae. There, he meets the spirits of the dead, including Anchises, who reveals the future of Rome and its destined glory. The arrival of the Trojans in Italy begins peacefully. King Latinus, the Italian ruler, extends his hospitality, hoping that Aeneas will prove to be the foreigner whom, according to a prophecy, his daughter Lavinia is supposed to marry. But Latinus’s wife, Amata, has other ideas. She means for Lavinia to marry Turnus, a local suitor. Amata and Turnus cultivate enmity toward the newly arrived Trojans. Meanwhile, Ascanius hunts a stag that was a pet of the local herdsmen. A fight breaks out, and several people are killed. Turnus, riding this current of anger, begins a war. Key Points: - Aeneas arrives in Italy and is welcomed by King Latinus, who offers his daughter, Lavinia, in marriage. However, Turnus, a local warrior, opposes the Trojans, leading to conflict. Aeneas, at the suggestion of the river god Tiberinus, sails north up the Tiber to seek military support among the neighboring tribes. During this voyage, his mother, Venus, descends to give him a new set of weapons, wrought by Vulcan. While the Trojan leader is away, Turnus attacks. Aeneas returns to find his countrymen embroiled in battle. Pallas, the son of Aeneas’s new ally Evander, is killed by Turnus. Aeneas flies into a violent fury, and many more are slain by the day’s end. Key Points: - Aeneas seeks allies and receives armor crafted by Vulcan, the god of fire, including a shield depicting the future of Rome. This emphasizes the theme of fate and destiny. - Turnus and his forces attack the Trojans while Aeneas is away. The Trojans struggle to defend their camp, and the situation grows dire. - Aeneas returns to battle. He fights bravely, showcasing his prowess, while Turnus continues to wreak havoc among the Trojans. - The Trojan and Latin forces mourn their dead. Pallas, a young ally of Aeneas, is killed by Turnus, igniting Aeneas’s fury. The two sides agree to a truce so that they can bury the dead, and the Latin leaders discuss whether to continue the battle. They decide to spare any further unnecessary carnage by proposing a hand-to-hand duel between Aeneas and Turnus. When the two leaders face off, however, the other men begin to quarrel, and full-scale battle resumes. Aeneas is wounded in the thigh, but eventually the Trojans threaten the enemy city. Turnus rushes out to meet Aeneas, who wounds Turnus badly. Aeneas nearly spares Turnus but, remembering the slain Pallas, slays him instead. Key Points: - The climax of the epic unfolds as Aeneas and Turnus confront each other. Despite Turnus’s valor, Aeneas ultimately prevails, fulfilling his destiny to establish a new order in Italy. The epic concludes with Aeneas reflecting on the costs of war and the burden of leadership. Major Roman Authors: Horace & Martial I. Horace (65-8.C.) Horace was a great lyric poet of Rome. His poems are short and meditative in nature. In them reflection, observation, and delicate irony are cleverly combined. Many of his lyrics show autobiographical touches: his friendship with Maecenas, the richest man in the world at that time; his love for his home, a gift of Maecenas; his delight in holding up to scorn vulgar millionaires. Cooking and food occupy a great deal of his attention. "We rise from the table," he says, "pale from overeating." Horace's upbringing was of the best. His father was only of moderate means, but he supervised his son's activities carefully and lovingly. Horace said of his father later: "He kept me chaste, away from the breath of dishonor." Again he said, "I am wholly disillusioned and I am wholly good-tempered. I have awakened from the noble dreams of childhood to the equally noble realities of manhood." Italy has been called the "sweetheart of the world," and Horace does justice to this expression when, in his poems, he tells us about his farm. It was small but beautiful; it was surrounded by peaceful groves. It produced corn, olives, and grapes-everything the owner needed and desired. Horace slept sweetly to the sound of the falling waters of the Waterfall Anio. The Cascata Grande and the Cascatella, two other waterfalls near his estate, streamed down the hillside in broken threads of silver, wetting his orchards with their spray. There was the perpetual sound of falling waters. The separate beauties of the Italian countryside have been immortalized in poetry by Horace. Of the Italian poets, Horace is the most admired by poets and scholars. He was a friend and contemporary of Virgil, who introduced him to Maecenas, the wealthy patron of writers. Horace wrote odes, satires, and epistles, but his odes, 303 of them, are the best of his works. His poetry lacks grandeur, enthusiasm, and imagination, but his lyrics are unsurpassed as an artistic reflection of his society. Key Points: - The leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus. A satirist known to change its role from public engagement to become meditative in nature. - Role of Satire: Initially, Horace’s satire engaged with public issues, critiquing societal norms and political figures. - Shift to Meditation: Over time, his satires evolved to be more introspective, focusing on personal philosophy and the human condition, rather than purely public critique. - Personal Connections: Horace often includes personal stories and experiences in his poems. For example, he writes about his friendship with Maecenas, who was incredibly wealthy and influential at the time. - Home and Heritage: Maecenas gifted Horace a home that he loved, and this is reflected in his writing. He shows appreciation for his surroundings and where he comes from. - Critique of Wealth: Horace enjoys mocking the behavior of wealthy people who are rude or showy. He uses humor to point out their flaws. - Culinary Themes: A lot of Horace's poetry talks about cooking and food. He humorously describes how people can feel unwell from eating too much, saying, "We rise from the table, pale from overeating." - Quality Upbringing: Horace had a good upbringing. His father, while not rich, cared deeply about his education and well-being, guiding him with love and attention. - "Sweetheart of the World": Italy is often called the "sweetheart of the world" because of its beauty and charm, which Horace captures in his poems. - Description of the Farm: Horace describes his small but lovely farm, surrounded by peaceful trees and groves. - Bountiful Produce: His farm grew everything he needed, like corn, olives, and grapes. - Relaxing Atmosphere: Horace enjoyed peaceful nights, sleeping to the calming sounds of the nearby waterfalls, especially the Waterfall Anio. - Waterfalls: The Cascata Grande and Cascatella are two beautiful waterfalls that flow near his farm, creating a soothing atmosphere with their sparkling water. - Immortalizing Beauty: Through his poetry, Horace beautifully captures the separate and unique aspects of the Italian countryside, making it memorable for readers. II. Martial (A.D. 43-104) Martial was born in Spain but emigrated early to Rome where he was given the position of court poet. The greater number of his poems are violent satires attacking the loose morals of his time, but a few are famous for their sweetness of tone, their pleasing descriptions of nature, and their graceful turns of thought. Key Points: - Birthplace: Martial was born in Spain, which adds to his significance as a poet from the provinces rather than from Rome itself. - Move to Rome: He moved to Rome at a young age, where he pursued a career in poetry and became well-known. - Court Poet: Martial held the title of court poet, indicating that he was recognized and valued in the imperial court. This position allowed him to engage with powerful figures and the cultural elite of Rome.  - Violent Satires: The majority of Martial’s poems are sharp, satirical attacks on the morals and behaviors of people in his time. He did not shy away from criticizing societal issues, making his work relevant and impactful. - Focus on Morality: His satires often highlight the decadence and corruption prevalent in Roman society, using humor and wit to deliver his critiques. - Sweetness and Nature: In contrast to his harsher satires, some of Martial's poems are celebrated for their gentle, sweet tone. These poems often feature beautiful descriptions of nature, showcasing his ability to write with elegance and charm. - Graceful Writing: His skillful use of language and clever turns of thought add depth to his poetry, making some of his work particularly memorable. - Epitaphs and Epigrams: He is particularly known for his epigrams, short and witty poems that often contain sharp observations about life and society. From Bad to Worse Overview: I had a cold. The doctor came Theme: Humor in illness and critique of medical care. And five assistants, too: Situation: The speaker has a cold but ends up with the flu after seeing a doctor. They laid ten icy hands on me. Key Points: And now I've got the flu. 1. Initial Illness: The speaker starts with a cold, which is mild. 2. Medical Assistance: ○ A doctor arrives with five assistants. ○ The phrase "ten icy hands" suggests their cold, unwelcoming touch and excessive attention. 3. Unexpected Outcome: ○ Instead of improving, the speaker gets the flu, indicating that the treatment made things worse. 4. Humor and Irony: ○ The poem uses humor to highlight the frustrations of seeking medical help. ○ The irony lies in the fact that the speaker ends up worse off after the visit. Reflection: The poem captures a common experience with healthcare, reminding us that seeking help doesn’t always lead to improvement. Playing Safe Overview: You've buried four rich wives and they say Theme: Humor, satire, and the absurdity of rumors. The excellent wine you serve every day Situation: The speaker addresses someone accused of causing the deaths of their wealthy wives through the wine Had something to do with the slaughter. served. What silly talk! It makes me laugh! Key Points: You've pare vintage wine in the carafe— 1. Accusation: No, thank you, I believe I'll have water. - The speaker mentions that the person has buried four rich wives. - There are rumors suggesting that the fine wine served might be responsible for their deaths. 2. Response to Rumors: - The speaker finds the rumors ridiculous and laughs at the idea that wine could be the cause. - This highlights the absurdity of blaming wine for the  deaths. 3. Choice of Beverage: - Despite the excellent wine being served, the speaker declines it in favor of water, perhaps implying caution or a humorous acknowledgment of the rumors. 4. Humor and Irony: - The poem uses irony by contrasting the fine wine with the dark humor of the situation (burials and accusations). - The speaker’s laughter at the gossip adds a light-hearted tone to the serious subject. Reflection: The poem pokes fun at gossip and the absurdity of attributing blame to inanimate objects like wine. It reminds us not to take rumors too seriously. What Difference Overview: Dr. Diadalus is all enthused: - Theme: Irony and the cyclical nature of professions. He's just become a mortician. - Situation: A doctor becomes a mortician, but his work But what he does is what he used remains largely unchanged. Key Points: To do when a physician. 1. Character Introduction: - Dr. Diadalus is excited about his new role as a mortician. - The enthusiasm suggests he sees this change as a positive development. 2. Irony of the Situation: - The key point is that what he does as a mortician is essentially the same as what he did as a physician. - This highlights the irony that, while his title has changed, the nature of his work—dealing with bodies—remains the same. 3. Commentary on Professions: - The poem suggests a humorous view of the medical profession, pointing out that both doctors and morticians ultimately deal with life and death. - It reflects on how roles can shift, but the fundamental activities may not change. Reflection: The poem plays with the idea of professional identity and the continuity of roles in life and death, encouraging readers to think about the nature of their work. A Hinted Wish Overview: You told me, Maro, whilst you live - Theme: Irony and the anticipation of inheritance. You'd not a single penny give, - Situation: The speaker addresses Maro, hinting at a wish But that, whene'er you chance to die, related to his wealth. Key Points: You'd leave a handsome legacy; 1. Maro's Promise: You must be mad beyond redress - Maro claims he will not give any money while alive but If my next wish you cannot guess. intends to leave a substantial legacy upon his death. - This sets up a contrast between living generosity and posthumous gifts. 2. Speaker's Reaction: - The speaker suggests that Maro’s attitude is foolish ("mad beyond redress").  - There’s an implication that waiting until death to be generous is not wise. 3. Hinted Wish: - The speaker implies a desire for Maro to reconsider his stance on giving money while he is alive. - The line “If my next wish you cannot guess” suggests that the speaker expects Maro to understand the irony and desire for immediate generosity. 4. Irony: - The irony lies in the fact that Maro's plan to be generous only after his death may not benefit the speaker, who is clearly interested in immediate support. Reflection: The poem critiques the notion of delaying generosity and invites readers to consider the importance of giving while alive. It humorously highlights the absurdity of only planning to be generous after death. Procrastination Overview: Tomorrow you will live, you always cry; Theme: The folly of procrastination and the urgency of In what far country does this morrow lie living in the present. Situation: The speaker critiques those who continually put That 'tis so mighty long ere it arrive? off living fully until tomorrow. Beyond the indies does this morrow live? Key Points: ‘Tis so far fetched, this morrow, that I fear 1. Recurring Promise: ‘Twill be both very old and very dear. - The phrase “Tomorrow you will live” reflects the common Tomorrow I will live, the fool does say; excuse people make to delay their actions or Today itself's too late— the wise lived responsibilities. yesterday. - It suggests a habitual tendency to avoid the present. 2. Imagery of Distance: - The speaker questions where this "morrow" (tomorrow) exists, using metaphors like “far country” and “beyond the indies.” - This imagery emphasizes the absurdity of waiting for an elusive tomorrow that never seems to arrive. 3. Fear of Aging: - The speaker humorously warns that if tomorrow is so distant, it might become outdated (“very old”) and too costly (“very dear”). - This implies that procrastination leads to missed opportunities. 4. Wise Living: - The line “the wise lived yesterday” suggests that those who are prudent take action now rather than postponing it. - It reinforces the idea that seizing the present is essential for a fulfilling life. Reflection: The poem serves as a reminder to take advantage of the present and not to fall into the trap of procrastination. It highlights the importance of acting decisively rather than waiting for a future that may never come. The Nibelungenlied The hero of the Nibelungenlied is Siegfried and its heroine is Kriemhild, the sister of Gunther, king of Burgundy. Siegfried hears about the surpassing beauty and many virtues of Kriemhild and embarks for Burgundy to win her for his bride. But in spite of his splendid achievements and his great fame, he fails at first even to get an audience with her. Gunther is attacked by his old enemies and Siegfried successfully drives them away. In gratitude, Gunther now allows his sister to appear at a banquet given to celebrate Siegfried's victory. Gunther agrees to give Kriemhild in marriage to Siegfried but makes it a condition that Siegfried help him win Brunhild, the queen of Isenland, for his wife. Siegfried readily agrees to this proposition. In Isenland every suitor of the queen has to undergo three tests of physical strength in the form of combat with her. If vanquished, the suitor would suffer a cruel death. Queen Brunhild recognizes Siegfried and admires both for his reputed strength and courage and his great wealth He had obtained this when he killed a dragon and bathed in its blood to render himself invulnerable to physical weapons. But she despises Gunther and his men because they seem inferior in wealth as compared to her other suitors. Siegfried, to raise Gunther's status, tells the queen that he is a vassal to Gunther The trial begins and Gunther wins only because Sieg fried, putting on his cloak of invisibility, performs all the actions for him. Gunther wins Brunhild for his wife and a double wedding is performed in Burgundy. Gunther is married to Brunhild and Siegfried to Kriemhild. Amidst all the songs and ceremonies, Brunhild is unhappy and resentful and reproaches her husband for giving his sister to a mere vassal. In her indignation she ties Gunther up in her girdle and hangs him on a nail. Siegfried pities the plight of Gunther and tells him that the secret of Brun-hild's strength is in her girdle and her ring. Once deprived of these things, she would become an ordinary woman. With Gunther's consent, Siegfried succeeds in getting the girdle and ring but unfortunately gives them to Kriemhild and confides the story to her. Kriemhild now leaves her family and goes with her husband to his home. A few years pass. Brunhild complains to her husband that Siegfried does not come to Burgundy to pay homage to Gunther. The Burgundians decide to hold a great feast Siegfried and Kriemhild are invited. During the festivities a violent quarrel arises between the queens about the merits of their husbands. When Brunhild boasts that Siegfried is a mere vassal of Gunther's, Kriemhild tells her the truth and, carried off by pride and passion, produces the girl and the ring that Siegfried took from Brunhild. At this, Brunhild vows vengeance, and with Hagen the faithful vassal of Gunther, she plans to kill Siegfried. Gunther pretends that enemies are about to attack Burgundy and Siegfried volunteers to defend it. Hagen. pretending to be worried about the reckless courage of Siegfried, convinces Kriemhild to reveal to him Siegfried’s vulnerable spot on his shoulder. Hagen promises to protect this spot from the enemy. The enemy attack does not, of course, materialize, and the royal party goes hunting. After the hunt, when all are exhausted, Siegfried goes to a stream to drink. As he bends over the water, Hagen thrusts a spear into the vulnerable spot and kills him, thus avenging Brunhild. This ends the first part of the epic. The second part is a complicated and bewildering series of events relating the atrocious and horrifying revenge of Kriemhild on those who killed her husband. To secure her revenge, she marries Etzel (Attila), the king of the Huns, and invites all her kinsmen, including Hagen, to a great feast. Kriemhild involves them in a bloody battle in which thousands are slain. Gunther and Hagen are taken prisoners and put to death by Kriemhild, who herself is killed at the end of the epic. Key Characters: - Siegfried: The brave hero who seeks glory and love. - Kriemhild: The beautiful sister of Gunther, Siegfried's love interest. - Gunther: The king of Burgundy and Kriemhild's brother. - Brunhild: The strong queen of Isenland, whom Gunther desires. - Hagen: Gunther’s loyal vassal, a key antagonist. The Story: 1. Siegfried's Quest: - Siegfried hears about Kriemhild’s beauty and travels to Burgundy to win her heart. - Despite his fame, he initially fails to meet her. 2. Victory Against Enemies: - Gunther is attacked by enemies. Siegfried helps him defeat them. - Grateful, Gunther allows Kriemhild to join a banquet to celebrate the victory. 3. Marriage Deal: - Gunther agrees to let Kriemhild marry Siegfried if Siegfried helps him win Brunhild. - Siegfried accepts this challenge. 4. Trials in Isenland: - To win against Brunhild, suitors must face three dangerous tests. - Siegfried uses his invisibility cloak to secretly help Gunther win these trials. 5. Double Wedding: - Gunther marries Brunhild, and Siegfried marries Kriemhild. - However, Brunhild feels resentful about Kriemhild’s marriage, viewing her as inferior. 6. Secrets of Strength: - Siegfried learns that Brunhild’s strength comes from her girdle and ring. - He takes these items and gives them to Kriemhild, who later reveals the secret during a feast. 7. Brunhild’s Vengeance: - Furious at being humiliated, Brunhild seeks revenge with Hagen’s help. - Hagen tricks Kriemhild into revealing Siegfried’s vulnerable spot. 8. Siegfried’s Death: - During a hunting trip, Hagen kills Siegfried by stabbing him in the back at a stream, fulfilling Brunhild’s vengeance. Kriemhild’s Revenge: 9. Grief and Anger: Kriemhild is devastated by Siegfried’s death and vows revenge. 10. Marriage to Etzel: - Kriemhild marries Etzel (Attila), king of the Huns, planning her retribution. - She invites Gunther, Hagen, and others to a feast, plotting to trap them. 11. Bloody Conflict: - At the feast, a violent battle erupts, resulting in many deaths. - Kriemhild captures Gunther and Hagen and has them executed. 12. Tragic Conclusion: - Kriemhild’s quest for vengeance leads to her own death at the end, marking the story’s tragic resolution. Formulating Claims of Fact, Policy, and Value Claim of fact - A claim of fact is an assertion of a condition that exists, will exist, or has existed. It is supported by verifiable facts or data such as statistics or testimonies; hence, there is potential for controversy, conflict, or conversion. - Claims of fact must be specific as to time, place, people involved, and situ-ation. To qualify claims of fact, the following markers are used: generally, usually, probably, as a rule. Claim of Policy - A claim of policy is an assertion that specific plans or courses of action should be instituted as solutions to problems. It is often procedural and/or organized. - At times, a series of questions in response to a claim of fact is a claim of policy. The following markers are used to formulate claims of policy: should, ought to, must, or use strong verbs. Claim of Value - Usually, people disagree about beauty or morality. A claim of value is an attempt to prove the desirability or undesirability of something, or if something is good, bad, or wrong. It expresses approval or disapproval. - Claims of value also involve taste (or preference) in art, literature, music, film, food, etc. The following markers are used for claims of value: "It is better to...", "It is unethical that...", "It is wrong to...", "It is more beautiful than..." Argumentation - An argumentative essay is primarily written to establish a position on the topic - A narration of a personal experience is NOT needed in an argumentative essay. - In an argumentative essay, the author's claim or position is usually first stated in the introduction. - The thesis statement presents the main idea of your essay and assertion. - To be more convincing, the claim of the essay should be supported by logical reasons and evidence. - The reasons supporting the author's position are discussed in the body. - The conclusion contains the summary, relevance of the topic, or call to action. Planning: Introduction, Body 1 (for), Body 2 (for), Body 3 (Against), Conclusion Elements and Component of An Argumentative Essay: - ISSUE - idea about which the opinions of people are different - CLAIM - position/stand/point of view - ARGUMENT - an idea that supports the claim - EVIDENCE - facts in the real world that can support the argument - COUNTER ARGUMENT - an idea given by the opposing side - REBUTTAL - response to the counterargument - CONCLUSION - summary