English 2 Lezione PDF

English 2 Lezione 1 ARTICLE- Social constructivist model The social constructivist model presented integrates various educational psychology approaches to guide language teaching. Cognitive approaches emphasize the learner as an active participant, focusing on meaning-making and problem-solving, while humanistic theories highlight the importance of developing the whole person in educational settings. Social interactionism stresses that learning arises through dynamic interactions between teachers, learners, and tasks, with each influencing the others in a continual process. Teachers select tasks based on their beliefs, and learners interpret them in personal ways. This creates a dynamic equilibrium between teacher, learner, and task, where changes in one element affect the others. The model also acknowledges the significance of the learning context, including emotional, physical, social, political, and cultural environments, all of which shape the learning experience. These factors—teachers, learners, tasks, and contexts—interact as part of an ongoing process, influencing each other. The book advocates for transforming language teaching into a holistic educational experience that not only focuses on language skills but also on personal growth, learning strategies, and values. It stresses the moral purpose of education, which should be underpinned by beliefs about the kind of society being created. Language teaching, it argues, requires a systematic educational foundation to be truly meaningful and effective, with the aim of fostering the development of the whole person. SLIDE: Course topics will include theoretical notions on: principles in YL teaching contexts; key methods and approaches in TEYL; practices in TEYL; storytelling with YLs; the contemporary classroom and language learner in a globalised world; teaching materials for YLs and VYLs; teacher talk and discourse techniques in the YL classroom; evaluation of teaching in YL contexts. The term Young Learners (Yls) Children start learning English at different ages around the world. Some children start learning English in kindergarten, while others start at a later stage of primary school. Some studies call the ages between 6 and 12: middle childhood. Throughout this lecture, references will be made to very young learners and to young learners up to the end of primary school. Within this wide range of ages, we can see a continuum between younger and older learners. Your own experience and Yls (10’) 1. How old were you when you began studying English? 2. What challenges did you face at the initial phases? 3. What did you enjoy most in your first encounters with English? 4. How would you describe the first English classes you received? Please use up to three adjectives. 5. At primary-school age, what activities did you do most often at home? 6. Think about experiences you have had observing YL classes or talking with children who are learning English. Do they enjoy their language classes? 7. Why do YLs like their English classes or why not? 8. Primary-school pupils should only do what they like in their English classes. To what extent do you agree or disagree? 9. Write down adjectives you can think of that describe positive characteristics of young learners. 10.Write down adjectives you can think of that describe negative characteristics of young learners. Accommodation process: Not all animals are hatched from eggs Assimilation process: Ducklings are hatched from eggs – Other animals are also hatched from eggs “Assimilation and accommodation thus describe two sides of the same process, i.e. learning” (Pinter, 2006, p. 6). https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jrdaPy8el9g https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x61pl76 Lezione 2 DEFINITIONS: L1 = mother tongue (MT) of the students L2 = language that children learn at school, can be called target languege (TL). BL = bilingual children (learn 2 or more languages from birth or in another contexts) -> a bilingual person hasn’t got full control on every language and often cannot do the same things in both languages Apart from this, terminology is contested and there are many preferences like L1 = own language (not mother tongue because it seems that only mothers speak to children); L2 = new language (not according to an order) and bilingualism = can be replaced with dynamic bilingualism -> repertoire of related languages practices available to people using more than one language (Garcia and Kleigfen, 2010). HISTORICAL OVERVIEW It is useful to have an overview because: - provides a view of how the field of language teaching has evolved; - suggests a source of well-used practices, which teachers can adapt or implement based on their own needs; - provides teachers with basic teaching skills that they and later add to or supplement as they develop teaching experience. th School-based language learning is a recent phenomenon (18 century). Before they studied only Latin and Greek. The grammar translation method The first and most used method was the GRAMMAR TRANSLATION -> focused on reading to understand texts and writing, but not on listening and speaking. Children translated text from one language to another (le versioni). -> focus on VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR They learned poems by heart and learned rules to form and use tenses. Teacher used L1 to explain and as a medium of instruction. th During 18 century, language learning pedagogies were undergoing significant changes: Behaviourism -> Skinner suggested language learning was a result of positive and negative feedback. American Army developed the audio-lingual method (AL) -> focusing on social, everyday language, greetings, asking questions... in some classrooms things were taught first orally and memorized. L2 was the language used to introduce things and present them. -> immersion in L2 50s, 60s, 70s AL became very popular in schools. Chomsky e il LAD He said that we are all born with the capability to learn languages through our language acquisition device. We only need the right environment to do so. Krashen Key feature in language learning is the comprehensible input (CI). CI -> exposure to language is central (the languages shouldn’t be too difficult). The teacher uses comprehensible inputs (gestures, visuals and repetitions) and uses only target language. Exception -> teacher can use grading language in order to not overwhelm students so that they are able to understand most of what the teacher is saying. Krashen was the first to study the SLA, the second language acquisition. Interactionism (Vygotskij) -> second languages were learnt through students using the TL in interaction with others. This theory supported the development of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and a number of hybrids (TBL, task-based learning). Therefore the L2 is used as much as possible, because students have maximum opportunities to hear and use the language. CLIL Sigla di Content and language integrated learning. In CLIL, teachers use the target language to teach a different area of the curriculum. Focus -> on teaching the topic effectively rather than explicitly on learning language. Contradiction -> teacher of CLIL often is not an expert user of the language but rather an expert in the content area. TL may not always be accurate. Underachieving students are well served -> in order to make meaning clear, teacher often introduces a range of visual aids and staged tasks. CLT (communicative language teaching) -> improves students’ communication ability Conclusion The majority of teachers follows the coursebook provided by the ministry of education. Developing guidelines for L1 use in classrooms is an aim. It is then to the teachers to decide how much and when to use L1 based on students’ knowledge, sociocultural and educational context. 3 CRITICAL ISSUES REGARDING THE USE OF LANGUAGES IN CLASS 1. THE DEMAND FOR COMMUNICATION SKILLS IN ENGLISH The demand of people who know how to use English is increasing. In fact -> English is too much focused-on knowledge (grammar rules) and not on how to use it in a proper way. First consequence -> teachers who know and use the target language in the class are required. -> sometimes it’s a problem to find teachers who use English properly, because they learnt it focusing on grammar. Second consequence -> NESTs -> native English speaker teachers have been employed. They have to moderate English regarding norms and level of children, following Krashen theory (moderate language so that children can understand). 2. VALUING L1 IN THE LANGUAGE CLASSROOM Some teachers use L1 to underline the difference of sounds between languages and to provide children with personalized learning experience. L1 -> used to develop the emotional side of learning L1 -> Auerbach says that its use recues anxiety, enhances the affective environment for learning, facilitates incorporation of learners’ life experiences and allows for learner centered curriculum development. L2 -> some people think it has to be maxified (medium and object of instruction) 3. THE AGE DROP Third issue -> continuing reduction in age at which children are taught English It is a challenge to use English with children who share the same other language and learning engages play. Mourao -> change pedagogical practices -> an example is the English Corner with flashcards and picture books, storytelling activity in circle time -> children explore the corner freely In that way, children use English spontaneously. L2 is not always used in class -> because it comes a point when abstract concepts cannot be conveyed through gestures, pictures and commands. Research on the use of L1 or L2 in class with a bilingual teacher and a NEST shows: The bilingual teacher provided more opportunities for learning by translating the learners’ meanings into English sentences -> result = children produced sentences in English With the monolingual teacher children only spoke in the mother tongue and formed a few sentences. It is the best option to employ bilingual teachers with children who are young learners. Translanguaging = a new flexible approach to use both first and target languages. In translanguaging classrooms -> learners and teachers draw on all their linguistic resources: all languages are valued and regarded as making different but equal contributions to language learning and meaning making. Advantages of translanguaging: It engages children in a deeper understanding of subject matter and in meaning making It scaffolds children to learn a new language, while simultaneously providing a safe space for children to make their own meanings. Differences between codeswitching and translanguaging: Codeswitching implies two different language systems which are separated and not used together; Codeswitching underlines deficiencies in person language skills, a person switches language when she/he cannot communicate; Codeswitching implies monolingual practices are not the norm, which is the contrary in this multicultural and globalized world. Conclusions L1 and L2 use is a decision of the teachers who observes the students’ level, the context and the age. YL (young learners) need more support in education (raising awareness, confidence). Engage students with enjoyable experiences -> low-anxiety environment NEST bilingual teachers are the best option for YL -> they can prepare also about children development English corners (play) are a very good option for YL We should investigate on childrens’ views of language use (for example some can be not tolerant in a TL only class). ARTICOLO CAPITOLO 2 LEZIONE 3 PER APPROFONDIRE: 1. The reform movement Primacy of oral communication skills Importance of phonetics in teacher training Use of coherent, interesting and natural texts containing examples of the grammar points that need to be taught Use of the foreign language in class: conversation and dialogues Exercises and translations replaced by free composition in the FL IPA was founded (1886) and is designed to enable transcription of any sound of language; Meanings taught through associations within the target language. Some theorists: - Franke -> teaching vocabulary through pictures to enable learners to associate the word and the concept to avoid the complicated process word-l1 equivalent-concept. - Sweet -> scientific analysis of language and sound methodologies, and psychology should be at the basis of teaching methods; - Vietor -> importance of training in phonetics for teachers; speech patterns are fundamental rather than grammar; inadequacies or GT method. 2. Natural and direct method Inspired by natural language teaching methods (Pestalozzi) based on educational philosophy (Rousseau) and naturalistic principles of learning; Foreign languages can be taught without translation from L1; Meaning is conveyed directly through the experience and spoken communication with teacher. Some theorists: Franke -> importance of monolingual approach; active use of the language in the classroom; teachers must encourage direct and spontaneous use of FL than using analytical procedures based on grammar rules; inductive learning; systematic attention to pronunciation; textbooks are replaced by teacher in the early stages. Sauveur -> intensive oral instruction based on conversations; limited vocabulary, use of carefully structured sentences, statements followed by questions and answers. Berliz -> no translation; stront emphasis on oral work; avoidance of grammatical explanations until late; maximum use of question-and-answer-technique. Main features of the direct method: Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the TL; Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught; Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question and answers between teacher and students in small classes; inductive teaching of grammar; new teaching points were introduced orally; Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures and the abstract ones through association of ideas; Both speech and listening comprehension were taught; Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized. From direct to oral method: In europe the total disregard of the students’ L1 was seen as inappropriate The direct method had critics: it wasn’t suitable in state schools; the time devoted to FL was limited; the supply of sufficiently trained teachers was small; conversation skills were regarded as irrelevant for fostering upper level education; CAPITOLO 3 1963 -> EDWARD ANTHONY proposed a scheme identifying three levels of conceptualization and organization of language teaching: APPROACH -> is a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. It is axiomatic (assioma, indiscutibile) METHOD -> plan for presentation, based on an approach. Is procedural and decides which skills and content will be taught TECHNIQUES -> take place in class directly. Are the tricks, ways to reach an objective and are consistent with a method. METHODS: WHAT DO THEY HAVE IN COMMON? They refer to a specific instructional design or system based on a particular theory of language and language learning. It contains detailed specifications on content, roles of teachers and learners, and teaching procedures and techniques. It is relatively fixed in time and there is generally little scope for individual interpretation; They are learned through training; The teacher’s role is to follow the method and apply it precisely according to the rules. Tend to have a relatively short shelf life. APPROACH -> is a philosophy of belief system, a theory. THE THEORY OF LANGUAGE THE COGNITIVE MODEL: main idea = language reflects properties of the mind. 3 core features of cognitivism: Mind is like a computer, works using a set of operations that take input, process it and produce outputs Representationalism -> processes that the mind engages in to store internal representations of external events Learning as abstract knowledge acquisition Chomsky -> Universal grammar -> contains principles common to all languages and parameters that vary according to a different language. Some methods could be the Grammar Translation or the cognitive-code approach -> grammar is central Structural model -> language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning. Language is divided into: phonological units, grammatical units, grammatical operations, lexical items. Functional model -> language is a vehicle for the expression of functional meanings and for performing real-world activities. An example is the Competency-Based Language Teaching. Interactional model -> language is a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. Attention is on the use of language and on conveying and receiving messages. An example is the Task-Based Language Teaching and the CLIL. Sociocultural model -> language is a communicating activity, the social context is central. Knowledge is constructed through social interaction with others and reflects the learner’s culture, customs, and beliefs as well as the collaborative activities people are engaged in. Examples: Task-Based Learning, Content-Based Learning and Cooperative Language Learning.+ Genre model -> genres are areas of human activity with norms of language use (science, business, medicine, literature). Main concepts: Language is a resource for making meaning; The resource of language consists of a set of interrelated systems; Language users draw on this resource each time they use language; They create texts to create meaning; Texts are shaped by the social context in which they are used; The social context is shaped by the people using language. Examples: Text-Based Instruction, Content-Based Instruction and CLIL. Lexical model -> prioritizes the role of lexis and lexical chunks or phrases and highlights the interrelatedness of grammar and vocabulary. Examples: Lexical approach but also Content-Based Instruction and CLIL. THEORIES OF LEARNING All methods reflect a theory of language learning. Some of them are: 1. BEHAVIOURISM -> view that learning is a process in which specific behaviors are acquired in response to specific stimuli. Correct responses are reinforced and increase the chance of the behavior becoming learned (Skinner). An example can be the Audiolingual Method -> repetitions and extensive drilling 2. COGNITIVE-CODE LEARNING -> language learning is a cognitive process both deductive and inductive. Grammar rules are taught -> then practiced An example -> PPP approach (Presentation-Practice-Production) used in Situational Language Teaching 3. CREATIVE-CONSTRUCTION HYPOTHESIS -> learning is a creative process, every learner produces linguistically diverse sounds due to their background, but similarities can be found easily. Errors are seen as evidence of learning rather than signs of faulty learning. (CLT is an example). 4. SKILL LEARNING -> skills are integrated sets of behaviors that are learned through practice. They are made up of individual components that may be learned separately and that come together as a whole to constitute skilled performance. Skills are first controlled (like presenting yourself in class) and then become automatic (conscious attention). 5. INTERACTIONAL THEORY -> learning is an interactive process and depends on learners working together to achieve mutual understanding. Who is more competent can adjust the level of speech, modifying inputs facilitating understanding and learning. 6. CONSTRUCTIVISM -> learning is the result of the internal construction of meaning of the learner. Learner is in the middle, he/she explores the subject, poses questions and the teacher is a facilitator. There is a social view: the sociocultural constructivism takes place in a particular social setting (the class), with interactions, objects and culturally organized activities. Scaffolding takes place: the teacher scaffolds the learning, initially giving support and then gradually removing it. CLIL works as a scaffolding learning. 7. INDIVIDUAL FACTORS -> attitudes, preferences, motivations, strategies are different between each learner. Methods may seek to address individual learning factors by attempting to match strategies to learning styles, by enhancing motivation through the choice of content that is of high interest value or relevance. For example to reduce anxiety, we can use group-based learning (cooperative). All these approaches do not specify procedures. They are theories to be followed to organize teaching. What links theory to practice is the design or METHOD. METHODS They consider: 1. The objectives 2. How we select and organize contents (syllabus) 3. Types of learning tasks and teaching activities 4. Roles of learners 5. Roles of teachers 6. Role of instructional materials OBJECTIVES -> where attention and teaching is placed (whether product-centered or process-centered). Language teaching can focus on different outcomes: reading, writing, communication etc... SYLLABUS -> includes language items or features used (words, sentences, topics, texts). It contains infos about what to talk about (subject matter) and how to talk about it (linguistic matter). There are many different types of syllabus (grammatical, functional, lexical, situational, topical or content-based, competency-based, skills-based, task-based, text-based and integrated. Often syllabus refer to product-oriented courses and not on process-based methods. Like CLT hasn’t got a syllabus -> learners decide what to talk about at the moment, not in advance. Types of learning and teaching activities -> they differ regarding the outcomes, specify which techniques and procedures will take place based on different objects (communication, writing, reading, grammar). LEARNER ROLES -> learners have power and autonomy in learning and the great diversity of learners is acknowledged. Learners are in the middle, their emotions are recognized, they learn in different ways, someone who is participant in dialogue is central to functional and task-based methods; others who are active processors of language and information and others who prior cognitive processes. TEACHER ROLES -> some approaches see the teacher as facilitator, guide, catalyst, model for learning. The roles define (with learners’ roles) the type of interaction characteristic of classrooms in which a particular method is being used and consequently the kinds of learning processes and opportunities for learning that are provided for. It reflects both the objectives and the learning theory. ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS -> they specify subject matter content, even where no syllabus exists. They define or imply the day-to-day learning objectives that collectively constitute the goals of the syllabus. Their goals are to present content, practice it, facilitate communication between learners. To choose them, the teacher reflects on goals, form, relation and abilities of materials. PROCEDURE They are the techniques, practices and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular approach or method. It describes how a method realizes its approach and design in the classroom. 3 dimensions to a method at the level of procedure: Use of teaching activities Present new languages and to clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative or other aspects of the target language; Ways in which particular teaching activities are used for practicing language Procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to learners concerning the form or content of their utterances or sentences. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE RISE AND FALL OF METHODS 1. Paradigm shifts -> like the emergence of the field of second language acquisition, new paradigm of understanding about language teaching and learning. 2. Support networks -> like ministry of education, key educational administrators, leading academics and professional bodies and organizations can play an important role in promoting a new method. 3. Practicality -> is simple to understand and to apply? Or not? 4. Teacher's language proficiency -> the teachers can be native speakers or not, but with a method that assumes a native-speaker level of proficiency on the part of the teacher is unlikely to find advocates in some countries. 5. Used as the basis for published materials and tests -> many books and manuals were written based on methods and approaches. 6. Compatibility with local traditions -> type of teaching and learning are different from country to country. For us teachers: Here is a checklist for the adoption of an approach or method: What advantages does the new approach or method offer? Is it perceived to be more effective than current practices? How compatible is it with teachers’ existing beliefs and attitudes and with the organization and practices within classrooms and schools? Who recommends it? Is it supported by the recommendations of authorities and experts? Is the new approach or method very complicated and difficult to understand and use? Has it been tested out in some schools and classrooms before teachers are expected to use it? Have the benefits of the new approach or method been clearly communicated to teachers and institutions? How clear and practical is the new approach or method? Are its expectations stated in ways that clearly show how it can be used in the classroom? —------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Lectures 4 and 5 - Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) CLT can be classified as a movement that well represents how a paradigm change in language teaching reflects the two sources of change. In the 1970s there were two main forces shaping the direction of language teaching: 1. social force: that is, the change in the status of English in the world -> global diffusion of the English language 2. internal strength of the language teaching profession This movement is the result of the questioning of the practices associated with the process of teaching situational language. - British applied linguists saw the study of language on situational events as ineffective. For them there was an urgent need to study in greater depth the language itself, the meaning that utterances carry in themselves and the intentions of the speaker. - Chomsky demonstrated that standard structural theories of language were unable to explain the fundamental characteristics of language: creativity and the uniqueness of individual sentences. British applied linguists emphasized the functional and communicative potential of language. They turned the focus on the communicative proficiency rather than on structures (Candlin, Firth, Halliday, Widdowson) and drew on the work of functional linguists (Halliday, Firth), American sociolinguistics (Hymes and Gumperz) and works in philosophy (Austin and Searle). The communicative movement was also the result of the change in the educational programmes in Europe in the 1960s and 1970s. The need to develop alternative methods became a priority. Theoretical characteristics of CLT Language is a system for the expression of meaning The primary function of language is to allow communication. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicational uses The categories of grammar are categories that express functional and communicative meanings in discourse What does communicative competence entail? Knowing how to vary the use of language according to the situation Knowing how to produce and understand different types of text Knowing how to use different communication strategies. CLT: Principles of language learning Promotion of learning through: activities based on real-life communication activities in which language is used to carry out meaningful tasks activities that engage the learner in authentic use. -> learning activities are selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaningful and authentic language use. -> language should be learned through the process of communication. -> the range of activities is unlimited provided that those activities are devised to achieve the communicative goals described in the curriculum and engage learners in communication. There are 2 main types of classroom activities, according to Littlewood’s (1981) notion of skill development (involving the cognitive and behavioural components): 1) Functional communication activities 2) Social interaction activities Learners are negotiators of meaning. Learners are engaged in cooperative activities. They need to develop social skills like listening to their peers (e.g. in pair or work groups). Peer interaction and learning is privileged to learning from teacher. Successful communication is a result of joint efforts (with peers and teacher). Principles that support teacher activities Learners learn a language through using it to communicate. Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities. Fluency is an important dimension of communication. Communication involves the integration of different language skills. Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error. TEACHER ROLES 1) Main roles include: - classroom facilitator accommodating or supporting the communication process in the classroom (a. between participants; b. betweeen participants and the activities/texts) - independent participant in the activities as a co-communicator 2) Secondary roles - organizer of resources or manager creating a context for language use - guide within the classroom activities or counselor advising and exemplifying an effective communicator - researcher and learner - need analyst determining and responding to learner language needs -> How we can conduct needs analysis: With older children who are good readers and writers, questionnaires can be a useful resource However, observation is a major source, expecially with Yls and VYLs Observation (Scrivener J. 2011. Learning Teaching. The essential guide to English language teaching. MacMillan, p. 91). YOU CAN: set the students tasks to do in class so that will allow you to observe them working, speaking and using language. This will give you a chance to diagnose their language/skills problems and discover more about what they need; ask each learner to bring in samples of material they work with (or expect to work with in the future), e.g. leaflets, letters, tasks, games, etc. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS have the primary roles of supporting and promoting communicative language use. Examples: 1) Text-based materials or textbooks with specified activities for various language levels to be used as examples 2) Task-based materials with a variety of communicative activities (games, role plays, simulations, cue cards, activity cards, material for pair-communication ) 3) Realia-based. Authentic , from-life material. (magazines, books, graphic and visual sources, maps, symbols, charts). 4) Technology-supported materials which aim to provide opportunities for accessing different forms of communication (opportunities for accessing authentic language input combining texts, images, audio and video.) Major changes brought about by the CLT approach CRITICISMS CLT promotes fossilization. overemphasis on communication facilitates persistence of errors extensive use of authentic communication especially in the early years promote fluency at the expense of accuracy. students develop good communication skills but have a poor command of grammar. _____________________ ARTICLES AND TEXTS OF THE LECTURES Communicative Language Teaching - Book The development of Communicative Language Teaching The field of language teaching is influenced by two main sources of change: 1. The first is external and stems from the growing role of English in the world, which requires language programmes capable of preparing a globalised workforce and ensuring access to educational and technological resources. This has led to an ongoing review of teaching policies and practices to effectively respond to global needs. 2. The second source is internal and concerns the evolution of the profession, driven by new knowledge, educational philosophies, technologies and research paradigms. A significant example of change is the adoption of the communicative language teaching (CLT) approach, which developed in the 1960s as a response to criticism of situational language teaching (SLT). CLT emphasises communicative competence rather than mere structural mastery, and was supported by scholars such as Candlin and Widdowson and by sociolinguistic and philosophical currents of thought. Situational Language Teaching (SLT) was dominant in Britain until the 1960s. SLT focused on teaching language structures through situation-based activities, but was abandoned as it was considered incapable of adequately predicting language based solely on situational events. Instead, there was a need to focus on the intrinsic meaning of linguistic expressions and the communicative intentions of speakers. This development reflected, in part, Noam Chomsky's criticism of structural linguistic theory, as expounded in his book Syntactic Structures (1957). Chomsky pointed out that such theories did not explain the creativity and uniqueness of human language. British applied linguists, also influenced by studies on the functional and communicative potential of language, proposed an approach that favoured communicative competence over mere structural mastery. The communicative movement was also stimulated by the European educational needs of the 1960s and 1970s: with the increasing interdependence of European countries came the need for greater efforts to teach adults the major languages of the European Common Market. The Council of Europe committed itself, through conferences and by publishing books, to the development of innovative teaching methods to promote language learning. Versions of Communicative Language Teaching Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) evolved as a response to the limitations of traditional methods, adopting a more functional approach based on the communicative needs of learners. In 1971, experts began developing language courses according to a unit credit system, in which learning tasks were divided into units corresponding to specific learner needs. This system was based on the studies of DA Wilkins, who proposed an analysis of language in terms of communicative meanings rather than traditional grammar and vocabulary. Wilkins identified two main categories: - Notional categories, such as time, quantity, position and frequency. - Functional categories, such as requests, denials and offers. Wilkins' ideas were expanded in his book Notional Syllabuses (1976), which profoundly influenced CLT, which was also adopted by the Council of Europe to develop programmes such as Threshold Level specifications, used as a reference for materials and curricula. Expansion and Application of CLT CLT, initially a British innovation, rapidly expanded internationally, becoming the dominant paradigm in language teaching in the 1970s and 1980s. A notable example is the Malaysian Communicational Syllabus, adopted as the official national syllabus, with specific teacher training and development of large-scale teaching materials. CLT stands out as an approach rather than a method. It aims to: - Promote communicative competence as the main objective of language teaching. - Integrate the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing), recognising the interdependence between language and communication. Interpretations of the CLT CLT has been interpreted in different ways: - Functional and grammatical integration: For some, it combines grammatical teaching with functional elements (Littlewood, 1981). - Collaborative activities: Others see it as an approach that involves students in pairs or groups to solve language problems using available resources. - Variable design models: Yalden (1983) describes six CLT design alternatives, ranging from structural programmes with communicative exercises to more flexible, learner-centred models. CLT is characterised by its versatility and breadth, with no single model or central authority. Its focus on authentic communication and learners' needs makes it an innovative and widely applicable approach in language teaching. Howatt (1984) distinguishes between a ‘strong’ and a ‘weak’ version of the communicative approach (CLT), which represent two main interpretations of communicative language teaching: ‘Weak’ version of CLT ○ Main features: The weak version of CLT focuses on providing students with opportunities to use language in communicative contexts. It integrates communicative activities into a structured programme while maintaining a traditional basis of teaching grammar and language forms. It aims to teach ‘how to use’ the language in practical situations. It is often seen as an extension of existing methods, rather than a complete transformation. Strong’ version of CLT ○ Main features: The strong version argues that language is not only learned through the study of its structures, but is acquired by practising it directly in communicative situations. Language acquisition occurs by ‘using language to learn it’. It is based on the experiential approach, according to which the best way to learn is to do directly what one wants to learn, a concept summarised as learning by doing. It is associated with methods such as task-based language teaching, where learning revolves around real-life tasks that require communication and encourage the development of language skills. Background of CLT The communicative approach has roots in: - Anthropological linguistics: Bronislaw Malinowski and John Firth emphasised the importance of studying language in its socio-cultural context, including participants, objects, beliefs and behaviour. - Communicative models of modern linguists: Michael Halliday and Dell Hymes, influenced by Firth, focused their work on the communicative use of language and the context of use. - Learner-centred view: In the 1930s, an American National Curriculum Commission proposed an experience-based learning model, where lessons were to be built around meaningful experiences for students, reflecting their interests and needs. Common principles of CLT Despite the differences between the ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ versions, CLT is united by: - Focus on communicative purpose: Language is seen as a means to achieve communicative goals rather than as a set of rules to be mastered. - Communication-centred instructional design: Materials, teacher and student roles, and classroom activities are based on a communicative model of language. - Adaptation to students' needs: Teaching methods must be flexible to meet the specific goals and needs of students. The distinction between ‘strong’ and ‘weak’ versions of CLT reflects the different ways in which the communicative approach can be implemented. The weak version is more integrative and traditional, while the strong version is more innovative and radical, emphasising direct practice and real context as tools for language acquisition. Approach Language theory in the communicative approach (CLT) The communicative approach (CLT) is based on a functional theory of language, where the main focus is on the use of language as a means of communication. The central aim is to develop communicative competence, a concept introduced by Dell Hymes (1972), in contrast to the more abstract view of competence proposed by Noam Chomsky. Contrast between Hymes and Chomsky: Noam Chomsky: ○ Chomsky's linguistic theory focuses on the ideal speaker, who possesses perfect grammatical knowledge and uses language under ideal conditions. ○ For Chomsky, linguistic competence is primarily concerned with the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences, based on a cognitive and abstract view of language. ○ Language is treated as a formal system separate from the communicative or cultural context. Dell Hymes: ○ Hymes criticised Chomsky's view as sterile, arguing that language knowledge must be seen in relation to social and cultural context. ○ Hymes' communicative competence includes both knowledge and the ability to use language in real-life situations. ○ It includes aspects such as: Formal possibility: what is grammatically correct. Feasibility: what is feasible with the available linguistic and cognitive means. Contextual appropriateness: what is appropriate in context. Practical effectivity: what is actually used and how. Theoretical influences in CLT Michael Halliday: Proposed a theory of language functions, according to which language is a tool to perform specific communicative functions. He identified seven basic language functions: ○ Instrumental: obtaining something. ○ Regulatory: controlling the behaviour of others. ○ Interactional: creating social relationships. ○ Personal: expressing emotions and opinions. ○ Heuristic: exploring and discovering. ○ Imaginative: creating imaginary worlds. ○ Representational: conveying information. Henry Widdowson: Emphasised the relationship between language systems and their communicative uses in real contexts, focusing on linguistic acts and the practical purposes of communication. Canale and Swain (1980): They identified four main components of communicative competence: - Grammatical competence: knowledge of grammatical and lexical rules. - Sociolinguistic competence: understanding of the social and cultural norms that govern language use. - Discursive competence: ability to connect sentences in a coherent discourse. - Strategic competence: use of strategies to overcome communicative difficulties. CLT: characteristics of this communicative view of language 1. Language is a system for the expression of meaning 2. The primary function of language is to enable interaction and communication. 3. The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses. Similarly, proponents of CLT understand second language learning as the acquisition of the linguistic means to fulfil these seven basic functions. 4. The primary units of language are not simply its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse 5. Communicative competence implies knowledge of how to use language for a variety of purposes and functions, as well as the following dimensions of linguistic knowledge - Knowing how to vary language use according to the environment and participants (e.g. knowing when to use formal and informal language or when to use language appropriately for written versus spoken communication). - Knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts (e.g., narratives, reports, interviews, conversations). - Know how to maintain communication despite the limitations of one's linguistic knowledge (e.g., using different types of communication strategies). Fundamental principles of learning in CLT 1. Communication principle: - Activities that involve real communication promote learning. - Learning is most effective when learners interact for authentic purposes, using language to achieve concrete goals. 2. Task principle: Meaningful task-based activities help to consolidate language. - This approach involves the learner in situations that require the use of language to complete a practical task (e.g., solving a problem or planning a project). 3. Principle of meaningfulness: - The use of language that is relevant to the learner supports the learning process. - This includes activities that reflect students' personal needs, cultural contexts or interests, rather than being limited to repetitive or purely mechanical exercises. CLT-compatible learning theories 1. Competence-based model (Johnson, 1984; Littlewood, 1984): - Cognitive aspect: Learners internalise plans to produce appropriate linguistic behaviour derived from grammatical rules, vocabulary and social conventions of discourse. - Behavioural aspect: Practice transforms these plans into fluent performances, automating the use of language in real time. Practice is considered essential to consolidate communicative competence. 2. Interactional theory: - Learning occurs through the interaction between the learner and the language user. - It involves processes such as: - Collaborative meaning creation: learners and interlocutors work together to clarify and expand understanding. - Negotiation of meaning: situations in which learners try to overcome misunderstandings to achieve effective communication. 3. Sociocultural learning theory (Vygotsky, 1978): - Learning is a form of social mediation, in which shared knowledge becomes internalised through dialogue and interaction. - Key concepts: - Scaffolding: support provided by an expert (teacher) or a more experienced peer facilitates learning. - Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): the area where a learner can perform tasks with the help of others, but not yet independently. 4. Creative construction hypothesis: - Students learn language through a gradual integration of the new linguistic forms heard (input), trying and experimenting with different ways of expressing themselves. 5. Collaborative learning theory (Cook, 2008): - Learning occurs during cooperative activities focused on structured and meaningful tasks. - Collaborative dialogue promotes deeper understanding and more effective use of language. Key processes in language learning - Meaningful interaction: Students learn best when they are involved in authentic, goal-oriented interactions. - Attention to feedback: Students improve by receiving corrections or confirmations while using the language. - Linguistic experimentation: Learners try out different forms and ways of expressing themselves to discover which are most appropriate or effective. - Incorporation of input: Exposure to language in real contexts provides models that learners try to imitate and incorporate into their own linguistic repertoire. - Scaffolding and support: Gradual support from the teacher or peers helps learners reach more advanced levels of proficiency. Connections with recent teaching approaches Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT): - Promotes the use of language to complete practical and meaningful tasks, emphasising negotiation of meaning and collaboration. CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning): - Integrates disciplinary content with language learning, emphasising authentic context and meaningful use of language. The learning theories underpinning CLT emphasise the importance of a hands-on, collaborative approach, in which the focus is on authentic communication, social context and active student involvement. Learning is not just an individual process, but a social construction that takes place through interaction, practice and mutual support. Language learning is thus characterised by: Interaction between learner and language user Collaborative creation of meaning Creation of meaningful and purposeful interaction through language Negotiation of meaning when learner and interlocutor come to understanding Learning through attention to the feedback learners receive when using language Paying attention to the language one hears (the input) and trying to incorporate new forms into one's developing communicative competence Trying and experimenting with different ways of saying things Learning as social mediation between learner and another during which socially acquired knowledge becomes internal to the learner Facilitated learning through scaffolding by an expert or fellow learner (Vygotsky 1978) Learning through collaborative dialogue centred on structured cooperative tasks (Cook 2008). Design and Objectives in CLT Courses The communicative approach (CLT) is characterised by its focus on language learning objectives, which can range from general to specific, depending on the needs of the learners and the teaching context. The design of courses and materials is based on the idea of operationalising communicative competence by translating it into descriptions of concrete and measurable outcomes. Objectives in CLT courses General objectives: - They reflect the structure of the programme, which may be organised by topics, functions or competences. - They are often aligned to the descriptors of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR), which defines standardised levels of communicative competence. Specific objectives: - They are adapted to learners with special needs (e.g. travel, work, study). - They can focus on specific language skills: - Listening: Understanding different accents or cultural signals. - Conversation: Managing everyday or professional interactions. - Reading: Interpreting academic or technical texts. - Writing: Writing formal emails or business reports. Learning outcomes: Specify competences in terms of grammar, vocabulary, language functions and other skills required to achieve a given level of competence. The notional-functional syllabus One of the first syllabus models for CLT, the notional-functional syllabus, was based on the identification of: - Notions: Semantic-grammatical concepts such as time, duration, frequency and movement. - Communicative functions: Skills such as requesting information, expressing opinions, or negotiating agreements. Threshold Level English (Van Ek and Alexander, 1980) This program was an effort to define the communicative competence needed to interact in a foreign language. It included: - Communicative situations: Travel, business, shopping. - Topics: Personal identification, education, everyday activities. - Language functions: Describing, asking for information, expressing agreement. - Notions: Time, frequency, quantity. - Vocabulary and grammar: Essential vocabulary and useful grammatical structures. Key aspects of designing a CLT program A program must identify: 1. Language purposes: Why students want to learn the language (e.g. academic, professional, or personal purposes). 2. Context of use: Where and how the language will be used (e.g. shops, offices, meetings). 3. Social roles: What roles students and their interlocutors will play (e.g. customer, salesperson, colleague). 4. Communicative events: Types of interactions in which students will be involved (e.g. informal conversations, meetings). 5. Language functions: What students will be able to do (e.g. present a project, negotiate). 6. Notions: Relevant topics and concepts (e.g. finance, leisure, religion). 7. Discourse skills: Ability to structure a discourse (e.g. narration, presentations). 8. Language variety: Required dialects or registers (e.g. British English, American English). 9. Grammatical content: Fundamental linguistic structures. 10.Vocabulary: Vocabulary relevant to students' needs. Criticisms of the notional-functional model Despite its initial success, the model has been criticized for some limitations: Excessive emphasis on lists: It replaced a grammatical list with a list of notions and functions, without considering the dynamic processes of communication. Neglect of discourse: It did not provide tools to deal with the complexity of real discourse, such as context and pragmatic strategies. Product focus: It focused attention on what students had to learn, without exploring "how" they learn and interact. Widdowson (1979): He argued that the notional-functional program provided only a partial description of semantic and pragmatic rules. True communication instead requires a deeper understanding of discourse and interactional strategies. Other Program Proposals in CLT In the 1980s, the communicative approach (CLT) inspired a variety of program models to respond to different teaching and learning contexts. Among the most influential proposals are procedural, personalized, and focused on the specific purposes of the students. 1. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) Proposed by Prabhu, this model is based on the idea that meaningful tasks stimulate the development of communicative competence through activities that require information sharing and interaction. Main characteristics: Procedural program: ○ Tasks are organized in order of complexity, from simple to advanced. ○ The design focuses on learning processes rather than predetermined content. Examples of tasks: ○ Solving problems. ○ Organizing events. ○ Discussing real-world scenarios. This approach is considered a natural extension of CLT, as it integrates language skills with practical use of the language in concrete situations. 2. Self-directed program Some more radical proposals suggest abolishing traditional programs and letting students create their own learning path, based on: - Personal needs. - Available resources. - Pace and learning style. In this model, the program is no longer a predefined entity, but an emerging result of classroom interactions and individual goals. Advantages: - Greater student involvement. - Flexibility and personalization. Disadvantages: - Risk of inconsistency. - Requires highly qualified teachers to guide the process. 3. Integrated program: grammar and communication Brumfit (1980) proposes a more conservative approach, in which: - Grammar is the core of the program. - Communicative notions, functions and activities are organized around grammar. This model seeks to balance formal language teaching with the communicative objective, adapting to more traditional contexts or students who require a solid structural basis. 4. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) The ESP approach is aimed at students who need English for specific occupational or educational contexts, such as: - Professions: Nurses, engineers, pilots, hotel staff. - Academic: University students in technical or scientific disciplines. Needs analysis To design an effective ESP course, it is essential to conduct a thorough analysis of students' needs: Methods: ○ Field observations. ○ Interviews and surveys. ○ Linguistic analysis of context-specific texts (e.g. technical manuals, recordings of conversations). Aspects analyzed: ○ Vocabulary: Industry-specific terminology. ○ Grammar: Structures that occur frequently in professional contexts. ○ Types of texts: Manuals, contracts, academic articles, e-mails. ○ Linguistic functions: Describing processes, making requests, negotiating. ○ Specific skills: Listening in noisy situations, skimming technical documents. Example of a model: Munby (1978) Munby developed a system to identify learner needs, integrating: - Occupational roles (e.g. biologist, engineer). - Contexts of use (e.g. meetings, presentations, emergency situations). - Expected outcomes: Ability to communicate effectively in specific situations. Types of Learning and Teaching Activities in CLT The Communicative Approach (CLT) has brought about a revolution in language teaching, with an emphasis on developing communicative competence through practical and meaningful activities. Here is an overview of learning and teaching activities that reflect the key principles of CLT. Basic principles of CLT activities 1. Real communication: Learning happens best when communication is authentic and meaningful. 2. Experimentation and discovery: Learners learn by exploring and using what they already know. 3. Tolerance for errors: Errors are seen as signs of progress in communicative competence. 4. Accuracy and fluency: Both must be developed and integrated in a balanced way. 5. Integrated Skills: Speaking, listening, reading, and writing are combined to reflect real-world language use. 6. Rule Discovery: Students infer grammatical rules through practical use. Activity Types 1. Functional Communication Activities These activities focus on practical tasks that require students to negotiate meaning to achieve a goal. - Examples: - Picture Comparison: Identifying similarities and differences. - Picture Sequences: Developing a coherent narrative. - Instructions: Directing a partner to draw or complete a map. - Problem Solving: Using shared clues to find a solution. 2. Social Interaction Activities These activities promote socialization and spontaneous language use. - Examples: - Conversations and Discussions: Sharing ideas on topics of interest. - Role Playing: Playing roles in simulated scenarios. - Simulations and Improvisations: Recreating realistic situations. - Debates: Presenting and defending opposing opinions. Fluency vs Accuracy Activities are divided into: Attività di Fluenza Attività di Accuratezza Rispecchiano l’uso naturale della lingua. Riflettono un uso linguistico controllato in aula. Si concentrano sulla comunicazione e sul Si concentrano sulla correttezza significato. grammaticale. Richiedono l’uso di strategie comunicative. Praticano piccoli campioni di lingua fuori contesto. Producono linguaggio non prevedibile. Controllano la scelta della lingua. Collegano la lingua al contesto reale. Non richiedono una comunicazione significativa. Teachers balance the two types of activities, using accuracy tasks to support and enhance fluency tasks. For example, after a fluency task, grammatical errors can be corrected or formal/informal language use discussed. New classroom dynamics Classroom dynamics in CLT have evolved to encourage: - Small group and pair work: More opportunities for interaction and practice. - “Information gap” tasks: Students share and negotiate missing information. Common types of tasks 1. Puzzle tasks: Students work together to put pieces of information together to complete a task. 2. Task completion tasks: Examples: Puzzles, games, map reading, completing a logical sequence. 3. Information gathering tasks: Interviews, surveys, and research where students use language to obtain data. 4. Opinion sharing tasks: Discussions about values or priorities, such as ranking ideal qualities in a partner. 5. Information transfer tasks: Converting information from one form to another, such as reading instructions and drawing a map. 6. Reasoning gap activities: Inferring new information from given data, such as creating a timetable based on predefined lessons. 7. Role-playing: Students play roles and simulate communicative exchanges in realistic scenarios. Activities in CLT focus on active student engagement, balancing the development of accuracy and fluency to promote effective and contextualized learning. These approaches help students use language in a natural, relevant and dynamic way, connecting linguistic theory to real communicative practice. Student roles In the communicative approach (CLT), students play significant and different roles compared to traditional teaching methods. Their main function is that of active negotiators, not only between themselves and the learning content, but also with the group. This involves: Active and interdependent participation: Students actively contribute to the learning process, cooperating with their peers. Personal responsibility: They must take more responsibility for their own learning, participating in group or pair work and relying less on the teacher as the sole source of knowledge. Accepting errors as part of the process: Students learn that failure in communication is a shared responsibility and that successful communication is the result of a joint effort. This approach can be challenging in cultural contexts where traditional methods prevail, requiring a gradual adaptation to a cooperative model. Teacher roles Teachers in CLT take on roles that depart from the traditional figure of the transmitter of knowledge. The main roles include: Facilitator and monitor: They create an environment that promotes meaningful communication. They monitor activities, without intervening excessively to correct errors, but rather noting them for later comment. They offer guidance and support in the learning process, stimulating communication and encouraging students to work independently. Independent participant: They interact with students as active members of the group, contributing their experience and observations without dominating the process. Organizer and guide: They organize resources and activities that respond to the specific needs of the class, balancing fluency and accuracy. They plan sequences of activities based on observations of student performance. Needs Analyst: Identify students' linguistic and motivational needs through formal tools (tests and questionnaires) or informal tools (individual interviews). Develop personalized lessons based on the needs that emerge. Consultant: Support students in improving their communication skills, using strategies such as paraphrasing, feedback and confirmation to improve mutual understanding. Group Process Manager: Facilitate group activities, encouraging self-correction and leading discussions at the end of activities. Debrief activities, suggesting alternatives and improvements. Challenges for Teachers - Cultural Role Shift: In some cultures, the role of facilitator may be foreign to teachers accustomed to more authoritarian models. - Anxiety about Errors: The focus on fluency rather than accuracy may generate concerns, particularly with beginning students, about the risk of errors becoming fossilized. - Standardized Test Preparation: Balancing a communicative approach with the demands of formal test preparation can be challenging, requiring a balance between fluency and accuracy. Role of Instructional Materials in CLT Instructional materials in CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) are used to support and enhance the quality of communicative interactions in the classroom, promoting practical and meaningful use of language. To this end, instructional materials are divided into four main categories: text-based materials, activity-based materials, realia-based materials, and technology-supported materials. 1. Text-based materials Text-based materials are books that support CLT teaching, with a focus on functional and interactive language. These texts vary in their design: Some textbooks integrate communicative approaches in a subtle way, maintaining a more traditional structure, but enriched with elements of interaction. For example, some books use visual cues, pictures, and recordings to stimulate conversation, as in the case of the book Communicate (Morrow and Johnson, 1979). Other texts, such as Pair Work (Watcyn-Jones, 1981), include practical activities for pair work, where each student has different information that must be combined, stimulating interaction. Some modern courses, such as Interchange (Richards, Hull, & Proctor, 2012) and Four Corners (Richards & Bohlke, 2012), continue to build on CLT, using the Common European Framework of Reference and including activities that involve the four language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. 2. Activity-based materials These materials are designed to encourage interaction between students through games, role-plays, simulations, and other practical activities. They may include: - Interactive exercises: Materials that require active collaboration from students, such as pair communication activities, where each partner has a set of information to share or combine. - Role-playing: Students take on different roles (e.g., interviewer and interviewee) to practice real-world communication, facing scenarios that require the use of authentic language. - Workbooks and activity sheets: Used to guide students through exercises that promote communication, often with the aim of developing practical language strategies. 3. Reality-based materials The use of authentic materials, drawn from everyday life, is strongly encouraged in CLT. These materials include: - Billboards, magazines, advertisements, newspapers: Real documents that allow students to interact with the language in authentic contexts. - Graphs, maps, and diagrams: Used to construct communicative activities, such as reading and understanding visual and textual information. - Real objects (realia): Physical objects that can be used for practical activities, such as a model to be assembled following instructions in the language. The use of realia helps students connect with the language in concrete contexts, increasing their motivation and understanding of the language in everyday situations. 4. Technology-supported materials Technology is a key element in CLT, providing access to authentic input and creating opportunities for real-world interaction. The use of technology includes: - Chat rooms, discussion forums, and teleconferencing: Allow students to communicate with other speakers, even in real time, creating authentic learning situations. - Multimedia: The integration of text, audio, video, and images provides a variety of language input, stimulating deeper understanding and practice in real-world contexts. - Digital platforms and multimedia labs: Allow students to extend their classroom work at home, continuing to interact with authentic materials and enriching the learning experience. Research has shown that the use of computer-mediated communication, such as chat rooms and forums, has positive effects on language learning. Benefits include: Increased student participation Access to comprehensible input Increased negotiation of meaning Cooperative learning Creation of a social learning environment that fosters interaction between students. The combination of text-based materials, activities, realia, and technology helps create a dynamic and engaging learning environment, where students are encouraged to actively participate in the communication process. Procedure in CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) The procedure of CLT has evolved from previous practices in language teaching, such as the situational method and other earlier language approaches. Although specific CLT activities can vary greatly depending on the level and needs of the students, there are general guidelines that follow an evolutionary rather than revolutionary teaching format. One of the traditional formats used in CLT is the Presentation-Practice-Production (PPP) model, which consists of three main phases, but other practices are integrated to stimulate authentic interaction and communicative context. Typical phases of a CLT lesson (Presentation-Practice-Production) 1. Presentation of the content The lesson begins with the introduction of short dialogues or mini-dialogues, which are motivated in relation to the students' experiences and the communication situation. The linguistic function (for example, how to make a suggestion), the situations (people, roles, setting) and the informality/formality required by the situation are also discussed. For beginners, the motivation can be done in the students' native language, if necessary. 2. Oral practice Each utterance of the dialogue is repeated orally by the students, practicing in different ways: with the whole class, in small groups or individually. The teacher provides a pronunciation model and guides the students in the repetition. If mini-dialogues are used, the class can be engaged in similar activities to consolidate the use of expressions and linguistic structures. 3. Questions and answers on the content of the dialogue Comprehension questions are asked on the themes covered in the dialogue, in order to encourage reflection on the content and situations. Questions may also concern students' personal experiences, always in relation to the themes of the dialogue. 4. Deepening expressions An expression or linguistic structure is selected from the dialogue, and further examples are provided to clarify its meaning and use in different contexts. Depending on the level, images, real objects or dramatizations may be used to facilitate understanding. 5. Discovery of grammatical and structural rules Students are guided to discover the grammatical rules underlying the expression or functional structure. Different aspects are explored: the oral and written form, the position of the expression in the statement, its formality or informality, and, if it is a grammatical structure, its function. 6. Interpretation and oral recognition activities Students participate in oral recognition activities that allow them to explore expressions and linguistic structures in a comprehension context. 7. Speaking activities Then we move on to speaking activities, which begin with more guided exercises and progress to more free communication activities, such as discussions or role-plays. The aim is to encourage spontaneous use of language in realistic contexts. 8. Writing If necessary, a copy of the dialogue or mini-dialogues is provided for reference. In addition, written homework is provided to consolidate the skills acquired during the lesson. 9. Assessment of learning Learning is assessed through speaking activities, in which students are asked to answer questions that require the use of the structures and expressions they have just learned. For example, you can ask: "How would you ask your friend to _______?" or "How would you ask me to ________?" A critical point of the CLT methodology is that, unlike more traditional approaches, Savignon emphasized the importance of not waiting for students to have full control of separate language skills (such as grammar or pronunciation) before applying them in communicative tasks. Communicative practice must be introduced from the earliest stages of learning, an aspect that has led to the birth of the Task-Based Language Teaching approach, which focuses on the use of language in practical contexts from the beginning. In short, the CLT procedure is based on a cycle of presentation, practice and production that involves students in interaction activities, with a focus on real communication and practical application of the language, rather than on the mere theoretical acquisition of linguistic rules. Criticisms of CTL Criticisms of CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) are numerous and vary according to different concerns about the effectiveness, applicability and cultural implications of this approach. Here are some of the main criticisms: 1. It Promotes Fossilization One of the most relevant criticisms of CLT concerns the risk that students develop a fossilization of their linguistic errors. Some experts argue that the emphasis on fluent communication can compromise grammatical accuracy. In contexts where authentic communicative activities are promoted from the early stages of learning, students may become fluent in the language, but with a poor command of grammar, with the risk that errors become deeply rooted in their linguistic use (Higgs and Clifford, 1982). This leads to effective communication, but with a lower level of grammatical accuracy, and a fossilization of error contexts. 2. Reflects the "Native Language" CLT has also been criticised for reflecting a view that privileges the cultural and linguistic contexts of native English-speaking societies (Britain, the United States, Australia, etc.), which is reflected in the teaching practices that accompany it. According to Holliday (1994), the communicative approach developed in BANA countries (Britain, Australasia and North America) is not easily transferable to other contexts, especially those where students do not learn English for instrumental reasons (as is the case with students learning English in public schools in other parts of the world, such as Asia or Africa). Holliday argues that the teaching and learning of English in these contexts is influenced by different cultural and social assumptions, which do not always align with the Anglo-Saxon culture-based model of communication. 3. Not Applicable in Different Learning Cultures CLT has found it difficult to be successfully implemented in non-Western cultural and social contexts, where conceptions of teaching and learning differ significantly. For example: - China: In the 1980s and 1990s, the introduction of CLT in China was slow and problematic, mainly due to a strong pedagogical tradition centered on the teacher and on grammar teaching, contrary to the communicative approach. Chinese teachers were not trained to teach communicatively, and the introduction of CLT met resistance due to the pressure of exams, which emphasize grammar rather than communicative interaction (Jin and Cortazzi, 2011). This phenomenon has been attributed to a cultural gap between Western methodologies and local educational traditions. - Korea: In Korea too, despite curriculum reforms, CLT has not been as successful as hoped, with many teachers still skeptical about its effectiveness in English-language classrooms (Vasilopoulos, 2008). Korean schools tend to favor a more traditional and formal approach, which does not lend itself easily to the interactive teaching techniques envisioned in CLT. - Bangladesh: In Bangladesh, students expect teachers to take an authoritative role and for teaching to follow the traditional top-down approach, where the teacher imposes a method that students are expected to assimilate. The introduction of a communicative approach was perceived as alien and met with resistance, as students were not accustomed to more dynamic teaching roles and a more eclectic approach (Chowdhry, 2010). 4. Risk of Imposition of Western Models Some critics, such as Kumaravadivelu (2012), argue that CLT and similar methods, which come from Western models, are not suited to capturing the diversity of students' needs and goals in non-Western contexts. According to this view, the communicative approach does not respond to the cultural and social specificities of TESEP (Tertiary, Secondary, Primary) contexts, where English is taught as a subject part of a broader educational program, under the influence of educational, institutional and community forces that may be very different from those of Western countries. These criticisms highlight the difficulties of transferring a teaching approach conceived in a specific cultural and educational context to other contexts that present different pedagogical traditions and socio-cultural realities. Although CLT has been very successful in many schools and universities in BANA countries, its application in other learning cultures must be adapted and modified to take into account cultural diversity, educational expectations and student needs. Conclusion In this chapter we have examined the development of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), its different interpretations and the criticisms that have emerged over time. Rather than a defined method, CLT is better considered an approach based on fundamental principles that emphasize communication as an integral part of language learning. Some of the key principles of CLT are: 1. Students learn a language by using it to communicate. 2. Classroom activities should aim for authentic and meaningful communication. 3. Fluency is an important dimension of communication. 4. Communication involves the integration of different language skills. 5. Learning is a creative process that includes trial and error. CLT emerged at a time when language teaching was undergoing a paradigm shift. Traditional methods, such as situational teaching and audiolingualism, were no longer seen as suitable, and CLT responded to the need for more humanistic approaches that put the interactive processes of communication at the centre. Its rapid adoption worldwide has also been supported by the support of prestigious institutions such as the British Council and leading applied linguists. Over time, CLT has undergone several evolutionary phases. At the beginning, it focused on communicative competence and the reorganization of language programs in terms of notions and functions (Wilkins, 1976). Later, it emphasized the analysis of students' needs (Munby, 1978) and the use of classroom activities that foster communication, such as group work and information gap activities (Prabhu, 1987). According to Jacobs and Farrell (2003), the paradigm shift that began in the 1980s led to eight significant changes in language teaching, which influenced later approaches such as CLIL, text-based teaching and task-based language teaching. These changes are: 1. Learning autonomy: Students have greater control over their own learning path. 2. The social nature of learning: Learning occurs through social interaction, as evidenced by Cooperative Language Learning. 3. Curriculum integration: English is integrated with other subjects in the curriculum, not treated as a separate area. 4. Focus on meaning: Exploration of meaning is at the heart of learning. 5. Diversity: It is recognised that students learn in different ways and awareness of learning strategies is promoted. 6. Thinking skills: Language is seen as a means of developing critical and creative thinking skills. 7. Alternative assessment: More complex assessment methods, such as observations and portfolios, are promoted instead of traditional multiple-choice tests. 8. Teachers as co-learners: The teacher is a facilitator, exploring different teaching alternatives with students. In the twenty-first century, while CLT is now part of an accepted canon of theory and practice in language teaching, the educational landscape has become increasingly localised. Teaching practices are influenced by cultural constraints and the specific needs of each context, and the use of generic approaches in local contexts has become problematic. Therefore, a deeper understanding of local practices is needed to understand whether and how the CLT philosophy can be compatible with the pedagogical traditions of specific geographical areas and whether it has contributed to improving language teaching in different contexts. Teacher talk (Thornbury, 2006, pp. 225-226) Teacher talk is the term used to describe the variety of language used by teachers when addressing students. In this sense, teacher talk shares quality with the way speakers often adapt their language when speaking to non-native speakers (foreigner talk) and the way parents talk to children (caretaker talk). The research of these interactions is of particular relevance to language teaching, since the teacher provides a source of input and feedback. Both are considered necessary conditions for language acquisition. Teacher talk has several functions, including: managing, such as giving instructions, naming turns explaining, such as giving definitions of words, presenting grammar checking understanding modeling, such as providing a clear model of new language items providing feedback, including correction prompt, such as asking questions for students to show what they want (called display questions) providing input, such as when dictating a text or telling a story for listening comprehension purposes interpersonal conversation, such as when chatting with students at the start of class or commenting on topics that may arise incidentally during the course of the lesson. Traditionally, teacher talk has been most concerned with those functions at the top of the list above. However, there is growing evidence to support a role for the teacher as a source of input and interpersonal talk. Teaching Young Learners Knowing how children learn their first language can help us teach them a second language. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Lecture 6 Planning how to: “Children in an English as a foreign language class will listen to a great variety of texts but above all to theirteacher: talking, singing, chanting, dramatizing dialogues, giving instructions, and telling stories” (Pinter,2006. 45). “In the early stages the teacher will remain their main source of listening input” (Pinter, 20069) Listening Iis not a passive skill. It is an active skill and as such it may show difficulties that are due to several factors : type and length of the text children listen to familiarity of the person they listen to it is easier to listen to teacher than videos as teachers can adjust the speed of their speech and modifytheir language teacher can repeat messages and use gestures, face expressions to help children understand. Once children reach a more mature level of knowledge of English, there are two basic sub-skills that children use while listening: 1. Bottom-up skills: these skills help the learner to build up the language relying on the knowledge of thelinguistic system. Listeners use bottom-up skills to segment the speech they hear and make sense of it. For example, knowing the system of the English language helps them work out what the unstressedgrammar words are in a sentence even without hearing each single work. E.g. come’n play (come andplay) listen and repeat (lis’n repeat). This process is particularly difficult for children especially if theyare not familiar with sentence construction rules or formulaic expressions. (linguistic competence) 2. Top-down skills: parallel to ‘bottom up’ processes. These skills rely on schematic knowledge or worldknowledge to fill the gaps in understanding, make guesses and interpretations as they follow thelistening text (pragmatic competence) How can teacher support children with bottom-up and top-down work? - Support top-down processing: teacher will make sure that listening is carefully embedded in thehere-and-now context of familiar games and routines. For example, stories and action rhymes helpchildren to infer meaning from the context. Teacher will use gestures and visuals to helpunderstanding, too. - Support bottom-up processing: it is important that tasks do not require children to use linguisticfeatures they do not know and are not interested in. Children should start with easier ‘listen and do’ activities. If they can read, also ‘listen and read’ activities - in which they can follow the text as theylisten - will help. While teacher talks to children, teacher helps children get used to the language and to prosodic features that are typical of the language, like intonation patterns and the sounds of English. - Teacher may talk and comment on what is going on as she points to pictures in the book or on the classroom wall, or as they mime something. - Teacher may encourage children by confirming their guesses in English and help them formulate their utterances in English. - It is fundamental that teacher praises and encourages children a lot especially at this early stage. As children listen, they are engaged in working out what is going on. For part of the time, they may choose to keep silent. But they are absorbing the language. They may not understand each word, but they learn to work out the meaning from the context, the gestures and the visual aids. When teacher uses English to give instructions, tell a story, or introduce a song, children who have just started to learn English may comment in their mother tongue on what is going on as they cannot contribute inEnglish. Breakdown and misunderstandings: Strategies which modify language to avoid and solve misunderstandings include: recasting repetition comprehension check and confirmation check Useful examples of expressions for correcting and improving children’s language _____________________ ARTICLES AND TEXTS OF THE LECTURES Effective use of English in the classroom Developing ‘teacher talk’ Teacher-student interactions are crucial for language modulation and for providing the necessary support for students' language development. Students acquire a language in different ways depending on their experiences. Some children learn multiple languages from early childhood, through exposure in family contexts, while others learn a second language (L2) after acquiring their first language (L1), often through formal education. Language acquisition is a subconscious process that occurs in informal contexts, while language learning is a conscious process that occurs in more structured and formal environments. Both processes, implicit and explicit, lead to competence in the target language (TL). Receptive and productive skills Receptive skills (listening and reading) are generally developed before productive skills (speaking and writing). Students begin to understand the L2 before they are able to use it actively. The progression from receptive to productive skills varies with the individual learner and the quality of the linguistic input received. Interlingua When learning a second language, students create an interlingua, a linguistic stage in which features of the L1 and L2 coexist. This stage of learning can present characteristics common to all languages, making students' linguistic competence an evolving process. Error analysis is important to understand the nature of errors made by students, such as spelling errors, transfer from the L1, or overgeneralizations. Teachers must distinguish between errors that represent difficulty in using the L2 and those that signal progress in learning. Corrective feedback and scaffolding techniques Corrective feedback helps students correct their errors in the L2, promoting the acquisition of correct structures. Teachers often rework students' sentences, offering a model of the correct language. Scaffolding is the support provided by teachers to facilitate learning. This may include filling in missing words, expanding incomplete sentences, or using modified interaction techniques. Nonverbal techniques, such as gestures, body language, and proxemics, further support the scaffolding process. Quantity vs. Quality in Teacher Talk The concept of teacher talk time (TTT) is central to teacher education, as it refers to the amount of time a teacher speaks during a lesson. Teachers are advised to reduce their TTT, encouraging active student engagement. However, the advice to reduce TTT depends on the language level of the students and the stage of the lesson. Initially, increased verbal input is essential to develop proficiency in the target language. According to Steve Walsh, rather than focusing solely on the quantity of TTT, teachers should focus on the quality and alignment of their talk with the instructional intentions of the lesson. The goal is to maximize learning opportunities. Classroom Interactive Competence (CIC) Walsh defines classroom interactive competence (CIC) as the ability of teachers and students to use interaction to facilitate learning. CIC can be developed through the use of lesson transcripts and self-assessments, as well as the adoption of shared terminology to analyze language interactions in the classroom. Language awareness is crucial for teachers, as it allows them to notice learning opportunities and respond appropriately during teaching. Using methods such as transcription and coding helps teachers to reflect critically on their language use and on learning opportunities they may have missed. How to Prevent Learning - Some Popular Techniques Some ways teachers unintentionally hinder or prevent learning. TTT (Teacher Talk Time) The more you talk, the fewer opportunities there are for students. They need time to think, to prepare what to say and how to say it. Give them the time and silence they need. Don't feel the need to fill every gap in a lesson. Explore the possibilities of silence. Echo STUDENT: I went to the movies. TEACHER: You went to the movies. Good. You went to the movies. Who gets more speaking practice here: the student or the teacher? If you become aware of your echo and start to control it, you'll find that students have more time to talk and that they start to listen to each other more. When you echo, they quickly learn that they don't need to listen to anyone but you, because they know you'll repeat everything! This has a dramatically negative effect on the interaction patterns within the classroom. Helpful Sentence Completion If students can’t complete the sentence on their own, they need help, but help to produce their own sentence, using their own words and ideas. By letting students finish what they are saying, you also give yourself more time to really listen to the student and what they are saying. Complicated and unclear instructions Unplanned and unstructured instructions are extremely confusing for students. Find out what is essential for them to know and tell them, without shrouding it in chitchat. Not checking for understanding Even the clearest instructions can be difficult to grasp, so after you’ve given them, it’s worth checking that they’ve been understood. One simple way is to ask one or two students to repeat them back to you: Ask: “Do you understand?” When you want to check students’ understanding, questions like Do you understand? are often unhelpful. If you get a response of Yes, it could mean “I’m nervous about sounding stupid,” or “I don’t want to waste the class’s time anymore,” or “I think I understand, but….” You often need to get clear information about what students have understood. The best way to do this is to have students demonstrate their understanding, for example by using a piece of language in a sentence, or by repeating an instruction, or by explaining their interpretation of an idea. This provides real evidence, rather than vague and potentially false information. Fear of authentic feedback In an active, progressive classroom, students will constantly give you feedback about what they’ve understood, what they think, what they need, how they feel, etc. Many teachers believe in the importance of open and honest feedback, but find that, in practice, it can be difficult to obtain. This is partly due to the atmosphere in the classroom, partly due to the questions asked, and mainly due to the attitude and response to the feedback received. The more you see the feedback as a threat to you, your position and your safety, the more you will try to avoid the feedback or defend yourself from a perceived attack when you receive feedback. Not Enough Authority/Too Much Politeness This type of shyness is a common way for teachers to belittle themselves. Be clear. Say what you have to say without hiding it. If you want to interrupt an activity, say Stop now, please. Feel your natural authority and let it speak clearly. The Running Commentary Don't give a running commentary on the mechanics of past, present, and future activities. Boring, hard to follow, pointless. Tell students what they need to know and stop. Lack of confidence in themselves, the students, the material, the activity / making it too easy A common cause of boredom in classrooms is when the material used is too difficult or too easy. The first case is not hard to recognize: students can't do the work. A more difficult problem is when the work is simply not challenging enough. Teachers often have fairly low expectations of what people can do and keep their lessons in a fairly predictable straight line through safe, routine activities. Try to keep the challenge high. Be demanding. Believe that they can do more than they know they can, and then help them do it. Over-helping/over-organizing When assigning students a task in groups, it is often best to let them do it. Much "teacher help," even if well-intentioned, is actually "teacher interference" and gets in the way of students working on their own. As long as you're there, they'll look to you for guidance, control, and help. Flying with the Fastest If you only listen to the first few people who speak, it’s very easy to get a false impression of how difficult or easy something is. You may find that the strongest and fastest students dominate, and you have little idea of how the majority of the class finds the work. This can lead to you flying at the speed of the first two or three students and completely missing the rest. Make sure you get answers and feedback Not really listening (language listening problems but not the message) Since we deal with language as the subject of our courses, it is very easy to become overly concerned with the accuracy of what is being said and fail to hear the person behind the words. Check in with yourself every now and then: are you really listening to your students or just their words? Poor rapport: creating a poor work environment Plan work specifically designed to focus on improving relationships and interaction within the classroom (rather than activities with a primarily linguistic focus). Until relationships are good within a classroom, learning will likely be of lower quality. Keep in mind the three teacher qualities that help create

English 2 Lezione PDF

Document Details

Tags

Related

Summary

Full Transcript